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16. Haggai

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Notes on the Book of Haggai

I. The Prophet Haggai.

Nothing is known about Haggai the prophet beyond what is recorded in his own prophecy and in Ezra 5:1-2. The name has something to do with “festival,” but the significance is obscure. Haggai was raised up by Yahweh two months prior to Zechariah for a short ministry in connection with the rebuilding of the temple. This task he shared with Zechariah. He, also like Zechariah, was instrumental in encouraging Zerubbabel the governor and Joshua (this spelling is adopted rather than Jeshua1 since the Hebrew is the same for this priest as Moses’ successor) the high priest.

II. The Historical Context.

Cyrus became the ruler of the Medes and the Persians and conquered an empire that stretched to India in the East and to the western edge of Anatolia. This vast empire, with its disparate peoples could only have come about through a policy of the Persians that differed immensely from their predecessors. Cyrus allowed a measure of local autonomy and allowed the return of various gods, the rebuilding of temples, and the recognition of local cultures. Isaiah (40-45) tells us that God raised him up as His anointed (Isaiah 45:1-2). The Jews benefited from the policy in that they were allowed to return to their land, rebuild their temple, and restore their worship system. The decree of Cyrus, found on the Cyrus Cylinder is as follows: “All the kings of the entire world from the Upper to the Lower Sea, those who are seated in throne rooms, (those who) live in other [types of buildings as well as] all the kings of the West land living in tents, brought their heavy tributes and kissed my feet in Babylon. (As to the region) from . . . as far as Ashur and Susa, Agade, Eshnunna, the towns Zamban, Me-Turnu, Der as well as the region of the Gutians, I returned to (these) sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I (also) gathered all their (former) inhabitants and returned (to them) their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the command of Marduk, the great lord, all the gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus has brought into Babylon to the anger of the lord of the gods, unharmed, in their (former) chapels, the places which make them happy.”2 Cyrus issued his famous edict in 538 B.C. allowing the Jews and other expatriates to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples.

The first return under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel to build the temple (538 B.C., Ezra 1‑6) saw only the foundation laid. Opposition from surrounding neighbors resulted in a letter to the King and an interruption of the work. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, Haggai and Zechariah, the work was resumed 16 years later and completed in 516 B.C. The chronology of this period is as follows:

A. Events under Cyrus, first king of Persia (539‑529 B.C).

1. Edict issued returning people and temple contents (538 B.C.).

2. Temple foundation laid (536 B.C.).

B. Events under Cambyses, Cyrus’ son (529‑522 B.C).

No biblical events. Cambyses conquered Egypt (referred to in the Elephantine papyri).

C. Events under Darius, the great, Persian general (522‑486 B.C.).

1. Darius defeats an alleged usurper to throne (Gaumata) and struggles to put down rebellions (done by 520 B.C.).3

2. Zechariah begins his ministry in the second year of Darius.

3. The temple was completed in 516 B.C.

4. Darius was defeated at Marathon by Greeks in 490 B.C.

D. Events under Xerxes (Ahasuerus) (486‑465 B.C.).

1. Xerxes was defeated at Salamis in 480 B.C.

2. The events of Esther may have taken place after his return.

E. Events under Artaxerxes I (465‑424 B.C.).

1. Ezra’s return to promote religious reform (458 B.C.). Fensham says Egypt revolted in 460 and was suppressed in 456 B.C. Artaxerxes needed loyal people in Judah and may have sent Ezra for this purpose (Ezra 7:8).

2. Nehemiah’s first return (445 B.C.) (Neh. 5:14).

Fensham says the Persian general who defeated Egypt became angry at Artaxerxes and revolted against him. Later he declared loyalty and was restored, but again Artaxerxes would want loyal leaders in the west and so may have sent Nehemiah.4

3. Ezra apparently came back a second time early in Nehemiah’s period (Neh. 8‑10; 12:36).

4. Nehemiah returns a second time (432 B.C.) (Neh. 13:6).

III. The Structure and Synthesis of the Book.

There are four oracles in the book of Haggai. The first comes on 6/1/2. The admonition is to rise and build the temple. The response is positive and on 6/24/2 the leaders, Zerubbabel and Joshua, along with the people obeyed the Lord and began the work on the temple. The second comes on 7/21/2 to encourage them in what seems to be a secondary work. The third comes on 9/24/2 through a legal parable to encourage them to continue in the work with the promise of future blessing. The fourth comes on the same day (9/24/2) to tell Zerubbabel of his choice position as part of the Davidic covenant. The purpose of this book is thus very simple: God wants his temple built, and he encourages Zerubbabel, Joshua and the people to build it. The completion of the temple is not mentioned in Haggai. We learn from Ezra that it was finished on the third day of the month Adar in Darius’ sixth year. This would be 516 B.C.

IV. The Outline of the Book.

A. Oracle #1—Build the Temple (1:1-15).

The foundations of the temple, laid in 536 B.C., had lain untouched for sixteen years. The people, roundly discouraged by the “people of the Land,” had decided it was not worth the effort to rebuild the temple. God then raised up Haggai and Zechariah to challenge the people to resume the building process (Ezra 4:24—5:2). Since the people have decided that the time must not be right to build the temple, God asks them through Haggai whether it is right for them to be living in their own nice homes while the temple lies desolate. One is reminded of David’s statement to Nathan (2 Sam 7:2) that it was improper for him to live in a nice home while the ark sat in curtains. The people have suffered poor harvests and an overall poor economic state because of their refusal to build the temple. This situation can only be rectified by restarting the process of building the temple interrupted so long ago.

Zerubbabel, Joshua and the people responded positively to Haggai’s exhortation, and they began the work on 6/24/2. Yahweh encouraged them by telling them he was with them (1:13 cf. 2:4).

B. Oracle #2—The leaders are to take courage (2:1-9).

Zerubbabel was admonished by Zechariah not to despise the “day of small things,” i.e., the relatively insignificance of the second temple (Zech 4:10). Haggai brought a similar message to the people who were building. The beginning of the nation (Exodus) and its eschatological fulfillment are tied together in 2:5-9. The Day of the Lord is in view when he speaks of shaking the heavens, earth, sea and dry land. In that eschatological future all the nations will come to this temple, and the shekinah glory will fill the temple. Then the greater glory will be in place, and there will be peace. This should be related to Isaiah 2, Micah 4, and Ezekiel 40-48.

C. Oracle #3—God promises blessing for obedience (2:10-19).

The rules of uncleanness indicated that something unclean would pollute a clean item, but the reverse was not true. So, says Yahweh, is the people of Israel. Everything they touch becomes unclean. Consequently, their sinfulness has resulted in crop failures. However, from this day of obedience forward, they will enjoy the blessing of Yahweh because they are rebuilding the temple.

D. Oracle #4—God gives a special word to Zerubbabel (2:20-23).

Zerubbabel was a descendant of David (Jehoiachin—Shealtiel—Zerubbabel).5 The general message is clear: David, the founder of the dynasty, was given a covenant that his seed would build the temple David wanted to build. Now the returned community includes a Davidic descendant who is the governor (not the king).6 It is his responsibility, therefore, to build the second temple. Zerubbabel has been chosen for this task, but as a representative of the Davidic dynasty, he will be the signet ring (special authority) on God’s hand when the Day of the Lord takes place. Thus in Haggai as in Zechariah, Zerubbabel becomes a type of the ultimate seed of David who will effect God’s purposes on the earth.7 He has been elected as God’s servant just as David was. And just as David’s descendants were encompassed in God’s covenant with him, so Zerubbabel’s descendants must be included with him. Thus the house of David continues and will continue to the Eschaton when God overthrows the nations.


1Jeshua in Ezra/Nehemiah.

2 ANET, p 316.

3This date is uncertain. It ranges from 520-518.

4F. C. Fensham, The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, NICOT, 149-50.

5First Chronicles 3:19 indicates that the order was Jehoiachin—Pedaiah—Zerubbabel. Since Pedaiah and Shealtiel were brothers, there may have been a levirate marriage involved.

6Verhoef (The Books of Haggai and Malachi in NICOT, 37-39) essentially agrees with this position.

7This passage needs to be related to Jeremiah 22:30 where God says that no one of Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah’s descendants will prosper sitting on the throne of David or ruling again in Judah. Zerubbabel did not rule as king, but as a governor under Persian rule. Perhaps this is the reason Luke’s genealogy is traced back to Nathan, son of David, while Matthew’s goes through Jeconiah to Solomon.

Related Topics: History, Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Prophets

17. Zechariah

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Notes on the Book of Zechariah

I. The Prophet Zechariah.

Zechariah is mentioned in Ezra (5:1; 6:14) along with Haggai as the prophet who aroused the returned Jews to rebuild the temple. Nehemiah 12:16 lists him in the genealogy. There he is the son of Iddo; here he is the son of Berechiah son of Iddo. These are surely the same persons, even though the name Zechariah (זְכַרְיָה “Yah remembers”) is quite common. The Iddo in Nehemiah was the head of a “house” and hence possibly not the immediate ancestor.1

II. The Historical Context.

See the same point under Haggai.

III. The Composition of the Book.

Zechariah falls clearly into two disparate parts. Chapters 1-8 are dated and refer to circumstances and events in the second and fourth years of Darius and chapters 9-14 are undated and from a literary point of view are quite different from the first half of the book. This leads many to conclude that there are two different books combined into one. Joyce Baldwin2 has built upon the work of P. Lamarche,3 and has clearly demonstrated literary unity for the book. We will assume that the sixth century prophet, Zechariah, produced the entire work.4

IV. The Structure and Synthesis of the Book.

The first eight chapters contain an introduction and seven night visions (I am combining the two visions in chapter 5). It should be the first order of business to search for a relevance of the visions for the sixth century groups of Jews who have returned from the exiles. They have returned to meet the Jews left in the land in 586 B.C. who have changed very little spiritually. The returning Jews, under the leadership of such men as Zerubbabel and later Ezra and Nehemiah, had given up idolatry and were seeking to please the Lord. The circumstance of the returnees including strong political opposition led them to begin to slip into the old ways of life. The city and temple were lying in ruins, with the temple foundation a mute witness to the spiritual failure of the returnees. It was Zechariah’s and Haggai’s task to shore up the diminished enthusiasm of these people to trust the Lord for the present and the future. Baldwin captures the essence of the prophecy when she says “The rebuilding of the Temple was the condition on which the dawning of the Messianic age depended. Haggai implied as much (Hg. 2:6-09) and Malachi proclaimed that the Lord would suddenly come to His Temple (Mal 3:1). The rebuilding of the Temple was at once an act of dedication and of faith. It was a symbol of the continuity of the present with the past, and expressed the longing of the community that, despite the exile, the old covenant promises still stood.”5 The messianic age is then presented apocalyptically in the last six chapters.

V. The Outline of the Book.

A. Messages of hope and challenge in connection with the rebuilding of the temple (1:1—6:8).6

1. Zechariah challenged the people to repent (1:1-6).

The date for this message is given as the eighth month of Darius’ second year or 520 B.C. The Jews have been back in the land since 536 B.C. or some 16 years. Yahweh challenges them to return to him. This is the language of repentance. They are challenged to remember the sins of their ancestors who, because of their sins, were driven into exile. They, said Yahweh, listened and learned. They recognized that their punishment was just.7 Now, the returnees should recognize the same situation. The response of the people is not given in this context.

2. Visions of God’s concern for his people (1:7—2:13).

a. The first vision—God’s watchful care (1:7-17).

Three months later the visions began. Since no other dates are given for the visions, the assumption can be made that they were all given in a relatively short time. The visions begin with horses and end with horses and chariots.

The horsemen in the vision represent God’s vigil over the whole earth. They have been going back and forth checking up on it and discover that the entire world is at peace (by the second year of Darius, he had established his rule in the land and put down resistance). However, the Jewish people cannot be at rest for God’s indignation continues as it has been for some seventy years. This seventy year period probably refers to the time from the destruction of the temple until its completion. From the spiritual point of view, the fact that the temple as the symbol of Yahweh’s presence in Jerusalem, is still in ruins indicates a failure of the returning community to achieve what God intended for them.

Yahweh’s response is strong and encouraging: “I am exceedingly jealous for Jerusalem and Zion.” On the other hand, the nations which he used to punish his people, now at peace, will receive the butt of his anger. But as for Jerusalem, he will again have compassion on her, his house will be built within her, and he will stretch out a line over the city of Jerusalem. The measuring line probably indicates ownership and protection. The pitiable state of Jerusalem would be remedied and would again be prosperous, and the temple would be rebuilt.

b. The second vision—the horns/craftsmen (1:18-21).

The second vision relates to Yahweh’s vindication of his people: having scattered them in judgment, he will punish the nations which scattered them. Who are these nations? Efforts to identify them are fruitless (since there is no logical sequence of four nations fitting this description). Therefore, we should think of the four horns as nations from the four quarters of the earth: all nations who have hurt Israel will be hurt by God.

c. The third vision—the measuring line (2:1-13).

We have encountered the measuring line before (1:16). There it pertains to Yahweh’s compassion on Jerusalem. It probably denotes God’s protection of the city and so should be understood in ch. 2. (God measures in Ezekiel 40-48 and Revelation 11. The latter seems to clearly indicate protection since the court was omitted in the measuring and turned over to the Gentiles.)

Some phrases in this vision need special attention. “Flee from the land of the north . . . Escape, you who are living with the daughter of Babylon” sounds like Jer 50:8. In that context, it seems to refer to God’s judgment of Babylon (Chaldea) by the Persians. At that time the Jews were urged to flee Babylon. This warning may have relevance to the sixth century in urging Jews to come to Jerusalem, but the overall tone of this unit appears to be eschatological. God’s great work in behalf of his own people, Israel, is yet to come. He will be “aroused from His holy habitation” in Israel’s behalf, and woe to the nation that touches Israel, the apple of God’s eye. At that time (2:11) Yahweh will dwell in the midst of his people and many nations will join themselves to him.

3. Visions of cleansing and service (3:1—5:11).

a. The fourth vision—the cleansing of Joshua (3:1-10).

One of the main issues facing the Jews when they returned from the exile was the restoration of the temple and the priesthood. The books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles spell out this concern in considerable detail. Chapter 3 is not concerned primarily with Joshua’s personal cleansing, but with the purification of the priesthood to function in the new temple. The role of the Accuser is to thwart the people of God in their attempt to gain access to him. This effort is interdicted by the Angel of Yahweh who wants all to know that Yahweh has chosen Jerusalem. Here Jerusalem (=Zion) represents the place of the temple. God cleanses Joshua and informs him that an obedient life will allow him to perform his service (as priest in the temple) and govern his house (the temple). Since Joshua and “his friends who are sitting there” were symbols (mopheth, מוֹפֵת), this must in some sense apply to the whole priesthood.

Now for the first time the astounding prophecy of the “Branch” (zemakh, hoter, netzer, נֵצֶר) from the dry ground (speaking of the servant, Isa 53:2). Ultimate cleansing for Israel must come from this Branch. The idea of “removing the iniquity of the land in one day” (3:9) indicates an eschatological cleansing of Israel.

The stone with seven eyes is the most difficult concept to interpret in the chapter. The word eyes is the Hebrew word ‘ayin (עַיִן) which is ambiguous. It can mean “the eye” or a “fountain” (water flowing from a socket) or “aspect” or “facet.” Consequently, Baldwin, following Lipinski, takes the secondary meaning of “fountain” and identifies it with the rock Moses struck from which water flowed and would thus be a metaphor of the cleansing of Israel.8 This interpretation is attractive, but the seven eyes of 4:10 are eyes which “see” the plumb line in the hand of Zerubbabel and are representative of God’s omniscience. Consequently, we probably should see them in a similar sense in 2:9. God sees all things: the nations who judged Israel; Israel’s need of restoration and cleansing. In that (eschatological) day, all will sit under vine and fig trees. This is a symbol of eschatological restoration of Israel to her land (Micah 4:4,5).

b. The fifth vision—the Lamp stand (4:1-14).

Since one of the primary concerns of this book is with the rebuilding of the temple, it should not surprise us to see a chapter devoted to the subject. The obstacles encountered by the returnees are recounted in Ezra 4-5. This chapter is to encourage the governor, Zerubbabel and the high priest, Joshua, to complete the task. The lamp stand (ever a symbol of the light in the temple) is here a symbol for God’s provision for protection and strength to finish the temple. The “two sons of oil” or NASB “anointed ones” represent Zerubbabel (4:6) and Joshua, who though unmentioned, should be assumed.

c. The sixth vision—the Scroll and the Ephah (5:1-11).

Most people see two visions here, but I have chosen to combine them (as the horns and craftsmen were combined). The first part (scroll) speaks of judgment on God’s people who break the commandments (the middle commandment in each half of the two tables is given as typical of all), and the second part speaks of dealing with the sin of the people. This much of the interpretation is fairly clear; the difficulty comes with the last verse. “Wickedness” is being removed from Judah and transported to the “Land of Shinar.” This is an ancient name for the Babylonian region (Gen 10:10). It was used in later times only in Isaiah 11:11 and Daniel 1:2. The use of this word should alert the reader to a special meaning. It is the symbol of the beginning of rebellion against God. God is taking “wickedness” back to its origin where he will build it a temple (house) where it will be worshipped. “Revelation 17-18 speaks of ‘Mystery Babylon,’ that embodiment of all evil that God will judge. This concentration of evil in the place of its origin will take place in the last days before the Battle of Armageddon and the establishment of the millennial kingdom. Thus, God will remove evil from the people of Israel as he prepares them to be his people. He will also judge those nations who will become even more wicked in the last days.”9

4. Vision of Judgment (6:1-8).

The night visions end as they began, with horses (chariots) who are involved with all the earth. In the first vision the problem is that all the nations are at peace while Jerusalem is troubled. God at that time promised that the nations would be judged (1:11,15, 18-21). The visions close with the symbolic prediction that the nations will be judged. The four chariots represent the four winds (or spirits, the Hebrew ruah רוּחַ means both) of heaven. These winds/spirits have stood before God (reporting to him) and are now coming forth (as was the Ephah). Thus they have a task to perform.10 They are to patrol the earth and to appease God’s wrath in the land of the north. The word “appeased” can also mean to give rest to. It must mean that God’s anger against the nations (alluded to in ch. 1) will be given rest or appeased when it has run its course against the nations. Thus the vision means that God will eventually vindicate his people Israel when the Day of the Lord brings judgment on them, but also on the nations who have persecuted them.

B. Special messages to the returnees (6:9—8:23).

1. Message to the Babylonian Jews: the crowning of Joshua (6:9-15).

Messengers have come from Babylon probably with a gift for the newly rebuilt temple. This visit prompts another message. Zechariah makes a crown of silver and gold. (The word for crown is plural, indicating some kind of complexity.) The dual crown is to be placed on Joshua’s head. Because this act was associated with the building of the temple, critics want to substitute the name of Zerubbabel for that of Joshua, but there is no warrant for such action. Joshua, the center of the vision in ch. 3 and one of the sons of oil in ch. 4, is more important than Zerubbabel in the restoration of the temple and its ritual than Zerubbabel. Once again we encounter the name “branch.” Here it is applied to Joshua, but strangely it says that Joshua will sit on a throne and that the counsel of peace will be between the two offices. This symbol now creeps into the Eschaton where one will rule as both priest and king. Joshua will be involved in building the sixth century temple (6:12), but so will be the latter day successor who will rule as priest and king (6:13).11

2. Instruction on true religion: the fast question (7:1-14).

Another situation developed on 9/4/4 when certain pilgrims came to Jerusalem to seek the Lord. They asked the teaching priests whether they should continue fasting on the fifth month as they had been doing for a long time. Apparently because the temple was well under way, they decided they should probably stop remembering the fall of the temple (fifth month) by fasting. Zechariah seizes the opportunity to warn them about the futility of ritual with reality. Their ancestors had plenty of the former, but God judged them for failing to carry out the requirements of the covenant by treating properly the vulnerable people in the land. The result was the exile. Now the word is, “learn from the past.”

3. Instruction on future Zion: the fast question continued (8:1-23).

The message of ch. 8, in contrast to ch. 7, is encouraging. This chapter is replete with promises, some of which are among the most marvelous in the Old Testament. As if to assure the reader of the integrity of the promises, Zechariah speaks in the name of Yahweh of hosts. This title for God appears fifty-four times in Zechariah, and eighteen of those are in ch. 8. This name is a favorite title for God in the prophets, especially Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zechariah. The stress is on God’s omnipotence as the head of the armies of heaven fighting on behalf of God’s people.12 The chapter may be divided into two major sections. The first is 8:1-18 (“and the word of the Lord of hosts came”); the second, 8:19-23 (“and the word of the Lord of hosts came to me”). There are ten “oracles” or “sayings” introduced by the phrase “thus says the Lord of hosts” (vs. 3 is included even though it has only “Thus says the Lord” because it seems to be the same introductory clause).

First segment: Encouragement to the returnees (8:1-17). There are several parallels between this chapter and chapters 1-2: 8:2=1:14; 8:3=2:10; 8:4-5=1:17; 8:7=2:6. This lends weight to the argument for chiastic structure in the first half of the book. It is important to understand that while some of Zechariah’s prophecies had application in the sixth century, many of them find their ultimate fulfillment in the future. Any Jew of that day would have known that the scenes depicted by Zechariah (8:3-4) were not yet in effect (cf. Ezra-Nehemiah for the actual conditions). But they could take heart in the fact that the work begun by God in their day would come to glorious fruition in “the latter days.”

The first segment speaks of ideal conditions to prevail in the future. Blessings are promised in Zechariah’s day as a reward for resuming the temple, but the description given in this unit takes us into the Eschaton. God has purposed to do good to Jerusalem; this good began in the sixth century, but it will culminate in the golden age of the future.

Second segment: Kingdom promises (8:19-23). In that beautiful age, all fasting will turn to joy.13 The beautiful picture of the restored Jews entreating the favor of Yahweh, a favorite with the prophets, concludes the oracles. Ten men from the Gentiles will grasp the garment of a Jew saying, “Let us go with you, for we have heard that God is with you.”

C. The First Burden of the Lord (9:1—11:17).

We now enter the second part of the book commonly known as the apocalyptic section. Here the cryptic predictions of the culmination of the age, the deliverance and triumph of Israel, the establishment of God’s rule on earth and the ensuing golden age are presented. The great emphasis on God’s intervention in the affairs of men no doubt affected the extensive reference to these two units in the New Testament.

Smith points out a number of connections between chapters 9-14 and 1-8. “(1) The significant role of Jerusalem and Zion (1:12-16; 2:1-13; 9:8-10; 12:1-13; 14:1-21). (2) The cleansing of the community as part of God’s final act (3:1-9; 5:1-11; 10:9; 12:10; 13:1-2; 14:20-21). (3) The place of all the nations in the kingdom of God (2:11; 8:20-23; 9:7, 10; 14:16-19). (4) The use of the work of the former prophets (Amos 1:9-10, 5:27-62 in 9:1-8; Jer 25:34-38 in 11:1-3; Ezek 38-48 in 14:1-4). Practically all of Zech 9-14 is an interpretation or an application of earlier prophecies.”14

1. The coming king and the kingdom (9:1-17).

The first eight verses speak of the reclamation of the coastal plain for Israel. A conversion of the Philistine states is indicated in the removal of idolatry (9:7) and the description of Ekron as a Jebusite (one incorporated into Judah). Hanson is probably right that the emphasis of the passage is not on the historical past, but upon the eschatological future.15 Several events could be pointed to as possible fulfillments of this prophecy, but ultimately, the reference is to the restoration period yet in the future (9:1-8).

One of the most dramatic prophecies in the Old Testament, the picture of the warrior king coming to deliver Zion stands out as a representative of the hope of God’s salvation in behalf of his people. This reference should be related to Gen 49:10; 2 Sam 5:2; Micah 5:2; Isaiah 9:6; 11:1-5 and Matt 2:5-6. The indication of verse 10 is that the fulfillment is in connection with the establishment of the glorious kingdom of Old Testament hope. However, its use in the Gospels shows that its initial thrust has to do with Jesus’ first coming (9:9-10).

The final unit continues the theme of holy war and deliverance of Israel, the people of God. Smith argues that the reference to the war between the Greeks and Zion in 9:13 should not be pressed as to date. It represents the holy war concept which is eschatological.16 Baldwin believes that the references to Greeks in Gen 10:2,4 and Isa 66:19 indicate that they represent a distant people.17 In any event, the tendency of some scholars to link the battle with the Maccabean wars should be rejected.

2. The first shepherd pericope—protection of Israel (10:1-12).

A transition is presented in 10:1 as the account moves from the glorious future to problems of the fifth century. The rain and all it represented (vegetation, etc.) comes from Yahweh. Some people of Zechariah’s day had failed to learn the lesson of Baalism (here teraphim). “In spite of the fact that most Jews gave up polytheism in the Exile, some still clung to the native beliefs. One has to wonder whether these are Jews who did not go to Babylon but stayed in Palestine, never fully renounced their pagan practices”18 (10:2).

The sheep and shepherd motif, so common to the prophets, is taken up in terms of a suffering flock due to the lack of concern by the shepherds. Consequently, God will punish the leaders,19 but he will cause his sheep to be triumphant (this is the basic idea of the various metaphors: majestic horse, cornerstone, tent peg, bow, ruler) (10:2b-5).

When this happens, the result will be great victory and God will bring all his people (both from the old north and the south). There will be a great prosperity when the regathering takes place (cf. Zechariah 2). The old persecuting nations (Egypt, Assyria) will yield up God’s people. A second exodus will take place when God strengthens his people and dries up the waters of the Nile (10:6-12).

Chapter 10 is, like chapter 9, an eschatological picture. When God brings his work in the world to a consummation, it will include punishment of Israel’s bad leaders (either national or foreign), the strengthening of both the Jews from the north and south, the providing of good leaders, the restoration to the land of Israel, and a triumphant, miraculous work of God in returning them. From a New Testament perspective, we would see this taking place during the Tribulation in preparation for God’s rule on the earth, which we call the Millennium.

3. The second shepherd pericope—the rejected shepherd (11:1-17).

The unit contained in 11:1-3 is to be linked with chapter 10, not the rest of chapter 11. With Baldwin I would say that it represents a song of exultation after the victory granted by Yahweh in chapter 10.20 Smith believes it could either close chapter 10 or introduce chapter 11. He calls it a taunt song.21 The trees represent powers, and the powers have fallen. God has delivered and restored his people (11:1-3).

The rest of the chapter is so graphic and personified, that interpreters have struggled to find a historical fulfillment of some sort. An individual is hired to tend a flock (though it is God who commanded him to do so), he shepherds the flock with two staffs symbolic of God’s work, and he is rejected and paid off (11:4-14).

Who is this person? In actuality it is impossible to find any historical referent. It means at least that God himself is concerned about his flock and though he wants to shepherd it, is rejected from the task. Small wonder that this is shown by the New Testament to be an adumbration of the ministry of the great shepherd of the sheep who gave his life for the flock.

The doomed flock. God’s people are being abused by those whose assigned task was to care for them. Both foreign rulers (11:5a) and their own national leaders (11:5b) have used the flock to their own advantage. Furthermore, God himself says that he will punish these people. This could be associated with the Maccabean era, e.g., or A. D. 70, but it would be mistaken to try to pin point any particular time. Since the book is apocalyptic in tone, one should expect the setting to be in the last days (11:4-6).

The pastor of the flock. The phrase “even the afflicted of the flock” (‘aniye hats’on, kena‘ani, כְּנַעֲנִי). This makes much better sense in both contexts.22 The shepherd took two staffs with which to pastor the flock. One was called “favor” (noam, נֹאַם), and the other was called “union” (hobelim, חבְלִים bands, ropes). These he will explain later. Rather cryptically, the text says that the shepherd then will annihilate three other shepherds. Much ink has been spilled trying to identify these three people historically. The effort is futile. I assume that the genre of material here is live drama. In some way, Zechariah is acting out this scenario. Rather than try to identify the three shepherds, we must simply assume that they represent bad leadership which will come under the judgment of God. The flock itself apparently was not happy with the shepherd, and consequently, he decided to break his staff “favor” which represented his contract with the sheep. He then demanded his wages which were disdainfully measured at thirty shekels of silver. The Lord recognized the wages as an insult and told Zedekiah to throw them to the potter in the temple. Finally, he cut the second staff which symbolized the unity between Israel and Judah. Is it possible that this in some way summarizes God’s dealings with Israel over the centuries? It surely ultimately refers to the rejection of the Good Shepherd who was also valued at thirty pieces of silver (11:4-14).

The wicked shepherd. Zedekiah is then told by the Lord to dress himself with the equipment of a foolish shepherd. What kind of equipment would that be?! Perhaps he changes certain items and then acts out the part of a shepherd who only abuses the flock. God will ultimately bring judgment on this wicked person. He is usually linked with the wicked one of the last days spoken of in 2 Thessalonians 2 (11:15-17).

D. The Second Burden of the Lord (12:1—14:21).

We now come to the second unit of the last half of the book of Zechariah. “The burden of the lord” separates the unit from 9—11. God’s dealings with his people Israel and the Gentile world are taken up and amplified in this unit.

1. God’s great work “in that day”—the pierced one (12:1-14).

The phrase “in that day,” designed to show that God is referring to his work in the Eschaton, occurs 17 times in this unit (12:3, 4, 6, 8, 8, 9, 11; 13:1, 2, 4; 14:4, 6, 8, 9, 13, 20, 21).

Chapter 12 parallels chapter 9 in teaching that God will miraculously deliver the people of Israel in the last days. A coalition of peoples will gathered against Jerusalem, but divine intervention will cause Israel to become “a heavy stone” that will cause injury to those who try to lift it (i.e., attack Jerusalem). Judah and Jerusalem will be strengthened and like Samson’s foxes among Philistine wheat, so they will devastate the nations gathered against them. The royal house will triumph over the enemies. “The concluding verse sums up in unambiguous words the main point of the passage: the Lord will seek to destroy all the nations that come against Jerusalem23 This takes up the first six “in that day” phrases (12:1-9).

The seventh “in that day” makes an astounding statement, provoking extended discussion and debate (12:10). The idea that God will pour out his spirit (whether technically—the Holy Spirit—or generally—the spirit of grace) is rather common in the prophets (particularly Jeremiah and Ezekiel). However, the phrase, “so that they will look on Me whom they have pierced, and they will mourn for Him, as one mourns for an only son, and they will weep bitterly over Him, like the bitter weeping over a first-born” is strange indeed. Who is the “Me”? Who is the “Him”? Are they the same people?24 A number of Hebrew manuscripts have “they shall look on him” which is what appears in the New Testament. From the text of Zechariah, we can at least conclude that some individual was going to be killed and that the people of Israel would mourn (in repentance) after Yahweh pours out on them a spirit of grace and supplication. The New Testament is certainly applying this verse to Jesus Christ as the one who was crucified for the redemption of his people. The time will come when they will turn to him (Rev 1:7) in repentance.25 

2. The third shepherd pericope—the smitten shepherd (13:1-9).

The eighth “in that day” concludes the mourning section of ch. 14 with the promise of a cleansing for the house of David and for the inhabitants of Jerusalem (13:1). This fountain will cleanse from sin and impurity (niddah, נִדָּה). The piercing of 12:10 resulted in the mourning of 12:11-14. This will be followed by cleansing in the fountain. Israel’s sin (emphasis on the house of David/Jerusalem) will take place when God resumes his dealings with the people of Israel in the last days.

The ninth “in that day” turns to false prophets (13:2-6). This was a major issue in the pre and exilic period. However, in the post-exilic era it was not as significant a problem (at least as far as can be discerned from the Scripture accounts).26 In the eschatological period, however, false prophecy will rear its ugly head once more. When that happens, concomitant with the cleansing from sin, God will remove the false prophets and the unclean spirits from the land. Even parents will assume their responsibility of denouncing their children who are caught up in this Satanic movement. Furthermore (the tenth “in that day”) the false prophets will be so frightened of the penalty for their perfidy that they will deny that they are prophets.27

Once more the motif of the shepherd and the flock appears (13:7-9). This passage should be related to the enigmatic ch. 11. Here God calls upon the sword to slay the shepherd. This shepherd is, amazingly, God’s companion. This word (gever ‘mithi, גֶּבֶר עֲמִיתִי) is otherwise used only in Leviticus (6:2; 19:15, 17; 25:14, 15) where it means “companion,” “neighbor,” “friend.” This shepherd bears a special relationship to Jehovah.28 It is God who smites the shepherd (cf. Isa. 53:4-5).

The result of the shepherd’s death is that the flock will be scattered. Jesus cited this verse in connection with his own death (Matt 26:31; Mark 14:27). However, the ultimate fulfillment goes beyond the crucifixion to a time when great tribulation will come upon the people of Israel. This terrible time of suffering will result in refinement of the Jews resulting in their calling upon the name of the Lord. Then the recurring prophetic theme will come to pass: “He will be their God and they will be His people.”

3. Jerusalem delivered—Holy to the Lord (14:1-21).

This chapter contains seven more “in that day” phrases and is the most apocalyptic of all the chapters. Baldwin points out the chiasm of reversal in the chapter:

a I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem (14:2)

b Jerusalem despoiled (14:2)

c The people will suffer (14:3)

c’ All the peoples will suffer (14:12)

b’ Jerusalem despoils the nations (14:14)

a’ Any who are left of all the nations . . . will go up to [Jerusalem] (14:16)29

This chapter contains the classical description of the Day of the Lord when He shall bring judgment upon the nations who reject him and fight against His people Israel. A unified attack by the nations who have formed a confederacy will be made against the small city of Jerusalem. Were this not a spiritual battle, such an attack would be unnecessary. The strategic position of God’s people in this strategic “City of Zion” is what elicits this Satanic response to the Jews. God intervenes on Mt. Olivet, a place so significant in Israel’s history. From this mountain Jesus ascended back into heaven, and the angels promised that he would return as they had seen him go. This cosmic battle will result in geological changes in the land as well as astronomical changes and there will be a time of unprecedented blessing (14:6-8). Furthermore, the Lord will be acknowledged as the only God; idolatry will be gone and the people will give their undivided allegiance and devotion to the one true God of Israel.

The nations who have chosen to rebel against God and His people will now be judged (14:12-15), and Judah will despoil them as they had planned to despoil Jerusalem. Furthermore, the nations that are left will be required to come to Jerusalem annually to worship King Yahweh of hosts and to celebrate the feast of Succoth. Those who refuse to come will be punished.

The final two “in that day” phrases speak of the Holiness of the situation. There will be ceremonial cleanness, but more important, there will be actual redemptive cleanness because Israel will be redeemed. The key phrase is “HOLY TO YAHWEH!” The setting for this scenario is what we call from the New Testament the Millennium—the fulfillment of all the Old Testament promises to Abraham and David in connection with the people of Israel.


1LaSor, et al., Old Testament Survey, 489.

2Joyce Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi in The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1972).

3P. Lamarche, Zacharie IX-XIV, Structure Littérarie et Messianisme (Paris: Gabalda, 1961).

4See the standard introductions for the many and complex issues.

5Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, 21.

6See R. E. Brown, “The Gospel According to John I-XII” in the Anchor Bible, 29:326 for a discussion of the Book of Zechariah on the New Testament.

7The book of Lamentations is instructive in this connection.

8Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, 117.

9Heater, Zechariah, in Bible Study Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987, 43).

10See ibid for a discussion of the details of the vision.

11Baldwin, Zechariah, 135-37.

12Heater, Zechariah, 63.

13The siege of Jerusalem began in the tenth month; the city fell in the fourth month; the temple was destroyed in the fifth month; and Gedaliah was assassinated in the seventh month (1 Kings 25:1, 8, 25).

14Ralph L. Smith, Micah to Malachi in Word Biblical Commentaries, 242.

15P. Hanson, “Jewish Apocalyptic against Its Near Eastern Environment,” RB 78 (1971): 31-58. Baldwin (Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, 157-58) generally agrees. She argues that past events typify the future.

16Smith, Micah to Malachi, 260.

17Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, 168-69.

18Heater, Zechariah, 84.

19Shepherds can refer to either Israel’s leaders or foreign leaders (Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, 172).

20Baldwin (Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi) 177 says “The climax is the arrival of the king to set up his universal kingdom, but first there is opposition to be overcome, hence the darker side of the picture.”

21Smith, Micah to Malachi, 267.

22Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, 180.

23Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, 190.

24In the New Testament (John 19:37; Rev 1:7) the pronoun “me” in Zechariah is “him.”

25Romans 11:26 is another marvelous verse that indicates a universal turning to the Lord in repentance by the people of Israel.

26An exception to this statement should be found in the prophetess Noadiah and the “rest of the prophets” who opposed Nehemiah’s work of restoration (Neh. 6:14).

27Some have argued that 13:6 is a reference to Christ crucified, but the context clearly is one of false prophets. The “wounds between your arms” (Heb.: “hands”) refers to chest wounds probably caused by self-flagellation common in Baal worship (cf. 1 Kings 18).

28F. C. Keil (The Twelve Minor Prophets, vol. 2 in Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament, 397) says,  “The shepherd of Jehovah, whom the sword is to smite, is therefore no other than the Messiah, who is also identified with Jehovah in ch. xii. 10; or the good shepherd, who says of Himself, ‘I and my Father are one’ (John x. 30).”

29Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, 199.

Related Topics: History, Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Prophets

18. Malachi

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Notes on the Book of Malachi

I. The Prophet Malachi.

The Hebrew word Malachi (מַלְאָכִי) means “my messenger.” The Septuagint has translated the word as a common noun: “his angel/messenger” (ἄγγελος αὐτοῦ). Furthermore, the same word appears as a common noun in Mal 3:1: “Behold, I am going to send My messenger, and he will clear the way before Me. And the Lord, whom you seek, will suddenly come to His temple; and the messenger of the covenant, in whom you delight, behold, He is coming,” says the Lord of Hosts. This fact and the absence of this name elsewhere in Scripture has led some to question whether it is a proper name or a common name. Von Orelli’s discussion arguing for a proper name is still valid. It should be considered a reduction of a form like Malachiah.1

II. The Date and Historical Background of Malachi.

Chisholm says, “Internal evidence indicates the book was written in the post-exilic period. The reference to a governor (peha, 1:8) points to the Persian period. This title is used frequently in Nehemiah for Persian governors. Earlier Haggai applied the title to Zerubbabel (Hag. 1:1, 14; 2:2, 21). Various parallels between Ezra-Nehemiah and Malachi suggest that the latter dates to the mid-fifth century B.C. Both Ezra-Nehemiah and Malachi refer to intermarriage with foreign wives (Ezra 9—10; Neh 13:23-27; Mal 2:11), failure to pay tithes (Neh 13:10-14; Mal 3:8-10), and social injustice (Neh 5:1-13; Mal 3:5). The precise date of Malachi is impossible to ascertain.”2

III. The Structure of Malachi.

The structure of the book is not altogether obvious. The style is generally considered to be “disputation,” that is, question, answer and rebuke. Chisholm,3 in general agreement with Verhoef,4 finds six units. It can at least be said that there are seven questions in the book (I am assuming that 1:7 is another facet of the same question in 1:6). The people respond to Yahweh’s statement with a question in 1:2,6,7; 2:14,17; 3:7,8,13. Questions 1, 2, and 2a are introduced with the Hebrew “in what” (bammeh, or בַּמָּה ) as are questions 4, 5, and 6. Question 3 begins with “upon what” (‘al mah, mah, מָה). The form looks like this:

Chapter 1

1. But you say, How hast Thou loved us? (1:2)

2. But you say, How have we despised Thy name? (1:6)

2a. But you say, How have we defiled Thee? (1:7)

Chapter 2

3. Yet you say, For what reason? (2:14)

4. Yet you say, “How have we wearied Him? (2:17)

Chapter 3

5. But you say, How shall we return? (3:7)

6. But you say, How have we robbed Thee? (3:8)

7. Yet you say, What have we spoken against Thee? (3:13)

IV. The Outline of the Book.

A. Heading (1:1).

This message is an oracle (massa, מַשָּׂא) as in Zech. 9:1 and 12:1. A heavy, that is, judgmental, message is about to be delivered. It is the word of Yahweh through the prophet Malachi. The recipient of this burden is Israel. The returned exiles are aware that the remnant of Israel has returned from Babylon and thus “Israel” is used here in that sense.

B. Rhetorical question #1: “How hast Thou loved us?” (1:2-5).

The difficulty through which “Israel” has gone since 586 B.C. may have led to a cynical questioning of whether Yahweh’s love was valid. After the holocaust of World War II, many Jews asked the same question. The issue of Yahweh’s unfailing love for his people is a recurring theme in the prophets. Yahweh’s love for Israel is demonstrated negatively: that is he has chosen Jacob over Esau. Love and hate are often used in the Bible to mean “choice” and “rejection.” The words should not be understood in a visceral sense. It refers to God’s sovereignty, asserted early in Genesis 25:23 (note Paul’s use of both these passages in his teaching on the selection of the church over Israel in Rom 9:12-13). At this time in history (400’s B.C.) the old Edomite home in Petra has been taken over by Nabatean Arabs and the Edomites have moved into the Negev area. Their original homeland has been devastated and their failure to accept this does not assure them of a future blessing.

C. Rhetorical question #2: “How have we despised your name?” (1:6—2:9).

This unit takes the priests to task. The book of Nehemiah indicates continued problems in getting the priests to perform their ritual with justice and purity. In Malachi Yahweh castigates the priests for despising his name which for them (rhetorical question 2b) means that they are defiling the altar of the temple. In spite of the priests’ protestations of innocence, God says that they bring offerings that violate the Mosaic order of sacrifices. They would not even dare give such offerings to their governor (a concept indicating the post-exilic period). There will come a time, says Yahweh, when his name will be glorified among the Gentiles (1:11), but in that time even his own people were polluting his name.

The criticism of the priesthood continues in chapter 2. Yahweh promises that his judgment on them will take the form of reversal of their pronounced blessings (2:2) and the rebuking of their offspring (2:3). Yahweh reminds them of his original covenant with Levi the father of the priesthood. This covenant was one of life and peace. The priest was involved in instruction, rebuke, and his lips were to be filled with knowledge and instruction (these are “wisdom” words found in Proverbs and indicate the post-exilic emphasis on teaching by the priests). In contrast to Yahweh’s original plan for the priesthood, these priests have turned from the way and have corrupted the covenant made with their ancestor Levi (2:8-9).

D. Rhetorical question #3: “For what reason” (has Yahweh rejected us)? (2:10-16).

Both Ezra (9:1—10:44) and Nehemiah (13:23-28) dealt with the problem of intermarriage between the Jews and the surrounding (pagan) peoples. Since the latter part of the chapter deals with marriage, it is probable that the first part does as well. The problem is that the “holy seed” (zera‘ haqqodesh , Ezra 9:2) is being defiled through intermarriage. The “abomination” of Malachi 2:11 is also referred to in Ezra 9:1 in connection with intermarriage. The imagery of this unit, therefore, should be viewed in that light: “the covenant profaned” refers to the Mosaic prohibition against intermarriage with unbelievers; the “sanctuary” (qodesh, קדֶשׁ) as in Ezra 9:2 refers to God’s holy people; and “the daughter of a foreign god” is the “idolatry” committed by this intermarriage. Consequently, Yahweh will not receive their offerings (2:10-13).

On the contrary, these people have been unfaithful to their Jewish wives. The Hebrew of 2:15 is obscure, but the sense should be picked up from the “godly offspring” (Heb: seed of God, zera‘ ’elohim, זֶרַע אֱלהִֹים). This should point to Ezra 9 where the phrase is “holy seed.” In other words these returned believers are to produce holy children by staying faithful to their Jewish wives instead of divorcing them, perhaps to marry pagan wives. God hates divorce even though he permitted it because of “the hardness of their hearts” and even though Jesus permits (but does not require) it in his discussion in the Gospels. It still is not God’s ideal (2:14-16).

E. Rhetorical question #4: “How have we wearied Him?” (2:17—3:5).

An eschatological tone now comes into the prophecy. Yahweh has become weary of hypocrisy and disobedience. The time will come for rectifying that which is crooked. This is known throughout the prophets as “the Day of Yahweh.” God will thrust himself onto the historical scene first with a predecessor or messenger. He will prepare the way before him: wepinna derek lepenai, (cf. Isaiah 40:3: “A voice is calling, Clear the way for the Lord (pannu derek Yahweh דֶּרֶךְ יהוה  פַּנּו) in the wilderness; Make smooth in the desert a highway for our God”). Yahweh will suddenly visit his temple, obviously an accountability trip. “The messenger of the covenant” is difficult. Is it the same as the Lord or a different person? The parallelism would point to an identity of the Lord and the messenger.5 However, the first messenger should be identified with the person in Isaiah 40:3 as the forerunner. Furthermore, the phrase “behold I am about to send” appears in 3:23 where it refers to Elijah as the one who will serve as a catalyst in conjunction with the Day of Yahweh.

The coming of the Lord will result in thorough purging (3:2-3). Two stringent purifiers are referred to: refiner’s fire (to remove dross from metals) and washer’s soap (comparable to lye soap today). This purging will bring certain results (3:4-5). (1) The offerings brought to the temple by God’s people will be pleasing to Yahweh and (2) social inequities and religious apostasy will be corrected.

F. Rhetorical questions #5 and 6: “How shall we return?” and “How have we robbed Thee?” (3:6-12).

It is difficult to determine whether 3:6 goes with the preceding (NASB) or the following section (NIV). By taking the “for” as a strong assertion (“indeed”), it may be linked with what follows. Because of God’s covenant faithfulness and unchangeableness, God’s people will not be destroyed even though they have turned aside from Yahweh’s laws (3:7).

Their insensitivity leads them to ask “what wrong have we done that would require us to return (repent)?” Yahweh then gives them a specific: they have failed to support the work of the temple with their tithes to the Lord.6 A favorable response on their part will result in God’s blessings being poured out in such a way that their agriculture will flourish (3:10-12).

G. Rhetorical question #7: “What have we spoken against thee?” (3:13-15).

Yahweh connects the final “disputation” with their arrogant words. They argue that it is of no value to serve the Lord.7 Because of their attitude they have concluded that those who go their own way and ignore God are the happy ones. The teaching of Ecclesiastes has been taken to a cynical extreme.

H. Concluding message of hope and judgment (3:16—4:6).

Some include this latter section with the final “disputation” unit,8 but it seems to me that a new thought has begun. A remnant appears in 16-17; those who “fear the Lord” (yir ' e Yahweh, יִרְאֵי יהוה) or one could say, “God-fearers.” In that wonderful, future time, there will be a faithful remnant who will distinguish between the righteous and the wicked. This will come about because of God’s faithfulness to them and his love for them (3:16-18).

The purification spoken of in 3:1-3 is taken up again in chapter 4.9 It is the Day of Yahweh that will bring about the cleansing resulting in a purified remnant. Again this remnant is referred to as those who fear Yahweh’s name (yir ' e shemi,יִרְאֵי שֵׁמִי). What a glorious picture of the triumph of righteousness and righteous people. What a contrast to the present immorality and injustice in the world! (4:l-3).

The concluding message to the Old Testament is found in 4:4-6. Rudolph sees Malachi 3:22-24 (4:4-6) as the conclusion of the entire prophetic canon which begins for the Hebrew Bible with Joshua 1:1. The last chapter in the Pentateuch (Deuteronomy 34), the first chapter in the prophetic canon (Joshua 1:1) and Malachi 3:22 (4:4) all refer to Moses as the servant of the Lord.10 The righteous will be remembered (3:16), but they are also to remember the law of Moses, the law which is being cavalierly broken in the post-exilic period. Furthermore, a classical Old Testament figure will come on the scene preparatory to this great period when all things will be made right, Elijah the Tishbite. This prophecy is the subject of much discussion in the New Testament. Zechariah, John the Baptist’s father, is told that John will “turn back many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God. And it is he who will go as a forerunner before Him in the spirit and power of Elijah, to turn the hearts of the fathers back to the children, and the disobedient to the attitude of the righteous; so as to make ready a people prepared for the Lord” (Luke 1:15-17). John the Baptist denies that he is Elijah when the Pharisees ask him whether he is Elijah (John 1:21), but he does say that he is the “voice of one crying in the wilderness, Make straight the way of the Lord, as Isaiah the prophet said” (John 1:22). When Elijah appeared in the transfiguration (Matthew 17:1-8), the disciples’ curiosity was piqued and they asked him about the teaching that “Elijah must come first” (17:10). Jesus answers that in one sense John the Baptist was Elijah but both he and the one whom he represented must be rejected and suffer at the hands of the religious leaders. However, in the future, Elijah will indeed come and restore all things (by implication, the Son of Man will also come).

There is a structure beginning with chapter 3 that carries through to the end of the book. It is eschatological in content.

Behold I am going to send my messenger (3:1-6)

Criticism, three questions (3:7-15)

Faithful remnant (3:16-18) God-fearers

Behold a day is coming (4:1-4)

Faithful remnant (4:2-3) fearers of my name

Remember the law of Moses (4:4)

Behold I am sending Elijah the prophet (4:5-6)

Faithful remnant (4:6)

The Prophets fittingly come to a close with emphasis on the coming of Yahweh to the earth to establish the equity and justice all the prophets from Amos on down have been writing about. The predecessor, Elijah, is the harbinger of that coming one. Small wonder that the crowds poured into the Jordan valley to hear the one who came “in his spirit and power” and pointed them to the one who would “baptize them with the Holy Spirit and fire” (Matt. 3:11).


1C. Von Orelli, The Twelve Minor Prophets (1897, reprint Minneapolis: Klock and Klock, 1977, 382-83).

2R. Chisholm, Interpreting the Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 278.

3Chisholm, The Minor Prophets, 279.

4P. A. Verhoef, The Books of Haggai and Malachi in The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 164-68.

5For a discussion see Chisholm, The Minor Prophets, 286.

6A similar situation existed after 432 B.C. in Nehemiah’s day (13:10-14).

7Job says the same thing in Job 9:29.

8See, e.g., Chisholm, The Minor Prophets, 288-89 (3:13—4:3) and Verhoef, The Books of Haggai and Malachi, 312ff.

9The Hebrew text has only three chapters and so 4:1-6 are in Hebrew 3:19-24.

10W. Rudolph, Haggai—Sacharja 1-8—Sacharja 9-14—Maleachi in Kommentar zum Alten Testament, Gütersloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, XIII 4:291.

Related Topics: History, Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Prophets

19. Old Testament Prophets: A Selected Bibliography

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You will want to become familiar with OTI’s, Bible Geographies, and Encyclopedias.

General Works on the Prophets

Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books. Chicago: Moody, 1986.

This is an excellent conservative introduction by a man committed to the Scriptures and to scholarship. It is fresh and up to date on current issues.

Freeman, Hobart E. An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets. Chicago: Moody, 1968.

A good conservative introduction to the prophets. It explores both some introductory matters relating to prophecy in general and then has introductions for each of the prophets.

Kitchen, Kenneth. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2003.

This is not just about the prophets, but it is a valuable tool for all Old Testament study. Kitchen debunks much of the “minimalist” thinking, and presents a conservative approach to the Old Testament texts.

Young, Edward J. My Servants the Prophets. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952.

This is an excellent conservative introduction by a well known reformed scholar. It interacts with many of the critical views and supports fidelity of the Scriptures.

Isaiah

Alexander, Joseph. A. Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1953.

An old standard conservative, reformed scholar.

Barnes, Albert. Notes on the Old Testament, Explanatory and Practical: Isaiah. 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1950.

Beale, G. K. We Become What We Worship—a Biblical Theology of Idolatry. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2008.

Approaches the text “inter-textually.” This means that he develops a theology, not according to an arbitrary theme, but using verses and texts that are repeated throughout the OT and NT. He uses words such as “teasing out the usage,” “not an exact science but a kind of art,” “allusions and assumed allusions.” All this phraseology indicates that he is a “maximalist” in this interpretative device, that is, he pushes the envelope in finding connections between passages. (Introduction)

Boutflower, Charles. The Book of Isaiah, Chapters IXXXIX, in the Light of the Assyrian Monuments. New York: Macmillan, 1930.

Delitzsch, Franz. Isaiah. Trans. by James Martin. 2 vols. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954.

Delitzsch’s work is old and out of date in many respects. At the same time, his conservatism, scholarship and insight cannot be surpassed. I always find him helpful.

Gray, George B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Isaiah: Vol. I: Introduction and Commentary on IXXVII. The International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1912.

Gray represents an earlier generation of liberal scholars. His philological work will always need examination in light of more recent materials. As with all ICC works this one should be referred to.

Hayes, John H. and Stuart A. Irving. Isaiah, the Eighth Century Prophet; His Times and His Preaching, Abingdon Press, 1987.

A fresh critical is taken to the first 39 chapters of Isaiah. They list ten presuppositions in the introduction that depart from the standard form critical approach to Isaiah. An important work.

Hebert, A. S. The Book of the Prophet Isaiah: Chapters IXXXIX. Cambridge: University Press, 1973.

Jennings, F. C. Studies in Isaiah. New York: Loizeaux, 1950.

Jennings is a premillennial commentator. His approach to the text is to set it as poetry. From a literary point of view his work is interesting. From a scholarly point of view it leaves much to be desired.

Kaiser, Otto. Isaiah 112: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1972.

    . Isaiah 1339: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974.

Knight, George A. F. DeuteroIsaiah: A Theological Commentary on Isaiah 4055. New York: Abingdon, 1965.

Leupold, H. C. Exposition of Isaiah. 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1968.

Leupold is a conservative, amillennial, Lutheran scholar. His commentaries are always helpful.

MacRae, Allan A. The Gospel of Isaiah. Chicago: Moody, 1977.

MacRae (Biblical Seminary) was a conservative, premillennial scholar. This work is somewhat popular.

Martin, Alfred. Isaiah: The Salvation of Jehovah. Chicago: Moody, 1956.

Conservative, premillennial, popular.

McKenzie, John L. Second Isaiah. The Anchor Bible. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1967.

This Roman Catholic scholar provides much insight into the book, but his position is liberal.

Mauchline, John. Isaiah 139. London: S. C. M., 1962.

Motyer, J. Alec. The Prophecy of Isaiah. Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1993.

North, Christopher R. The Second Isaiah: Introduction, Translation and Commentary to Chapters 4055. Oxford: Clarendon, 1964.

North is a mediating scholar. I find him always very helpful even when I disagree with him.

    . The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah: An Historical and Critical Study. Oxford: University Press, 1948.

In my opinion, this is one of the best and most helpful discussions on the issue of the servant in Isaiah available.

Oswalt, John N. The Book of IsaiahChapters 139. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986.

Eerdmans has supplanted Young’s commentary on Isaiah with Oswalt’s. Oswalt is an excellent scholar, and premillennial in his orientation.

Ridderbos, J. Isaiah. Bible Student’s Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984.

Ridderbos is an evangelical Dutch scholar. His perspective is amillennial. This work was originally published in 1950-51 in Holland. It is a warm, scholarly work.

Skinner, J. The Book of Isaiah the Prophet. 2 vols. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge: University Press, 1898.

Torrey, Charles Cutler. The Second Isaiah: A New Interpretation. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1928.

Cutler’s Old Testament studies tended to be so radical that they provide very little help.

Von Orelli, C. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Trans. by J. S. Banks. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1889.

Von Orelli is an old conservative scholar from the reformed perspective. His work is always helpful.

    . The Twelve Minor Prophets. Trans. by J. S. Banks. 1897. Reprint ed. Minneapolis: Klock & Klock Christian Publishers, 1977.

Westermann, Claus. Isaiah 4066: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969.

Wolf, H. M. Interpreting Isaiah. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

A conservative, popular commentary by a Wheaton Prof. Helpful.

Wright, G. Ernest. The Book of Isaiah. The Layman’s Bible Commentary. Richmond: John Knox, 1964.

Young, Edward J. The Book of Isaiah. 3 vols. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969‑1972.

Young was the first editor of the OT section of the NICOT. He is known as a careful, thorough scholar from the reformed perspective. This is an excellent commentary, though amillennial.

    . Studies in Isaiah. (Now out of print.)

Some of these studies will show up in his NICOT commentary but not all. If a copy of this can be found, it should be purchased.

Jeremiah

Ackroyd, Peter R. “The Book of Jeremiah--Some Recent Studies,” JSOT 28 (1984) 47‑59.

Good list of bibliography.

Ackroyd, Peter R. “Two Old Testament Historical Problems of the Early Persian Period,” JNES 217 (1958) 23-27.

On the seventy years.

Aitken, Kenneth T. “The Oracles Against Babylon in Jeremiah 50-51: Structures and Perspectives.” TynBul 35 (1984) 25-63.

“Specifically, it will be submitted that the composition is comprised of six movements—as we shall call them—set within a common framework, each one of which forms a unified and relatively independent structural pattern; further, that through its structure each movement articulates its own particular and, in essential respects, its own distinctive perspective on the general topic of the composition, and, finally, that the six movements themselves are structured together in such a way as to articulate a perspective now informing the composition as a whole” (p. 27).

Borger, Riekele. “An Additional Remark on P. R. Ackroyd, JNES XKVII, 23-27,” JNES 18 (1959) 74.

On the Seventy years.

Brueggemann, Walter. “Jeremiah: Intense Criticism, Thin Interpretation.” Interp 42 (1988) 268-80.

He quotes Anderson (“The Problem and Promise of Commentary,” Interp. 36 (1982) 343-46) on what a commentary should strive for: (1) Be reflective of and responsive to the history of interpretation. (2) Be reflective of a “double Loyalty” to the scholarly community and the community of faith. (3) Provide necessary information “without becoming tediously detailed or burdensomely lengthy.” (4) Take a firm stand on current hermeneutical debate. (5) Draw the reader into the world of the text without being didactic or moralistic. (p. 273). He is hard on Carroll’s commentary as being “pugilistic” and rejective of previous studies. McKane is commended for his scholarly work but is to “dense” to allow easy access. Holladay is too committed to historical identification. He criticizes all three for not interacting hermeneutically with the believing community (pp. 273-74). See his strong indictment (justly) of Carroll on ch. 3. He says, “How is it that criticism and interpretation have become such embarrassed and awkward partners? What of criticism that does not better serve interpretation? From where will the faith community do its interpretation, if it receives such lean help from criticism?” “I conclude that such an interpretative posture is not objective, but is in fact quite subjective.” “When the method used resists the claim and character of the text studied, we likely have distancing that is detached, in order (wittingly or not) to escape the terrible and wondrous claim of the text.” (Overall excellent article—should be read by all who write commentaries.)

Bright, John. Jeremiah in The Anchor Bible, Garden City, NY: Doubled and Co., Inc., 1965.

Bright has spent much of his life working in the book of Jeremiah. This commentary is the culmination of that work. It is mediating in its position and very helpful overall.

“Suffice it here to say that the style of these discourses, though indeed closely akin to that of the Deuteronomic literature, is a style in its own right with peculiarities and distinctive expressions of its own; it is by no means glibly to be classified as ‘Deuteronomistic.’ It is, moreover, not a late style, but a characteristic rhetorical prose of the seventh/sixth centuries. With this last, internal evidence agrees, for such relevant allusions as these prose pieces contain suggest that this material was given fixed form not much after the middle of the Exilic period—thus within a few decades at most after Jeremiah’s death. Though it may well have undergone some verbal expansion after that time at the hands of editors and scribes, there is really no reason to place any of it (or anything in the book, for that matter) after the Exile . . . At the same time, it must be admitted that these discourses scarcely provide us—certainly not as a rule—with Jeremiah’s ipsissima verba.” Pp. LXXI-LXXII.

“In a word, no power in ancient times affected the fortunes of Israel in a more catastrophic way than did Babylon. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that many a Jew came to look upon Babylon as the very arch-foe of the people of God, and that the prophecy directed against that nation should exceed all the others both in volume and in the emotional intensity that informs it.” p. 359.

Bright, John. “The Date of the Prose Sermons of Jeremiah,” JBL 70 (1951) 15-35.

Brueggemann, W. A Commentary on Jeremiah; Exile and Homecoming.” Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

Carroll, Robert P. Jeremiah in Old Testament Library. London: SCM Press, 1986.

Craigie, Peter. Jeremiah 1-25. Word Biblical Commentary. Vol.. 26.

Crenshaw, James L. “A Living Tradition: The Book of Jeremiah in Current Research.” Interp. 37 (1983) 117-129.

De Roche, Michael. “Is Jeremiah 25:15-29 a Piece of Reworked Jeremianic Poetry?” JSOT 10 (1978) 58-67.

Reconstructs the passage as poetry, but drops 24-29 as prose added later.

Delcor, M. “Le culte de la ‘Reine du Ciel’” in From Kanaan bis Kerala, ed. W.C. Delsman, et al., Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchner Verlag, 1982, pp. 101-122.

The Masoretes vocalized malkat haššamayim as meleket hššamayim for tendentious reasons as they vocalized Melek = Moloch (bosheth) (p. 103).

Dorsey, David A. “Broken Potsherds at the Potter’s House: an Investigation of the Arrangement of the Book of Jeremiah,” Evangelical Journal 1 (1983) 3‑16.

Dorsey argues that the book has a very systematic arrangement and that it was all put together by Baruch. (1) Jer’s call (2) Messages of indictment and Judgment‑‑2‑20, negative/positive (3) special messages to individuals or dated‑‑21‑29 (4) Messages of hope‑‑30‑35, general/specific (5) Condemnatory narratives, Jere rejected‑‑36‑44 (6) Three appendices‑‑Baruch, Nations, Fall.

Should be tested for validity; how do we explain LXX e.g., nations not an appendix; how do we explain Baruch as editor of ch. 52. If he was 20 when he wrote scroll in 605, he would have been 85 when the events of ch. 52 took place. Ck out A. Millard on Scribes for age. The book would have been compiled by one hand 16 years after fall of Jerus. Why so long?

Dorsey, David. “Recent Commentaries on Jeremiah.” Evangelical Journal 6 (1988) 37-42.

Erdman, Charles R. The Book of Jeremiah and Lamentations. Westwood, New Jersey: Revell, 1955.

Feinberg, C. L. Jeremiah, a Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.

Conservative, pre‑millennial, very helpful.

Friedman, H. Jeremiah. London: Soncino, 1949.

The Soncino series is Jewish and conservative. Most of the commentaries in it are helpful.

Gosse, Bernard. “La malédiction contre Babylone de Jérémie 51,59-64 et les rédactions du livre de Jérémie.” ZAW 98 (1986) 383-99.

“We propose to clarify the interpretation of this passage by showing that in fact it is the result of a process of turning against Babylon curses which were originally directed against Judah or even to Israel” (p. 383). “In conclusion, the primitive text of 25:1-13 concerned therefore Judah and presented a resume of that found in chs. 36-38. The “book” of 25:13 we encounter again in ch. 36 (cf. 36:2,4,6...). By reason of the importance given to ch. 36 in the primitive recension of the book, therefore the LXX is a witness that comes back upon the text of ch. 25” (p. 390). His comparisons of ch 36 and 51:59 are strong: 4th year of Jeh/zed; Baruch son of Neriah/Seriah, son of Neriah; Baruch to read/Seriah to read; Read all these words in the temple/read all these words in Babylon; Jer wrote all the words conc. is, Judah, all nations; Jer wrote all the words concerning Babylon; scroll destroyed by J’kim/scroll thrown in river. The comparison is strong between 50:41-43 and 6:22-24 and 50:2-3 and 4:5ff. Summary: “The primitive redaction of the book of Jeremiah, represented by the LXX, placed the accent on the fulfillment of the curses against Jerusalem. In the redaction of the MT, one witnesses at the redactional level, to a turning of the curses of Jerusalem against Babylon. If one sets aside the historical appendix of ch. 52, the text of 51:59-64 (MT), which concludes the MT text, plays an important role in this process. It is inspired by a scheme already present in the primitive introduction of the OAN of 25:1-13 (LXX). The two texts depart from a model of curses against Jerusalem of ch. 36 (MT) = ch. 43 (LXX), to finally produce a turn against Babylon. This turning of curses, at the level of the redaction of a segment of the book of Jeremiah, is the final form of a process of diversion against Babylon of curses which were originally destined for Jerusalem” (p. 399).

Grothe, J. F. “An Argument for the Textual Genuineness of Jeremiah 33:14-26 (MT),” Concordia Journal 7 (1981) 188-91.

Harrison, R. K. Jeremiah and Lamentations. Downers Grove, IL: Inter‑Varsity, 1973.

Harrison is the editor of the OT section of NICOT. His position is conservative to moderate. This series is limited by its size, but even so is very helpful.

Herr, Larry G. “The Servant of Baalis,” BA 48 (1985) 169-72.

Hobbs, T. R. “Some Remarks on the Composition and Structure of the Book of Jeremiah” in A Prophet to the Nations; Essays in Jeremiah Studies, eds. L. G. Perdue and B. W. Kovacs, Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1984, pp. 175-91.

Originally pub. CBQ 34 (1972) 257-75.

Holladay, Wm. L. “Prototype and Copies: a New Approach to the Poetry‑Prose Problem in the Book of Jeremiah,” JBL 79 (1960) 351‑367.

He shows examples of phrases in the prose sermons that have antecedents in the poetry of Jeremiah. He still would not argue for Jeremianic authorship, but he does believe that whoever wrote this material down was working with Jeremiah’s poetry not deuteronomic stuff.

Holladay, Wm. L. “A Fresh Look at ‘Source B’ and ‘Source C’ in Jeremiah,” VT 25:2 (1975) 394‑412.

He rehearses the history of sources A,B,C. Mowinckel building on the work of B. Duhm concluded A: material to be ipsissima verba of Jeremiah [later others would say this was dictated on the first scroll]. B: biographical sections [later by others said to be produced by Baruch]. C: prose sermons produced by “deuteronomistic” redactors.

Subsequent work has questioned the validity of seeing these as unified sources. Rietzschel (Das Problem der Urrolle, Gutersloh, 1966) argues for “tradition blocks” which will contain one or more of the sources.

He reviews two works, which attack the consensus about the composition of the book. G. Wanke (Untersuchungen zur sogenannten Baruchschrift, BZAW 122, de Gruyter, Berlin/NY, 1971) comes to a negative conclusion, namely that “source B” is made up of three different “cycles,” of different origins, none of which can be attributed with any confidence to Baruch. H. Weippert (Die Prosareden des Jeremiabuches BZAW 132, de Gruyter, Berlin/NY, 1973) comes to a more positive conclusion, namely that “Source C” has no connection at all with the literary circles associated with Deuteronomy or the Deuteronomistic historical work, but rather shows a close connection with Jeremiah’s own poetic diction and theological work.

Holladay, William L. Jeremiah 1 and 2 in Hermeneia, Philadelphia: Minneapolis: Fortress, 1986, 1989

Much of the material found in previous articles. 2:15 “In my judgment Mowinckel’s idea of ‘sources’ is not valid; there are obviously form-critical contrasts between the prophetic oracles and the parenetic sermonic prose, but this contrast does not imply the existence of literary sources. There are several general considerations that lead me to this conclusion.”

2:16-21 Posits two scrolls: the burned one and the reconstructed one which was “open ended.” As a result he uncovers redactional layers (Baruch) mixing the two scrolls. But did Jer have a copy of the original? The text does not even imply it. He posits a third scroll from 594 which contains many of the confessions (2:20). It was also open ended and inserted after ch. 10.

2:5 The OAN belong in ch 25 as in LXX, but the order of MT is the correct one (probably chronological with the nemesis Bab last). 2:23-24 A short collection of OAN was included after 25 (sans Babylon) around 594 (but see 51:59ff). Then the material against Bab must have been proclaimed by J during the final siege of Jerus, that is, 588-587 (but notice the references to temple which must have been made after the fall of city).

Jackson, J. J. “A Vision of Figs: Current Problems.” Proceedings est Great Lakes and Midwest Bible Society 7 (1987) 143-157.

Jones, Douglas R. Jeremiah in the New Century Bible, Clements and Black, eds. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.

This commentary is moderately conservative and one of the best analyses of the structure of the Book of Jeremiah I have read.

Keil, C. F. The Prophecies of Jeremiah. 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950.

What I said about Delitzsch above (Isaiah) applies to Keil also.

Laberge, Leo. “Jeremie 25:1-14: Dieu et Juda ou Jeremie et tous les peuples.” Science and Esprit 36 (1984) 45-66.

Laetsch, Theodore. Jeremiah. St. Louis: Concordia, 1952.

Larsson, Gerhard. “When Did the Babylonian Captivity Begin?” JTS 18 (1967) 417-423.

Lemke, Werner E. “‘Nebuchadrezzar, my Servant,”‘ CBQ 28 (1966) 45-50.

Malamat, A. “The Historical Setting of Two Biblical Prophecies on the Nations.” IEJ 1 (1950-51) 149-59.

Discusses historical background of various OAN’s. Jer 47 “before Pharaoh attacked Gaza” should be related to the 609 campaign of Pharaoh Necho (p. 154).

Nov. 610: 16th year of Nabo. The Umman Manda (Scythians), w/ the Babylonian army, besiege the city of Harran (BabChr 59-60).

March 609: The Bab. army returns home; the Scythians penetrate quickly into Syria and Pal. (BabChr 64-65 gap in chron. Wiseman: went to their country) They must have been after the Eg. army since they did not loot Palestine (only Philistia upon retreating). This based on Herod. 1,105).

Apr-Jun 609: Psamtik I halts Scythians. Afterwards, Scyth. are no longer mentioned in the BabChr. They undoubtedly withdrew persuaded by gifts from Psamtik.

Under the new Pharaoh (Necho) an army was dispatched to help the Assyrians. Josiah.

July 609: Eg. army joined the army of Ashurubalit and attacked Harran (BabChr 66).

Jul-Sep 609: Siege at first successful (BC 68), Necho from Riblah settled politics in Palestine (J’hoaz and fine).

Sep 609: Indecisive siege of Harran lifted and Necho returned to Egypt (BC 69). The Eg. army, on its way home, conquered Gaza, which apparently had revolted at the same time as Judah (Jer 47:1; Herod. ii, 159).

McConville, J. Gordon. “Jeremiah: Prophet and Book.” TynBul 42:1 (1991) 80-95.

History of those who argue for Jeremiah and those who argue for a “book” with heavy emphasis on Deuteronomist. Argues for a position between: Jeremiah but after mature reflection on theology. Repentance/exile/salvation but not to be found chronologically even though they may have been preached that way, but they have been intermixed by Jeremiah at a later date. See pp. 86,87 for notes to add to my structure argument. (See Unterman for his rep/exile/sal position in which he criticizes form critical method). The oracles against the nations (Jer. 46-51) reverse early warnings addressed to Judah. Babylon, the destroying “foe from the north,” falls in turn to another of the same (50:3). . . . The position of the Oracles against the Nations in MT (as opposed to their position after 25:13 in LXX) is well fitted to their function there, providing a suitable climax to the book. (p. 93).

McKane, William. Jeremiah, 2 vols in ICC, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, Ltd, 1986.

See Brueggemann’s comments above.

Oded, B. “When did the Kingdom of Judah Become Subjected to Babylonian Rule?” Tarbiz 35 (1966) 104 [Hebrew].

Orr, Avigdor. “The Seventy Years of Babylon,” VT 6 (1956) 304-6.

Since the text says nothing about captivity, but refers to Babylon, it must mean Babylonian rule. Thus 605 B.C. (when the nations came under the yoke of Babylon) to 539 B.C. are the dates in question. The chronicler misinterpreted it and applied it to the desolation of Judah.

Overholt, Thomas W. “King Nebuchadnezzar in the Jeremiah Tradition.” CBQ 30 (1968) 39-48.

Response to Lemke (Neb. My Servant, CBQ 28 (1966) 45f) who argues for textual error on “servant.” “Even though the differences between MT and LXX are as great here as in any other section of the book [ch 25], it is important to notice that the narrative is in all its essentials the same, no matter which of these versions the exegete favors. A careful comparison of the two makes it evident that the sometimes lengthy phrases and sentences found in MT but not LXX are for the most part but narrative developments of ideas or actions already present in both texts” (p. 42). “though absent in name Nebuchadnezzar is very much present in the LXX by title (‘the king of Babylon’)” (p. 45).

Patterson, Robert M. “Reinterpretation in the Book of Jeremiah.” JSOT 28 (1984) 37-46.

15:10-21 and 51:59-64 were reinterpreted to have relevance to the exile. Originally 51 was to discourage false prophecy. The sinking of the scroll was to say that prophecy against Bab was ineffective. (This seems strange to me!!).

Plotkin, Albert. The Religion of Jeremiah. New York: Bloch, n.d.

Rietzschel, C. Das Problem der Urrolle, Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus G. Mohn, 1966.

He argues for “tradition blocks” which will contain one or more of the sources.

Schenker, Adrian. “Nebukadnezzars Metamorphose—vom Unterjocher zum Gottesknecht,” RB 89 (1982) 498-529, esp 518-19.

Shiloh, Yigal. “A Group of Hebrew Bullae from the City of David.” IEJ 36 (1986) 16-38.

51 seals found in Jerusalem from the 586 B.C. era. Gemariahu son of Shaphan is surely the same as in Jer. 36. He mentions other seals from other sites: Seraihu (son of) Neriahu (EI 14 (1978) 86-87 (Hebrew); Berachiahu son of Neriahu the scribe and Jerahmeel son of the king (Ibid). All theophoric elements spelled Yahu. He concludes that Yah is 7th century, and the fuller spelling later. Others: M. Dayagi: A Seal impression of a Servant of King Hezekiah IEJ 24 (1974) 270-29. Gedaliahu son of the king (O. R. Sellers: The Citadel of Beth Zur Phila, 1933, pp. 60-61.

Smothers, Thomas G. “A Lawsuit against the Nations: Reflections on the Oracles against the Nations in Jeremiah.” RevExp 85 (1988) 545-54.

Insists on reading the oracles in their context rather than imposing on them the criteria developed by earlier scholars. Refers to Barré “The Meaning of לאֹ אֲשִׁיבֶנּוּin Amos 1:3-2:6” JBL 105 (1986) 611-31 who argues that the indictment against the nations comes because of treaty violations not just violations of common decency. I will not take them back refers to Yahweh’s refusal to readmit them as vassals and hence they will be judged. He applies this standard to the OAN with the exception of Babylon (which has some of the elements normally ascribed to OAN, namely against Israel). This accounts for the “destruction” language which is treaty violation language. The cup of wrath is closely associated with OAN. He believes the cup is related to treaties: good if obedient; bad if disobedient.

Streane, A. W. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Together with the Lamentations. Cambridge: University Press, 1899.

Taylor, M. A. “Jeremiah 45: the Problem of Placement,” JSOT 37 (1987) 79-98.

Thompson, J. A. The Book of Jeremiah. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Conservative to moderate. An excellent commentary. Good introductory discussion. See my review in Christianity Today, Dec. 11, 1981.

Unterman, J. From Repentance to Redemption (Sheffield: JSOT 1987).

Wanke, B. Untersuchungen zur sogenannten Baruchschrift, BZAW 122, de Gruyter, Berlin/NY, 1971.

He comes to a negative conclusion, namely that “source B” is made up of three different “cycles,” of different origins, none of which can be attributed with any confidence to Baruch.

Weippert, H. Die Prosareden des Jeremiabuches BZAW 132, de Gruyter, Berlin/NY, 1973.

She comes to a more positive conclusion, than Wanke namely that “Source C” has no connection at all with the literary circles associated with Deuteronomy or the Deuteronomistic historical work, but rather shows a close connection with Jeremiah’s own poetic diction and theological work.

Weippert, by dealing with contexts rather than words alone, shows that the similarities urged between “C” and Deuteronomy do not exist. She argues for a Kunstprosa, that is, a demetrified poetry. The poetry of Jeremiah has been turned into a stylized prose. There is a close connection between the two. As a matter of fact C stands closer to Jeremiah than B and therefore it is not deuteronomistic. In general the prose sections are not from the hand of a redactor (though each unit must be analyzed; some are not jeremianic).

Whitley, Charles F. “The Term Seventy Years Captivity,” VT 4 (1954) 60-72.

Whitley, Charles F. “The Seventy Years Desolation—A Rejoinder,” VT 7 (1957) 416-18.

Winkle, Ross E. “Jeremiah’s Seventy Years for Babylon: A Re-assessment: Part I: The Scriptural Data.” AUSS 25 (1987) 201-14.

Zevit, Ziony. “The Use of עֶבֶד as a Diplomatic Term in Jeremiah,” JBL 88 (1969) 74-77.

Lamentations

Cohen, Abraham. The Five Megilloth. London: Soncino, 1946.

Erdman, Charles R. The Book of Jeremiah and Lamentations. Westwood, New Jersey: Revell, 1955.

Gordis, Robert. The Song of Songs and Lamentations. New York: KTAV, 1974.

Gottwald, Norman K. Studies in the Book of Lamentations. London: SCM, 1954.

Harrison, R. K. Jeremiah and Lamentations. Downers Grove, IL: Inter‑Varsity, 1973.

See above under Jeremiah.

Heater, H. “Structure and Meaning in Lamentations.” Vital Old Testament Issues. Ed. Roy Zuck. Grand Rapids: Kregal, 1996.

Hillers, Delbert R. Lamentations. The Anchor Bible. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1972.

Keil, C. F. The Prophecies of Jeremiah. 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950.

What I said about Delitzsch above (Isaiah) applies to Keil also.

Kuist, Howard Tillman. The Book of Jeremiah, the Lamentations of Jeremiah. The Layman’s Bible Commentary. Richmond: John Knox, 1960.

Streane, A. W. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Together with the Lamentations. Cambridge: University Press, 1899.

Ezekiel

Alexander, Ralph. Ezekiel. Chicago: Moody, 1976.

    . “Ezekiel,” EBC. 12 vols. Ed. Frank E. Gaebelein. Vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979.

Blackwood, Andrew W. Ezekiel: Prophecy of Hope. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1965.

Cooke, G. A. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Ezekiel. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1936.

Davidson, A. B. The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel. Cambridge: University Press, 1892.

Eichrodt, Walther. Ezekiel. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970.

Ellison, H. L. Ezekiel, the Man and His Message. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956.

Erdman, Charles R. The Book of Ezekiel. Westwood, New Jersey: Revell, 1956.

Fairbairn, Patrick. An Exposition of Ezekiel. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1960.

Feinberg, Charles Lee. The Prophecy of Ezekiel, the Glory of the Lord. Chicago: Moody, 1969.

Feinberg’s material was original mostly published in The Chosen People. His conservative, premillennial position, coupled with excellent scholarship, makes this work very helpful.

Fisch, S. Ezekiel. London: Soncino, 1950.

See comments on Soncino series under Friedman under Jeremiah.

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Prophet Ezekiel. New York: Revell, 1918.

Conservative, premillennial, popular.

Greenberg, Moshe. Ezekiel 1-20. Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983.

Excellent moderately liberal commentary.

Jensen, Irving L. Ezekiel—Daniel. Chicago: Moody, 1968.

Conservative, premillennial, popular.

Keil, C. F. Biblical Commentary on the Prophecies of Ezekiel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950.

What I said about Delitzsch above (Isaiah) applies to Keil also.

Zimmerli, Walter. Ezekiel. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.

Two volumes. Quite technical and critical. Not as helpful as others in this series.

Daniel

Anderson, Robert. The Coming Prince. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1957.

Anderson presents his argument for the chronological explanation of Daniel 9:24‑27.

Archer, Gleason. “Daniel,” in EBC. Vol. 7. Ed. Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

Baldwin, Joyce. Daniel. Tyndale O. T. Commentaries. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1978.

Barnes, Albert. Barnes’ Notes on the Old Testament: Daniel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1950.

Culver, Robert D. Daniel and the Latter Days. Chicago: Moody, 1954.

Popular, conservative, premillennial.

Ford, Desmond. Daniel. Nashville: Southern Publishers Association, 1978.

Ford is a Seventh Day Adventist with very helpful introductory notes, but his commentary reflects SDA teaching.

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Prophet Daniel. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1955.

See above under Ezekiel.

Gaebelein, Frank E., ed. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol. 7. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

See below under Minor Prophets

Jensen, Irving L. EzekielDaniel. Chicago: Moody, 1968.

See above under Ezekiel.

Keil, C. F. Biblical Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949.

What I said about Delitzsch above (Isaiah) applies to Keil also.

Kalafian, Michael. The Prophecy of the 70 Weeks of the Book of Daniel. Lanham, MD: University Press, 1991.

A Ph.D. dissertation surveying the major views. He is pre-millennial.

King, Geoffrey C. Daniel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966.

Lang, G. H. The Histories and Prophecies of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1973.

Conservative, popular. Holds to a restored Babylon in the Eschaton.

Leupold, H. C. Exposition of Daniel. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1969.

See above under Isaiah.

Luck, G. Coleman. Daniel. Chicago: Moody, 1958.

Popular, conservative, premillennial.

Montgomery, J. A. Daniel in the International Critical Commentary, Driver, et al. editors. Edinburgh: T and T Clark, 1926.

Montgomery represents the best of the old liberal commentaries on the Book of Daniel. He interacts with conservative scholars (though rejecting their arguments).

Newell, Philip R. Daniel, the Man Greatly Beloved and His Prophecies. Chicago: Moody, 1951.

Popular, conservative, premillennial.

Pusey, Edward B. Daniel the Prophet. New York: Funk, 1885.

Old standard conservative, amillennial scholar. Always helpful.

Stevens, W. C. The Book of Daniel. New York: Revell, 1915.

Popular, conservative, premillennial.

Talbot, Louis T. The Prophecies of Daniel. Wheaton, IL: Van Kampen, 1940.

Early president of BIOLA. Popular, conservative.

Tregelles, J. P. Remarks on Prophetic Visions in the Book of Daniel. Edinburgh: Bagster, 1883.

Tregelles was an excellent British scholar of the Plymouth Brethren persuasion, but he was post‑tribulational.

Walvoord, John F. Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation. Chicago: Moody, 1971.

Popular. Very helpful.

Whitcomb, John C. Darius the Mede. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959.

A detailed study of the identity of Darius the Mede. Very helpful. See Wiseman, Notes on some problems in the Book of Daniel, for a different point of view.

Wilson, R. D. Studies in the Book of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1972.

A Princeton Seminary scholar from the ‘20’s. Excellent, conservative, reformed.

Wood, Leon. A Commentary on Daniel. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.

Conservative, premillennial. Sometimes he needs to interact more with the critical issues.

Young, Edward J. The Messianic Prophecies of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955.

See my comments on Young under Isaiah. His work in Isaiah is better than his work in Daniel, but this book is quite helpful.

    . The Prophecy of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949.

Minor Prophets

Allen, Leslie C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976.

This is an excellent commentary in the NICOT series.

Anderson, F. I. and D. N. Freedman. Hosea in Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1980.

This work is very helpful from many points of view. The analysis of the structure, the historical discussion and the comments are pertinent. Anderson and Freedman reflect a moderate conservatism in this analysis of Hosea.

__. Amos. Same publication data, same comments.

Baldwin, Joyce. Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Tyndale O. T. Commentaries. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1972.

This commentary is part of the Tyndale series. It is an excellent, thought provoking commentary, though brief.

Cheyne, T. K. Hosea, with Notes and Introduction. Cambridge: University Press, 1899.

Cheyne is an older, critical scholar many of whose conclusions are not acceptable today even in critical scholarship.

    . Micah, with Notes and Introduction. Cambridge: University Press, 1902.

See Above.

Chisholm, Robert. The Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

A brief, popular commentary, but very helpful on analysis.

Cohen, A. The Twelve Prophets. London: Soncino, 1948.

See under Friedman, Jeremiah, for my comments on Soncino.

Cripps, Richard S. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Amos. London: SPCK, 1929. Reprint ed., 1969.

Davidson, A. B. Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. Cambridge: University Press, 1896.

Driver, S. R. The Books of Joel and Amos. Cambridge: University Press, 1897.

Driver is an excellent philologist from another generation. His comments are helpful, though from a liberal perspective.

Ellison, H. L. Men Spake from God. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952.

    . The Prophets of Israel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969.

Feinberg, Charles L. The Minor Prophets. Chicago: Moody, 1976.

See my comments on Feinberg under Ezekiel.

Freeman, Hobart O. Nahum, Zephaniah, and Habakkuk. Chicago: Moody, 1973.

See above under Introduction to the Prophets.

Gaebelein, Arno C. The Prophet Joel. New York: Our Hope, 1909.

See my comments on Gaebelein under Ezekiel.

Gaebelein, Frank E., ed. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol. 7. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

The commentators are: Hosea, Leon Wood; Joel, Richard Patterson; Amos, Micah, Thomas McComiskey; Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Carl Armerding; Jonah, H. L. Ellison; Zephaniah, Larry Walker; Haggai, Malachi, Robert Alden; Zechariah, Ken Barker. This is an excellent conservative, premillennial commentary.

Heater, H. “Zechariah” in Bible Studies Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987.

Honeycutt, Roy L. Amos and His Message. Nashville: Broadman, 1963.

    . Hosea and His Message. Nashville: Broadman, 1975.

Hubbard, David Allan. With Bands of Love. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968.

Keil, C. F. The Twelve Minor Prophets. 2 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954.

What I said about Delitzsch above (Isaiah) applies to Keil also.

Laetsch, Theodore. The Minor Prophets. St. Louis: Concordia, 1945.

Lanchester, H. C. O. Obadiah and Jonah. Cambridge: University Press, 1918.

Lewis, Jack P. The Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966.

Maier, Walter A. The Book of Nahum: A Commentary. St. Louis: Concordia, 1959.

Mays, James L. Amos: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969.

    . Hosea: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969.

Mays, James L. Micah: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976.  

McComiskey, T. E. “Amos,” in EBC. 12 vols. Ed. Frank Gaebelein. Vol. 7:269-331. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

    . “Micah,” in EBC. 12 vols. Ed. Frank Gaebelein. Vol. 7:395-445. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

Motyer, J. A. The Day of the Lion. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1974.

Price, Walter K. The Prophet Joel and the Day of the Lord. Chicago: Moody, 1976.

Pusey, Edward B. The Minor Prophets. 2 vols. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1950.

See my comments on Pusey under Daniel.

Scott, Jack B. The Book of Hosea. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1971.

Stuart, Douglas. Hosea through Jonah in Word Biblical Commentary. Vol 31. Word Books: Waco, TX., 1987.

Von Orelli, C. The Twelve Minor Prophets. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1893.

See my comments on Von Orelli under Isaiah.

Watts, John D. W. Obadiah: A Critical Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969.

A good commentary on this short book from a moderate perspective.

Wolff, Hans W. Hosea: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Hosea. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974.

Wolff is a contemporary German scholar. Though he is working from a liberal perspective, his position is more conservative than the old liberal school was, and he is very perceptive of the text.

    . Joel and Amos. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977.

    See above.

Works Cited In Notes

AB Anchor Bible. Ed. William F. Albright and David N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1977.

Albright, W. F. “The Latest Pre-Exilic History of Judah, with some Observations on Ezekiel.” JBL 51 (1932): 77-106.

    . “The Seal of Eliakim and the Latest Pre-Exilic History of Judah, with some Observations on Ezekiel,” JBL 51 (1932): 77-106.

Albright, W. F. “The Son of Tabeel [Isa. 7:6].” BASOR 140 (1955): 34-35.

ANEP Ancient Near East in Pictures. Ed. J. B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Ed. J. B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

Archer, Gleason. Daniel in EBC. Vol. 7. Ed. Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

Avigad, N. Discovering Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Shikmona Pub. Co., 1980.

BKC Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament. Edited by J. F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1978.

Baldwin, Joyce. Daniel. Tyndale O. T. Commentaries. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1978.

Barkay, G. and A. Kloner. “Jerusalem Tombs from the Days of the First Temple.” BAR 12 (April 1986): 23-29.

Beale, G. K. We Become What We Worship—a Biblical Theology of Idolatry. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2008.

Beck, John C. “The Fall of Tyre According to Ezekiel’s Prophecy.” Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary.

Bright, John. History of Israel. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1959.

Brin, Gershon. Leshonenu 24 (1960): 8-14.

Browning, I. Petra. London: Chatto and Windus, 1982.

Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books. See Bibliography.

Buttrick, George A. The Interpreter’s Bible. 12 vols. New York: Abingdon Press, 1951-55.

CAH Cambridge Ancient History. Ed. I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond. 14 vols. 3d ed. Cambridge: University Press, 1970.

Cohen, Simon. “The Political Background of the Words of Amos.” HUCA 36 (1965): 153-160, 319-329.

Dijkstra, Meindert. “Prophecy by Letter Jeremiah XXIX 24-32,” VT 33 (1983): 319-322.

Driver, S. R. Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. 1913. Reprint ed. Magnolia, MA: 1972.

EBC The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Ed. Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979.

Eissfeldt, Otto. The Old Testament: An Introduction. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1965.

Erlandsson, Seth. The Burden of Babylon. Lund, Sweden: CWK Gleerup, n.d.

Farr, G. “The Concept of Grace in the Book of Hosea.” ZAW 70 (1958): 98-107.

Feinberg, Charles L. The Prophecy of Ezekiel. Chicago: Moody, 1969.

Finegan, Jack. “The Chronology of Ezekiel.” JBL 69 (1950).

Freedman, David N. “The Book of Ezekiel.” Int 8 (1954): 466-71.

    and Anderson. “Harmon in Amos 4:3.” BASOR 198 (1970): 41.

GKC Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzsch and trans. by A. E. Cowley. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910.

Garrett, A. “The Structure of Joel.” JETS 28 (1985): 289-297.

Greenberg, M. “On Ezekiel’s Dumbness,” JBL 77 (1958): 101-105.

Haran, M. “Observations on the Historical Background of Amos 1:2—2:6.” IEJ 18 (1968): 201-212.

Harrison, R. K. Jeremiah and Lamentations. See Bibliography.

Hartman, Louis and Alexander DiLella. “Daniel” in AB. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977.

Hayes and Irvine. Isaiah, His Times and His Preaching. Nashville: Abingdon, 1987.

Hillers, Delbert R. “Lamentations” in AB. See Bibliography.

Holladay, W. L. “God Writes a Rude Letter (Jeremiah 29:1-23).” BA 46 (1983): 145-146.

    . “Jeremiah 31:22b Reconsidered: ‘The Woman Encompasses the Man.’” VT 16 (1966): 236-239.

Holscher, G. “Hesekiel: Der Dichter und das Buch.” BZAW 39 (1924).

IOTS Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Ed. B. S. Childs. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.

Janzen, Gerald. Studies in the Text of Jeremiah. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973.

Jensen, J. Isaiah 1—39. O. T. Message.

Johns, C. H. W. E.Bi.

Josephus. Jewish Antiquities XII. 9 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966.

Joüon, P. Grammaire de l’Hebrew Biblique. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1923.

Keil, C. F. and F. Delitzsch. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. See Bibliography.

Kenyon, K. Jerusalem.

Kitchen, K. Ancient Orient and Old Testament. Chicago: Inter-Varsity, 1966.

    . The Third Intermediate Period.

Kline, M. “Death, Leviathan, and Martyrs: Isaiah 24:1—27:1.” A Tribute to Gleason Archer. Ed. W. Kaiser and R. Youngblood. Chicago: Moody, 1986.

Knudsen, Joel. “The Archetypes of Evil in Isaiah 13-27.” Th.M. thesis, DTS, 1980.

Lawhead, A. S. “A Problem of Unfulfilled Prophecy in Ezekiel: A Response.” WTJ 16 (1981): 15-19.

Luckenbill, D. D. Annals of Sennacherib. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1926.

McComiskey, T. E. “Amos,” in EBC. 12 vols. Ed. Frank Gaebelein. Vol. 7:269-331. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

    . “Micah,” in EBC. 12 vols. Ed. Frank Gaebelein. Vol. 7:395-445. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

McKenzie, John L. “Second Isaiah,” in AB. See Bibliography.

Millar, W. R. Isaiah 24—27 and the Origin of Apocalyptic. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1976.

MNHK The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. Ed. Edwin R. Thiele. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.

NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969-72.

North, Christopher R. The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah. See Bibliography.

Oded, B. “The Historical Background of the Syro-Ephraimite War Reconsidered.” CBQ 34 (1972): 153-65.

OTS Old Testament Survey. Ed. Lasor, et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.

Patterson, Richard D. “Joel,” in EBC. 12 vols. Ed. Frank Gaebelein. Vol. 7:258. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

Payne, J. B. “The Arrangement of Jeremiah’s Prophecies.” BETS (now JETS) 7:4 (1964): 120-130.

Pearce, R. A. “Shiloh and Jeremiah VII, 12, 14, & 15.” VT 23:1 (1973): 105-108.

Plotkin, Albert. The Religion of Jeremiah. New York: Bloch, n.d.

Ridderbos, J. Isaiah. See Bibliography.

Rogerson, John. Atlas of the Bible. New York: Facts on File, 85.

Rowley, H. H. “The Marriage of Hosea.” BJRL 39 (1956-57): 220-33.

Schafron, Phillip. “The Importance of Cyrus in the Argument of Isaiah 40—48.” Th.M. thesis, DTS, 1981.

Schedl, C. History of the Old Testament.

Soggin, J. A. Introduction to the Old Testament. Tran. J. Bowden. OTL. Philadelphia: 1976.

TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Trans. David E. Green. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.

Tadmor. “Azarijau of Yaudi,” Scripta Hierosolymitana 8 (1961): 232-271.

Thompson, D. L. “A Problem of Unfulfilled Prophecy in Ezekiel,” WTJ 16 (1981): 93-106.

Troth, William A. “A Study of the Termini of the Seventy Year Captivity.” Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary.

Von Orelli, C. The Twelve Minor Prophets. See Bibliography.

Walton, J. H. “The Four Kingdoms of Daniel.” JETS 29 (1986): 25-36.

Watts, John D. W. Isaiah 1—33 in Word Biblical Commentary. Vol. 24. Waco, TX: Word Books, 1985.

Weiss, Meir. “The Origin of the ‘Day of the Lord’ Reconsidered.” HUCA 37 (1966): 29-71.

Whitcomb, John C. “Christ’s Atonement and Animal Sacrifices in Israel.” GTJ 6 (1985): 2:212.

    . Darius the Mede. See Bibliography.

Wilson, Robert D. Studies in the Book of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1972.

Wiseman, Donald J. Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings. London: The Trustees of the British Museum, 1956.

    . Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon. London: Oxford Press, n.d.

    . Notes on some Problems in the Book of Daniel. London: The Tyndale Press, 1965.

Wolf, Herbert M. “The Relationship Between Isaiah’s Final Servant Song (52:13—53:12) and Chapter 1—6.” A Tribute to Gleason Archer.

Wolff, Hans W. Hosea. See Bibliography.

    . Joel and Amos. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977.

Young, Edward J. The Book of Isaiah. NICOT. See Bibliography.

    . Studies in Isaiah. See Bibliography.

ZPBD Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary. Edited by Merrill C. Tenney. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1963.

Zimmerli, W. “The Message of the Prophet Ezekiel.” Int 23 (1969): 131-57.

“Did the Philistines Destroy the Israelite Sanctuary at Shiloh?—The Archaeological Evidence.” BAR 1:2 (1975): 3-5.

“DSS, Part I: Archaeology of Biblical MSS.” BA 49 (1986): 140-154.

12 Dias Para o Natal

Related Media

Introdução

O Natal é um dia esperado por muitas pessoas no mundo todo. Celebrado das mais diversas formas, velas são acesas, canções são entoadas, árvores são enfeitadas, presentes são trocados, famílias são reunidas e ceias são servidas. Este dia é aguardado e planejado tanto por cristãos como por não cristãos.

Mas qual o verdadeiro propósito do Natal? Ao contrário do que alguns pensam, celebrar o Natal não é um mandamento cristão. O dia é uma tradição histórica e muitos o consideram um bom tempo para estarmos próximos daqueles que mais amamos, além de um bom momento para refletir sobre o ano que finda. Ainda assim, o Natal é muito mais do que uma simples tradição ou um bom momento para avaliação.

Com o intuito de levá-lo a considerar o mais importante propósito em celebrarmos o Natal, este livreto possui reflexões baseadas nos escritos de um médico e historiador chamado Lucas. Nos dois primeiros capítulos do seu evangelho (livro), ela registra fielmente o nascimento da pessoa mais importante que já pisou na Terra. Esta pessoa é tão importante que a própria história foi dividida entre antes e depois dEle: Jesus Cristo.

Sendo assim, nosso mais profundo desejo é que você, neste próximo dia vinte e cinco de dezembro, entenda e celebre a verdadeira razão para o Natal existir. Asseguramos que não há nada que traga mais alegria a todo homem e toda mulher do que os resultados de se crer na verdadeira mensagem de esperança e salvação do Natal.

1. O Anúncio do Divino Presente à Virgem Maria

Lucas 1.26-28

No sexto mês Deus enviou o anjo Gabriel a Nazaré, cidade da Galileia, a uma virgem prometida em casamento a certo homem chamado José, descendente de Davi. O nome da virgem era Maria. O anjo, aproximando-se dela, disse: “Alegre-se, agraciada! O Senhor está com você!”

Para Maria, tudo começou quando ela era ainda muito jovem, provavelmente uma adolescente, idade em que geralmente aconteciam os casamentos daquela época. José era seu noivo, um homem simples, carpinteiro de profissão, mas de nobre posição genealógica. José era parente do rei Davi, o mais prestigiado rei da história de Israel.

A jovem moça foi alvo da graça de Deus, cujos propósitos são sempre recheados e cobertos de amor. Gabriel, um mensageiro celestial, levou a notícia: “alegre-se, agraciada!” Em outras palavras: “comemore, Maria, você foi presenteada!”

Tais palavras foram apenas o início de algo que Maria mal sabia. Ela ainda não tinha noção do valor do presente que lhe era dado: inestimável. Maria se tornaria uma peça exclusiva na história da redenção da humanidade, da reaproximação entre os homens pecadores e o Deus santo. Ninguém na história humana havia recebido ou receberia um presente como este.

É bem provável que em algum dia de sua vida você já tenha recebido um presente. Sabemos exatamente o que você fez para tê-lo: você simplesmente abriu suas mãos e o segurou. Você não pagou por ele, tampouco fez qualquer coisa que o merecesse. Caso contrário, não seria um presente, mas um prêmio, como uma medalha. Presentes nós simplesmente recebemos. Maria, de forma semelhante, simplesmente recebeu o presente de Deus (foi agraciada).

Alguns acreditam que Maria recebeu o presente porque foi obediente a Deus, porque era a mais pura de todas as mulheres, em especial devido à sua virgindade para o casamento e, por isso, Ele a escolheu, como um prêmio por suas obras. Ainda que seja verdadeira a afirmação de que é vontade de Deus a preservação da virgindade para o casamento, tal perspectiva, de que Deus a escolheu porque ela O obedeceu, é incorreta. Em primeiro lugar, Deus não se limita a fazer Sua vontade de acordo com nossa obediência. Em segundo, várias outras mulheres também eram virgens e se esta fosse a condição, Deus poderia escolher qualquer outra que assim o fosse; a virgindade era algo culturalmente sagrado, como deveria ser hoje. Por último, Maria e José preenchiam pré-requisitos que Deus havia estabelecido para que o Messias, Jesus Cristo, nascesse no momento histórico pré-determinado por Ele, tudo revelado pelos profetas do passado. Ainda que a virgindade para o casamento seja uma decisão pessoal, nascer na família exata e no momento exato da história não está sob nosso controle.

Hoje estamos há 12 dias do Natal. Você consegue perceber que a iniciativa para que um dia pudéssemos celebrar esta data tão esperada começou em Deus? Ele sempre tem um plano perfeito, cujos propósitos incluem você e eu.

Se você deseja celebrar o Natal, que tal fazê-lo na certeza deste conhecimento? O Natal só existe porque Deus, ainda que nunca merecêssemos, nos presenteou o Salvador através de Maria, em quem o Senhor Deus esteve todo o tempo de olho. Como disse o anjo: O Senhor está com você!

Uma oração:

Senhor Deus, nem sempre associei o Natal à vida de Jesus. Se a história bíblica do nascimento dEle é verdadeira, ajude-me a compreendê-la e aceitá-la, pois não quero viver longe da verdade. Amém.

2. Um Filho Mais Que Especial

Lucas 1.30-33

Mas o anjo lhe disse: “Não tenha medo, Maria; você foi agraciada por Deus! Você ficará grávida e dará à luz um filho, e lhe porá o nome de Jesus. Ele será grande e será chamado Filho do Altíssimo. O Senhor Deus lhe dará o trono de seu pai Davi, e ele reinará para sempre sobre o povo de Jacó; seu Reino jamais terá fim”.

Era óbvio que Maria estava assustada com o que acontecia. Afinal de contas, quem é que espera a visita de um anjo? O que possivelmente a deixava ainda mais assustada era que, além da visita, o anjo falava com ela.

Maria estava no meio da compreensão daquilo que mudaria para sempre a sua história e a do mundo: “Você será mãe,” disse o anjo. Que notícia agradável para Maria... Que notícia agradável para o mundo!

O presente para a jovem moça era extremamente peculiar. Em primeiro lugar, porque Maria era virgem. Como todos nós sabemos, é humanamente impossível conceber um filho nesta condição, no entanto, era exatamente isso que aconteceria com Maria. Em segundo lugar, porque o bebê que a virgem daria à luz era o Messias.1 O povo judeu, do qual José e Maria faziam parte, aguardava com muito anseio e otimismo por Aquele, sobre quem o anjo Gabriel disse:

  • Você porá o nome de Jesus. Jesus vem do nome hebraico Yeshua, bastante comum naquele tempo. Ele significa Javé salva.2 Sabemos, em função de uma situação posterior a esta, quando o anjo falou com José, o porquê do nome Jesus: você deverá dar-lhe o nome de Jesus, porque ele salvará o seu povo dos seus pecados (Mateus 1.21). O bebê que Maria daria à luz levaria consigo o divino propósito de proporcionar a salvação da consequência do pecado: Pois o salário do pecado é a morte, mas o dom gratuito de Deus é a vida eterna em Cristo Jesus, nosso Senhor (Romanos 6.23).
  • Ele será chamado Filho do Altíssimo. A expressão Altíssimo era comum entre os judeus do primeiro século como sinal de reverência a Deus sem dizer Seu nome. Os ouvidos de Maria entenderam muito bem essas palavras, cujo significado aponta para o caráter de seu filho: Jesus seria como o Pai.
  • O Senhor Deus lhe dará o trono de seu pai Davi. A antiga monarquia de Israel não mais existia como no passado. No entanto, o filho de Maria era descendente daquele com quem Deus havia feito uma aliança, Davi: sua dinastia e seu reino permanecerão para sempre diante de mim (2Samuel 7.16). Deus é fiel às Suas palavras.3
  • Ele reinará para sempre sobre o povo de Jacó. Além da conservação do trono na dinastia, a aliança de Deus com Davi prometia o cetro e a coroa para sempre sobre o povo de Jacó (nação de Israel). No entanto, como aquele bebê poderia garantir o cumprimento da promessa sobre reinar para sempre?
  • Seu Reino jamais terá fim. A possibilidade de algo ser infinito (sem fim) ou para sempre em ralação ao filho de Maria, somente seria possível, se Ele, sobre quem o anjo anunciava, tivesse a mesma essência de Deus. O filho de Maria era alguém singular. Todos os evangelistas, Mateus, Marcos, Lucas e João mostraram com clareza sua divindade e realeza.

Todas as descrições do anjo apontavam para um milagre: Aquele que é a Palavra tornou-se carne e viveu entre nós (João 1.14). A Palavra era o próprio Deus: No princípio era aquele que é a Palavra. Ele estava com Deus, e era Deus (João 1.1 – Grifo meu). Jesus era o próprio Deus encarnado!

Você consegue perceber quem é exaltado no texto? A mãe ou seu filho? Maria ou Jesus? Você consegue perceber quão especial, quão singular, quão diferente era o filho de Maria?

Isso porque Jesus era e é o próprio Deus. O Antigo Testamento,4 escrito por diversas pessoas, de diferentes tempos, fala sobre o filho de Maria do princípio ao fim (veja Lucas 24.27,44). Eu, particularmente, não tenho fé suficiente para crer em outra coisa senão nas Escrituras Sagradas, que me apresentam o incrível filho de Maria, Jesus, para que eu, maravilhado, seja rendido à necessidade mais básica de todo ser humano: relacionar-me com o Criador.

O verdadeiro Natal nos conduz a avaliar nosso relacionamento com o Pai, por meio do relacionamento que temos com o Filho. Como está o seu?

Uma oração:

Senhor Deus, não sei bem ao certo como está meu relacionamento contigo. Por favor, ajude-me a avaliar-me segundo a tua vontade. Amém.

3. Ele é Santo

Lucas 1.35

Assim, aquele que há de nascer será chamado santo,
Filho de Deus.

Quanto mais tempo Maria passava com o anjo Gabriel, mais ela compreendia sobre seu exclusivo papel traçado pelo dedo do Criador na história que Ele mesmo desenhou. Ela havia sido escolhida soberana e graciosamente por Deus para virginalmente dar à luz a Jesus e então educá-lO segundo as Escrituras, que a orientava e nos orienta:

Ame o Senhor, o seu Deus, de todo o seu coração, de toda a sua alma e de todas as suas forças. Que todas estas palavras que hoje lhe ordeno estejam em seu coração. Ensine-as com persistência a seus filhos. Converse sobre elas quando estiver sentado em casa, quando estiver andando pelo caminho, quando se deitar e quando se levantar. Amarre-as como um sinal nos braços e prenda-as na testa. Escreva-as nos batentes das portas de sua casa e em seus portões (Deuteronômio 6.5-9).

Ao mesmo tempo, Maria absorvia as verdades sobre seu filho, cuja singularidade e grandeza o anjo continuava a descrever. Ele era e ainda é:

  • Santo. Esta palavra pode ser entendida de duas formas diferentes. A primeira,5 como alguém totalmente puro, sem pecado. A segunda,6 como alguém separado para uma tarefa específica e divina tarefa. Ainda que os eruditos bíblicos não se harmonizem quanto ao significado neste contexto, é verdade que ambas as interpretações estão corretas sobre o filho de Maria. Jesus é tanto alguém sem pecado, como alguém separado para uma tarefa específica e divina dada pelo Pai. Veja algumas das razões, segundo as próprias palavras de Jesus, pela quais Ele veio:

*Não pensem que vim abolir a Lei ou os Profetas; não vim abolir, mas cumprir (Mateus 5.17).

*O ladrão vem apenas para furtar, matar e destruir; eu vim para que tenham vida, e a tenham plenamente (João 10.10).

*...Pois não vim para julgar o mundo, mas para salvá-lo (João 12.47).

  • Filho de Deus. Para os conhecedores do Antigo Testamento, em especial os judeus,7 esta expressão é extraordinariamente rica em significado. Ela conecta Jesus às antigas promessas e revela a essência do filho de Maria. Em outras palavras, ainda que soe repetitivo, o anjo não se cansava de alegar: “seu filho, Maria, é o Messias!”

Por causa de quem Jesus era (e ainda é), João Batista podia chamá-lo de cordeiro de Deus que tira o pecado do mundo (João 1.29). No verdadeiro significado do Natal, celebramos o caráter santo de Jesus, que não cometeu pecado (Hebreus 4.15), mas humildemente se fez maldito na cruz (Gálatas 3.13) por causa dos nossos incontáveis pecados. Jesus afirma: Eu lhes asseguro: Quem ouve a minha palavra e crê naquele que me enviou, tem a vida eterna e não será condenado, mas passou da morte para a vida (João 5.24).

Se você tem prestado atenção na leitura deste singelo livreto, então seguramente tem desenvolvido seu conhecimento sobre Jesus e as Escrituras Sagradas. Meu desejo e oração é que, no final do livreto, você possa dizer, com convicção, que faz parte da promessa de Jesus, porque aprendeu com Ele e aceitou, com fé, a verdade bíblica de que “Deus amou o mundo de tal maneira que deu seu singular Filho para que, todo que nEle crer não morra, mas tenha a vida eterna (Jo 3.16).

Uma oração:

Senhor Deus, tenho entendido quem é Jesus, mas ainda estou incerto quanto ao meu envolvimento nesta história. Dá-me entendimento, por favor. Amém.

4. Deus do Impossível

Lucas 1.37

Pois nada é impossível para Deus.

O Natal é a festa mais celebrada no mundo. Cristãos e não cristãos o celebram. No Brasil, dois meses antes da data, lojas de todos os tipos já focam suas vendas nos temas natalinos. Três cores se destacam: a branca, do algodão que representa a neve; a verde, que nos lembra os pinheiros que usamos para a árvore de Natal; a vermelha, da roupa do querido velhinho barbado das crianças, o Papai Noel.

São diversas as razões que unem as famílias de todo o planeta especificamente no Natal. Fato é que poucas vezes essas reuniões acontecem para celebrar o nascimento de Jesus. Uma das justificativas mais comuns para isso é que as pessoas simplesmente não creem na história do nascimento de Jesus:

  • “Essa história é, na verdade, um mito!”
  • “É possível alguém acreditar que Maria era virgem?”
  • “A Bíblia nada mais é que um livro de fábulas de um deus que não existe.”

Dizer “Ele é o Deus do impossível” soa como clichê, mas a sentença é coerente e genuína, exatamente como as Escrituras nos revelam Deus. Não são somente homens e mulheres (humanos) biblicamente orientados que afirmam categoricamente a infinitude de Deus, mas anjos, como Gabriel, também o afirmam. Em seu diálogo com Maria, ele disse: “Também Isabel, sua parenta, terá um filho na velhice; aquela que diziam ser estéril está em seu sexto mês de gestação. Pois nada é impossível para Deus” (Lucas 1.36-37 grifo meu).

Essa não era a primeira vez que alguém estéril tinha sua condição positivamente mudada pela mão do Todo-Poderoso. Sara era estéril (Gênesis 11.30), Rebeca era estéril (Gênesis 25.21), Raquel era estéril (Gênesis 29.31), Manoá era estéril (mãe de Sansão – Juízes 13.2-3) e Ana era estéril (mãe de Samuel – 1Samuel 1.5). E não foram somente mulheres. Abraão, depois de rir porque Deus lhe disse que ele seria pai de muitas nações (Gênesis 17.5), perguntou ao Deus do impossível: “Poderá um homem de cem anos de idade gerar filhos?” (Gênesis 17.17.) Seu riso era proveniente de sua incredulidade. No entanto, como prometido por Deus, Abraão se tornou pai. Hoje ninguém é capaz de contar os descendentes dele, como ninguém consegue contar as estrelas (Gênesis 22.17).

Este mesmo Deus que detém poder sobre a saúde e a doença é o Deus que criou tudo e todos. É este mesmo e único Deus que pode escolher se a idade de Isabel seria ou não empecilho para ela dar à luz. Ainda que isso mexa com nossa faculdade intelectual, a palavra de Deus revela que Maria, ainda virgem, daria à luz. A forma singular do nascimento de Jesus não surpreende quem reconhece, pessoal e historicamente, os incríveis feitos do Deus do impossível.

Foi e é este incrível Deus que nos possibilitou, apesar de não merecermos, a eternidade ao Seu lado. A infinita barreira que nos separa dEle, o pecado, foi vencida pelo sacrifício de Jesus na cruz do Calvário, “para que aquele que nEle crer tenha a vida eterna (João 3.15). Eis o Deus do impossível!

Uma oração:

Senhor Deus, fui criado numa cultura que despreza tudo o que nossos olhos e mentes não conseguem compreender. Tenho muita dificuldade de ter fé. Preciso de Sua ajuda. Este é meu pedido, em nome de Jesus, amém.

5. Jesus Singular, Maria Exemplar

Lucas 1.38

Sou serva do Senhor; que aconteça comigo conforme a tua palavra.

Até aqui percebemos que o evangelista Lucas exalta com clareza a singularidade do filho de Maria. Nas palavras do apóstolo e também evangelista João, Ele era o próprio Deus encarnado8 (João 1.14). Por outro lado, não podemos deixar de destacar o que Lucas também não deixou de revelar, a exemplar atitude de Maria, disposta e disponível serva de Deus.

Durante a conversa com o anjo Gabriel, a virgem chamou a si mesma de serva. Algumas outras traduções bíblicas dizem escrava.9 Ambas são boas traduções para o significado da palavra original, que indicava total submissão de Maria a quem ela chama de Senhor.

Sobre a palavra Senhor,10 em português nós não compreendemos muito bem a profundidade de seu significado conforme o texto bíblico. Por educação e cortesia, chamamos de senhor pessoas mais velhas, clientes de um estabelecimento, desconhecidos, entre outros. O significado mais próximo em nossa língua do significado bíblico é quando chamamos uma autoridade de senhor, como um policial ou juiz, ainda assim, isso representa somente uma parte do significado bíblico.11

No tempo de Jesus, há cerca de 2.000 anos, o império dominante era o romano. Os líderes, chamados Césares, eram os Senhores do mundo. Estes, naquele tempo, não eram somente simples reis ou imperadores, mas eram tidos como deuses. Quando a Bíblia diz Senhor é exatamente esta a conotação da palavra.12 Maria, ainda que debaixo do império romano, sabia exatamente quem era Deus, e Ele não era o César.

A exemplar atitude de Maria fica ainda mais evidente quando ela diz: que aconteça comigo conforme a tua palavra. Maria havia humildemente se disponibilizado para cumprir a vontade de Deus. Sim, de Deus! Lembre-se, o mensageiro era o anjo Gabriel, mas a mensagem, a palavra era de Deus. Maria submeteu seu corpo, sua alma e seu espírito ao Senhor (Lucas 1.38,46,47 respectivamente).

Sei que tanto a palavra servo como escravo são fortes e nos chocam. Fato é que temos somente duas opções. Ou negamos e nos rebelamos contra Aquele que amorosamente nos criou, enfrentando posteriormente as consequências dessa decisão, como o afastamento eterno da Sua presença, ou nos submetemos ao Criador, que deseja que todos os homens sejam salvos e cheguem ao conhecimento da verdade (1Timóteo 2.4). Este é o Deus cuja graça se manifestou salvadora a todo homem (Tito 2.11), pois Deus amou o mundo de tal maneira que deu filho unigênito13 para que todo que nele crer não pereça, mas tenha a vida eterna (João 3.16).

Qual é a sua decisão? A minha foi ser servo de Deus. Busco entregar-me e servi-lO como Maria fez. Hoje, em função de minha escolha, desfruto de várias de Suas bênçãos. Mas antes de eu decidir ser servo de Deus, houve uma condição. Você sabe qual é ela? Veremos numa futura reflexão.

Uma oração:

Senhor Deus, é notório que Jesus era singular e Maria exemplar. Quero sim ser servo do Senhor. Ajude-me a entender o que eu preciso fazer. Este é meu pedido,
em nome de Jesus, amém.

6. Bendita Maria, Bendito Filho

Lucas 1.42

Bendita é você entre as mulheres,
e bendito é o filho que você dará à luz!

Pouco tempo depois que Maria conversou com o anjo Gabriel, ela viajou para se encontrar com sua parente,14 Isabel. Esta havia sido estéril (Lucas 1.7), mas agora, por um milagre, esperava um bebê bastante especial.

Neste encontro singular, assim que Isabel recebeu as saudações de Maria, que havia acabado de entrar em sua casa, ela percebeu que o bebê se agitou em seu ventre. João, nome que receberia sua criança, futuramente conhecido como Batista, era aquele que iria adiante, precederia o Messias e prepararia Seu caminho (Lucas 1.17,76). É interessante notar que já no ventre materno, João Batista anunciava a presença do Messias, cumprindo, desde então, seu ministério.15

Logo depois que o bebê se mexeu, Lucas relata que Isabel ficou cheia do Espírito Santo (Lucas 1.41). Em outras palavras, Isabel estava sob o controle e a influência do próprio Deus. Isso não significa que Isabel estava possessa pelo Espírito Santo, tampouco que ela estava numa espécie de êxtase ou frenesi. A expressão cheia do Espírito Santo quer dizer que Isabel tinha sua mente, suas palavras e ações completamente guiadas por Deus. É nesta condição,16 que engloba o físico, o psíquico e o espiritual, que Isabel diz a Maria: bendita é você entre as mulheres!

Ser bendito no contexto bíblico é mais do que ser alguém de boa fama, sobre quem se diz boas coisas, ou seja, uma pessoa bem falada. Chamar alguém de bendito era reconhecer o estado privilegiado de tal pessoa perante Deus. É comum e correto dizer que bendito é sinônimo de abençoado.

Além do mais, considero interessante destacar que, ainda que Maria fosse bendita e exemplar,17 ela não era essencialmente melhor do que qualquer outra mulher. As palavras de Isabel confirmam: bendita é você entre as mulheres, disse ela, e não sobre as mulheres (grifo meu). Maria, como serva declarada do Senhor, nunca buscou glória para si. Pelo contrário, sempre deu toda honra exclusivamente a quem dela é digno.

Isabel, cheia do Espírito Santo, além de dizer que Maria era bendita, disse também que o filho de Maria era bendito. O apóstolo Paulo, cerca de 65 anos depois, ciente do quanto Jesus era abençoado, escreveu:

Ele é a imagem do Deus invisível, o primogênito de toda a criação, pois nele foram criadas todas as coisas nos céus e na terra, as visíveis e as invisíveis, sejam tronos ou soberanias, poderes ou autoridades; todas as coisas foram criadas por ele e para ele. Ele é antes de todas as coisas, e nele tudo subsiste. Ele é a cabeça do corpo, que é a igreja; é o princípio e o primogênito dentre os mortos, para que em tudo tenha a supremacia. Pois foi do agrado de Deus que nele habitasse toda a plenitude, e por meio dele reconciliasse consigo todas as coisas, tanto as que estão na terra quanto as que estão no céu, estabelecendo a paz pelo seu sangue derramado na cruz. (Colossenses 1.15-20)

Embora fossem ambos benditos, havia uma infinita diferença entre eles. O Filho é a imagem de Deus. O Filho havia criado tudo. O Filho era e é o instrumento divino que traz a paz entre os homens e Deus. O Filho, segundo Suas próprias palavras, é o caminho, a verdade e a vida (João 14.6a). É somente através dEle que o homem pode se relacionar com Deus. Jesus disse: Ninguém vem ao Pai, a não ser por mim (João 14.6b).

O verdadeiro Natal tem Jesus como o alvo correto de celebração. Não são raras as vezes que depositamos nossa alegria natalina em alvos errados: a magia do Papai Noel, a cintilante Árvore de Natal ou a saborosa ceia ao lado de pessoas queridas. Estes elementos culturais do nosso Natal não são pecaminosos, mas têm grande poder de nos distrair daquilo que é fundamental.

Espero que todos nós sejamos como a bendita Maria, que celebrou o Natal original com foco e zelo em seu bendito filho, Jesus Cristo.

Uma Oração:

Senhor Deus, o brilho e as cores do meu Natal não têm sido por causa de Jesus. No entanto desejo colocar a casa em ordem e, para isso, preciso de sua ajuda. Quero que a alegria deste Natal seja ainda maior com a clara presença de Jesus Cristo. Amém.

7. A Mãe Do Meu Senhor

Lucas 1.43

Mas por que sou tão agraciada,
a ponto de me visitar a mãe do meu Senhor?

Quando Maria soube que estava miraculosamente grávida, ela viajou para a casa de sua parente Isabel, que morava numa região montanhosa da Judeia (Lucas 1.39). Ainda que desconheçamos o local com precisão, nós sabemos que eram necessários três dias de viagem para sair da cidade de Nazaré e chegar na região da Judeia.

O texto bíblico não nos informa com quem Maria viajou, embora saibamos que pelo menos uma pessoa estava com ela; mais especificamente dentro dela. Isabel, cheia do Espírito Santo, também sabia disso: Maria, que presente é tê-la aqui conosco! Qual a razão deste privilégio, de receber em minha casa a mãe de meu Senhor?”

Foi pelo fato de Isabel estar cheia do Espírito Santo, que ela pôde deixar de lado o seu sentimento maternal que, naturalmente consideraria o próprio filho superior, para chamar o filho de Maria de Senhor.

O reconhecimento de que Jesus é o Senhor é fundamental para nossa salvação. Foi neste sentido que o apóstolo Paulo escreveu: Se você confessar com a sua boca que Jesus é Senhor e crer em seu coração que Deus o ressuscitou dentre os mortos, será salvo. Pois com o coração se crê para justiça, e com a boca se confessa para salvação (Romanos 10.9-10). Mas o que significa confessar que Jesus é Senhor?

A palavra senhor tem vários sentidos em português. Segundo o dicionário HOUAISS,18 ela  pode significar dono, proprietário, patrão, amo, pessoa que exerce poder, aquele que tem autoridade, homem idoso, pessoa nobre, entre outros. E é entre estes outros significados que encontramos exatamente o que o apóstolo Paulo quis dizer com confessar que Jesus é Senhor: reconhecer que Jesus é Deus.19

Ninguém consegue confessar Jesus Cristo como Deus se não for pelo Espírito Santo, enviado pelo Pai através do Filho. Certa vez, quando Jesus e os Seus discípulos se dirigiam para as proximidades de Cesareia de Filipe, Ele perguntou: “Quem o povo diz que eu sou?” Seus discípulos responderam: "Alguns dizem que és João Batista; outros, Elias; e, ainda outros, um dos profetas." Jesus lhes perguntou novamente: “E quem vocês dizem que eu sou?” Foi Pedro, o mais impulsivo entre eles, que respondeu: "Tu és o Cristo.” Então, Jesus explicou que esta declaração de Pedro não era baseada em sua própria inteligência ou astúcia, mas que tinha sua origem em outra pessoa: "Feliz é você, Pedro,20 filho de Jonas! Porque isto não lhe foi revelado por carne ou sangue, mas por meu Pai que está nos céus (Mateus 16.13-20; Marcos 8.27-30). Foi Deus quem o levou a entender isso.

Ainda que a decisão de crer em Jesus não seja fundamentalmente intelectual, a percepção de Deus na História é cognitiva. Usamos nosso entendimento, nossa razão, nossa memória e também nossa inteligência para admitir fatos inegáveis, pois desde a criação do mundo os atributos invisíveis de Deus, seu eterno poder e sua natureza divina, têm sido vistos claramente, sendo compreendidos por meio das coisas criadas (Romanos 1.20).

Não há como negar, por exemplo, que todos os humanos são incapazes de ter uma vida totalmente íntegra. Não há um homem sequer que não peque e, por causa disso, esteja próximo de Deus para apreciar Sua glória (cf. Romanos 3.11-18). Entretanto, não há inteligência no mundo que supere a distância entre Deus e a humanidade.

Permita-me, portanto, apresentar-lhe uma boa notícia.21 Ainda que não merecêssemos, Deus tomou a iniciativa de nos resgatar desta terrível incapacidade. Por meio do Espírito Santo, Ele nos dá a certeza de que o Natal de verdade celebra o nascimento de Jesus Cristo e que por Sua morte e ressurreição nós podemos desfrutar eternamente da presença de Deus. Tudo isso com apenas uma condição: crer na pessoa e obra de Jesus Cristo, isto é, crer em quem Jesus é e naquilo que Ele fez em nosso favor.

Maria creu nas palavras do anjo sobre seu papel e sobre quem era seu filho.22 Por sua vez, Isabel, cheia do Espírito Santo, reconhecia que Jesus era Deus. Ambas as mulheres creram nAquele que foi prometido por Deus por meio dos profetas do passado, cujo poder nos liberta da condição de escravos do pecado, pois Ele é Senhor!

É fato que tudo isso, da perspectiva humana, soa como doidice. Nenhum homem ou mulher, em sã consciência, busca a verdade na loucura. No entanto, se você tem buscado discernimento, ponderado os elementos da história e avaliado com sinceridade a pessoa e as obras de Jesus, entenda que você, conscientemente ou não, tem sido alvo da ação de Deus.

Sua vida faz parte da história cujo Senhor é Jesus. Meu desejo e oração é que você esteja consciente disso, pois só por meio deste reconhecimento é que você conseguirá desfrutar da alegria e das bênçãos dEle, com um Natal de verdade.

Em sua presunção o ímpio não O busca;
não há lugar para Deus em nenhum de seus planos.

-- Davi (Salmo 10.4)

Uma Oração

Senhor Deus, é verdade que crer nessa história parece insensatez. Todavia, estou sinceramente em busca da verdade e reconheço que preciso de Sua ajuda. Eu não gostaria que o Natal chegasse sem que eu entendesse melhor a respeito de Jesus e do meu lugar nessa história. Amém.

8. Feliz Quem Crê

Lucas 1.45

Feliz é aquela que creu que se cumprirá
aquilo que o Senhor lhe disse!

Crer é uma das palavras mais destacadas na Bíblia, embora seja também uma das mais negligenciadas pela cristandade. Há muitos que se dizem cristãos, mas não creem em Jesus Cristo verdadeiramente. A Bíblia afirma: Quem nele crê não é condenado, mas quem não crê está condenado, por não crer no nome do Filho Unigênito de Deus (João 3.18). Portanto, crer ou não crer divide a humanidade em dois grupos: de um lado os condenados, do outro lado os que foram salvos da condenação. Você consegue perceber a importância de se crer em Cristo?

As palavras de Isabel, feliz é aquela que creu que se cumprirá aquilo que o Senhor lhe disse, contrastam com as palavras que o anjo Gabriel pouco tempo havia dito para Zacarias, o marido dela: Agora você ficará mudo. Não poderá falar até o dia em que isso acontecer, porque não acreditou em minhas palavras, que se cumprirão no tempo oportuno (Lucas 1.20). A incredulidade de Zacarias, que duvidou do poder de Deus em torná-lo pai, apesar da velhice (Lucas 1.18), não permitiu que ele participasse, com toda sua saúde, do processo de gravidez de sua esposa Isabel. Por outro lado, Maria não foi cética à mensagem do anjo, ela cria na promessa de Deus e por isso desfrutava daquilo que todo ser humano busca, conscientemente ou não: a felicidade.

A razão pela qual os lábios de Zacarias, em seu tempo, ficaram mudos é a mesma pela qual as bocas dos homens de hoje não confessam Jesus como Deus: a incredulidade. Zacarias, ainda que cresse em Deus, duvidou de Seu poder. Os homens de hoje, ainda que creiam na existência de Deus, desconfiam de Seu poder. Para que haja salvação, o conteúdo da fé deve ser correto. O apóstolo Paulo diz que as pessoas devem, além de confessar a Jesus como Senhor, crer que Deus O ressuscitou dentre os mortos (Romanos 10.9). De fato, reconhecer Jesus como Deus requer absorver a ideia da ressurreição. Entretanto, o mundo considera isso loucura!

A ressurreição de Cristo é parte essencial do genuíno evangelho23 e está no cerne do conteúdo em que depositamos nossa fé. Paulo ensinou: Se não ressurreição dos mortos, então nem mesmo Cristo ressuscitou; e, se Cristo não ressuscitou, é inútil a nossa pregação, como também é inútil a que vocês têm (1Coríntios 15.13-14). Nem todos creram e nem todos crerão na ressurreição de Cristo, visto que, na sabedoria de Deus, o mundo não o conheceu por meio da sabedoria humana, agradou a Deus salvar aqueles que creem por meio da loucura da pregação (1Coríntios 1:21). Alguns homens, como os judeus, pedem sinais miraculosos e outros, como os gregos, procuram sabedoria (1Coríntios 1.22). No entanto, a loucura de Deus é mais sábia que a sabedoria humana, e a fraqueza de Deus é mais forte que a força do homem (1Coríntios 1.25). O evangelho é o poder de Deus para a salvação de todo aquele que crê (Romanos 1.16).

Cristo é o poder de Deus e a sabedoria de Deus (1Coríntios 1.24). Feliz é quem nEle crê. Mahatma Gandhi disse que “não existe um caminho para a felicidade, pois a felicidade é o caminho.” Ele tinha razão, ainda que não soubesse que a felicidade tem nome: Jesus Cristo. A felicidade disse: Eu sou o caminho, a verdade e a vida (João 14.6).

Preste atenção no que Deus tem para lhe dizer. A Bíblia não é um simples guia que nos mostra o que fazer ou não. A Bíblia é um manual que nos mostra como podemos ser felizes ou não. A Palavra de Deus nos apresenta a felicidade de acordo com a perspectiva do próprio Criador. Ele realmente sabe o que ela significa e como podemos desfrutá-la.24

Maria era feliz porque cria nas palavras de Deus. Para você desfrutar da felicidade e de um Natal de verdade não é diferente. Creia nas palavras de Deus! Foi Jesus que disse: asseguro-lhes que aquele que crê tem a vida eterna (João 6.47). A promessa é dEle! Seguramente aí não há frustração.

Uma Oração

Senhor Deus, se crer é a única forma de eu me relacionar com o Senhor, então é isso que eu desejo. Eu creio que Jesus Cristo morreu pelos meus pecados, os quais me impediam de me relacionar com o Senhor. Creio que Ele ressuscitou e me a vida eterna. Faça de mim um filho Seu! Amém.

9. Louvores A Deus, Não A Um Deus

Lucas 1.46-49

Então disse Maria: “Minha alma engrandece ao Senhor e o meu espírito se alegra em Deus, meu Salvador, pois atentou para a humildade da sua serva. De agora em diante, todas as gerações me chamarão bem-aventurada, pois o Poderoso fez grandes coisas em meu favor; santo é o seu nome.

Nós cantamos por diferentes razões. Às vezes cantamos para expressar nossa emoção, outras vezes para chamar atenção, ou ainda por pura imitação. Às vezes cantamos contra a corrupção ou a favor de uma revolução, outras vezes por profissão. Na maior parte das vezes cantamos pela simples e gostosa satisfação pessoal. Como diz o ditado: quem canta seus males espanta.

Além de tudo isso, nós também cantamos para adorar alguém ou alguma coisa. Maria, tendo em vista o primeiro Natal de verdade, cantou25 belas palavras de louvor e gratidão a Deus, que a escolhera para o privilegiado papel de mãe do Messias. Sua canção é também conhecida como Magnificat,26 que é a primeira palavra deste trecho bíblico na versão latina: “Magnificat anima mea Dominum.…” (Grifo meu.)

Maria, logo no início da canção, revelou que ela não chamaria atenção para si. Seu desejo era que Deus fosse o foco, o único engrandecido. Logo, Maria louvou a Deus por ser Salvador, Poderoso e Santo.

  • Salvador: Alguns cristãos, equivocadamente, creem que Maria era imaculada, ou seja, que não tinha pecado. No entanto, ela mesma reconhecia Deus como o Salvador e, ao afirmá-lO, admitia sua necessidade de salvação. Pois só pecadores precisam de um salvador e ela sabia quem ela era e quem Deus era.
  • Poderoso: Ninguém é capaz de fazer os grandiosos milagres que Deus faz. Seu poder é ilimitado. Para Deus, que criou o mundo ex nihilo,27 a virgindade de Maria não era impedimento algum para torná-la mãe.
  • Santo: Em Deus não há pecado, injustiça ou qualquer impureza. Dizer que Seu nome é Santo é dizer que Seu caráter é Santo.

A canção de Maria em adoração a Deus é um tipo raro de oração que além da singularidade poética, prioriza o louvor e a gratidão sem preocupar-se com petições. A beleza e o conteúdo da sua canção fascinam e encorajam. Maria cantava, com belas palavras, a verdade sobre Deus.

Nosso momento da história, que chamamos de pós-modernidade, ainda que produza muita informação, é marcado pela superficialidade do conhecimento. As pessoas estão contentes com o pouco que sabem, inclusive sobre Deus. Neste sentido, há muitos que se consideram cristãos porque visitam igrejas, oram ou leem a Bíblia. Mas você sabia que Satanás também visita igrejas, conversa com Deus e conhece a Bíblia melhor que qualquer erudito?28 Quando alguém não alcança nem sequer a superficialidade do conhecimento é porque não saiu da profundidade da ignorância.

Outra grande marca da pós-modernidade é a relativização do absoluto. “Não existe uma verdade” diria o pós-moderno; ele, porém, não percebe que sua própria frase o condena. É por isso que, para muitos, não é Deus quem existe, mas deus.29 Dessa forma, as pessoas criam seus deuses baseados em suas experiências e julgamentos pessoais de moralidade.

Maria, pelo contrário, conhecia Deus profunda e verdadeiramente. Sua percepção sobre quem Deus era não estava baseada em seu próprio discernimento. Quando ela entoou gratidão e louvor a Deus, ela sabia, por meio das Escrituras Sagradas, que Ele era Salvador, Poderoso e Santo. Ele é assim descrito dezenas de vezes no Antigo Testamento, a Bíblia de Maria,30 à qual ela inclusive alude mais de quinze vezes no Magnificat. Ela conhecia a Palavra de Deus e, por isso, sabia quem Deus era.

E quem você realmente conhece, Deus ou deus?31 Maria cantou com alegria e gratidão o que vinha de um coração e uma mente cheios do conhecimento do Senhor. Maria transbordava de emoção, mas sem perder a razão. Escreveu o teólogo inglês Frederick Brotherton Meyer (1847 – 1929):

Evidentemente, Maria vivia em estreita familiaridade com as Escrituras. Ela, muitas vezes, havia sido profundamente tocada por suas promessas radiantes, tinha implorado a Deus que ajudasse o Seu povo e enviasse o Salvador. Agora, visto que esta bênção chegou para ela, [Maria] expressa seus agradecimentos, não apenas sob a inspiração expressa do Espírito Santo, mas nas expressões íntimas da Escritura.32

Cuidado! Achar que conhece a Bíblia sem de fato conhecê-la pode lhe dar a falsa impressão de que você conhece o Natal de verdade. Está escrito: Esta é a vida eterna: que te conheçam, o único Deus verdadeiro, e a Jesus Cristo, a quem enviaste (João 17.3 – grifo meu). Conhecimento é parte da genuína espiritualidade.

Uma Oração

Senhor Deus, perdoe-me por eu não conhecê-lO como deveria. Reconheço que é pela Bíblia que poderei corretamente saber mais sobre o Senhor. Espero conhecê-lO cada dia mais para, igualmente, desfrutar cada dia mais de Suas bênçãos e orientações.

10. Temor A Deus

Lucas 1.50-55

A sua misericórdia estende-se aos que o temem, de geração em geração. Ele realizou poderosos feitos com seu braço; dispersou os que são soberbos no mais íntimo do coração. Derrubou governantes dos seus tronos, mas exaltou os humildes. Encheu de coisas boas os famintos, mas despediu de mãos vazias os ricos. Ajudou a seu servo Israel, lembrando-se da sua misericórdia para com Abraão e seus descendentes para sempre, como dissera aos nossos antepassados.

Com o coração saturado das Escrituras Sagradas, a jovem Maria transbordou de gratidão e louvor a Deus por meio de um cântico historicamente conhecido como Magnificat (Lucas 1.46-55). Numa clara mudança de tom,33 a segunda parte de seu poema louva a Deus por Sua misericórdia, justiça e ajuda aos humildes e famintos que O temem, bem como ao Seu povo escolhido, Israel.

O sábio de Provérbios disse que o temor do Senhor é o princípio do conhecimento (Provérbios 1.7). Sem temor a Deus as pessoas desprezam a sabedoria e a disciplina divina e se arriscam numa vida ao seu bel-prazer.

Muitos não sabem exatamente o significado de temor. Assim, imagine um carro muito potente. Quando diante dele, você se admira com sua beleza radiante e, mais ainda, com a informação de sua especial fabricação artesanal. Ao ouvir o ronco do motor, você se assusta com o volume e a potência do automóvel. E ao lhe perguntarem se você gostaria de dirigi-lo, você tanto responde quanto dirige com extremo zelo. Então, aí estão presentes as características do significado bíblico de temor. Nós tememos a Deus quando demonstramos admiração, medo e zelo pelo que conhecemos da Sua majestosa beleza, do Seu infinito poder e das consequências de se negligenciar os parâmetros morais que Ele estabeleceu segundo Sua santa vontade.

De acordo com o Magnificat, aqueles que temem o Senhor alcançam a misericórdia, a justiça e a ajuda de forma especial de Deus. Maria cantou que os humildes foram honrados, os famintos se fartaram de coisas boas e Israel foi ajudado pela fiel promessa que Deus havia feito a Abraão, o pai da nação israelita. As palavras de Maria refletem seu bom conhecimento das Escrituras, fonte de seu conhecimento acerca de Deus. Quase mil anos antes de Maria nascer, o rei Davi, homem segundo o coração de Deus (1Samuel 13.14), já havia declarado as mesmas características do caráter divino: Mas tu, Senhor, és Deus compassivo e misericordioso, muito paciente, rico em amor e em fidelidade (Salmo 86.15); Pois o Senhor é justo, e ama a justiça; os retos verão a sua face (Salmo 11.7); Eis que Deus é o meu ajudador; o Senhor é quem sustenta a minha vida (Salmo 54.4 – grifos meus).

Diariamente nos relacionamos, ainda que nem sempre cientes, com a misericórdia, a justiça e a ajuda de Deus. Sua misericórdia nos impede de sermos consumidos por Sua ira contra o pecado (Lamentações 3.22). Sua justiça é o prumo que avalia nossa conduta e o fundamento de Sua justa retribuição (Salmos 9.8, 18.20; 37.28). Sua ajuda é imprescindível para que possamos nos relacionar com Ele e para desfrutarmos de Sua salvação (Salmos 27.9; 37.40; 38.22). Com isto em mente, observe a passagem abaixo:

Mas quando se manifestaram a bondade e o amor pelos homens da parte de Deus, nosso Salvador, não por causa de atos de justiça por nós praticados, mas devido à sua misericórdia, ele nos salvou pelo lavar regenerador e renovador do Espírito Santo, que ele derramou sobre nós generosamente, por meio de Jesus Cristo, nosso Salvador. (Tito 3.4-6).

Não são os nossos atos de justiça que nos favorecem diante de Deus. Não há nada que possamos fazer que nos garanta a salvação. Somos tão sujos por causa dos nossos pecados que é impossível nos apresentarmos limpos diante dEle, por meio de nossos próprios esforços. Por sua vez, ciente da nossa situação e sendo e sendo rico em misericórdia,34 Deus nos ajuda em nossa purificação (o lavar regenerador e renovador35), condição essencial para nos relacionarmos com Ele. A fé em Jesus Cristo, nosso Salvador, é o caminho para a ação regeneradora e renovadora do Espírito Santo.

Eu não sei quão sujo você está, mas sei quão sujo eu já estive. Minha antiga religiosidade nunca me aproximou de Deus, pelo contrário, afastava-me cada vez mais, pois induzia-me a me sentir merecedor da vida eterna. Ela era uma grande barreira para que eu entendesse a graça de Deus. Qual a pior sujeira de sua vida? Soberba? Teimosia? Incredulidade? Idolatria? Mentira? Inveja? Descontrole? Amargura? Adultério? Assassinato? Qualquer que seja, posso lhe assegurar: não há sujeira causada pelo pecado que o Senhor Jesus não possa limpar.

Com o devido temor, busque em Deus misericórdia, justiça e ajuda. Essas são características inerentes ao Natal de verdade porque também caracterizam Jesus, o Salvador.

Uma oração

Senhor Deus, eu agora O conheço e me conheço melhor. Eu desejo, como nunca desejei, relacionar-me com o Senhor. Por isso, eu peço perdão pela falta de que me impede de crer em Jesus Cristo. Eu temo o Senhor e clamo por Sua misericórdia. Salva-me, Senhor! Em nome de Jesus, amém.

11. Alguém Para Preparar O Caminho

Lucas 1.66

“O que vai ser este menino?” Pois a mão do Senhor estava com ele.

Quando você era criança possivelmente alguém lhe perguntou: “O que você vai ser quando crescer?” Você se lembra de sua resposta? Quando eu tinha quatro anos eu falava que seria coletor de lixo, pois além de eu enxergar os trabalhadores desta nobre função como aventureiros da rua, meu primeiro carrinho de brinquedo foi um caminhãozinho de coleta de lixo. Alguns anos depois, antes de completar dez anos de idade, meu desejo era ser um astronauta – filmes e livros inspiravam meu fascínio pelo universo. Já aos doze anos eu decidi que seria biólogo. Nessa época, minha paixão por bichos era tal que eu tinha duas enciclopédias repetidas sobre animais, edições diferentes que eu comprava toda semana na banca de jornal. Por fim, quando terminei minha primeira graduação eu não era coletor de lixo, astronauta, tampouco biólogo, mas educador físico. Contudo, para o meu pai, desde cedo eu seria um craque do futebol nacional.

Talvez sua história seja semelhante à minha. Quando criança você sonhava em se tornar um piloto de avião, atleta profissional, inventor ou cantor. Ao mesmo tempo, seu pai o incentivava a ser um médico, advogado ou funcionário público. Fato é que pouquíssimos de nós, quando crianças, acertaram a profissão que um dia teríamos. Provavelmente, os palpites dos nossos pais ficaram ainda mais distantes da realidade.

Todavia não foi assim com Zacarias. Cheio do Espírito Santo, ele profetizou corretamente sobre o futuro de seu filho: E você, menino, será chamado profeta do Altíssimo, pois irá adiante do Senhor, para lhe preparar o caminho, para dar ao seu povo o conhecimento da salvação mediante o perdão dos seus pecados (Lucas 1.76-77; grifo meu). Estas  palavras estão registradas na passagem bíblica conhecida como Benedictus36 (Lucas 1.68-79), onde Zacarias também agradece e louva a Deus pelo cumprimento das promessas messiânicas em benefício de seu povo. Suas palavras foram como as de sua esposa Isabel, cheias de verdade e gratidão, pois ambos falaram cheios do Espírito Santo.37

Entretanto, qual é a relação do nascimento de João Batista com o Natal de verdade? A resposta é simples: ainda que ele, profeta do El Shaddai,38 não pudesse conceder salvação, nem mesmo para si, ele apontava para o único capaz de presenteá-la:39 Vejam! É o cordeiro de Deus, que tira o pecado do mundo! (João 1.29) João ensinava ao povo quem era o Messias e o que Ele faria, além de mostrar a necessidade de arrepender-se diante de Deus pelos seus pecados.

Na véspera do Natal, eu gostaria de convidá-lo, à semelhança de João Batista, a anunciar o Natal de verdade. Mostre às pessoas quem é a essência do Natal. Chame a atenção delas para o verdadeiro foco desta data, que é Cristo, e não o Papai Noel, a árvore enfeitada nem a ceia farta. Não tenha medo de apresentá-lO. Jesus não veio para os justos, mas para os pecadores (João 12.47). Ele não veio para julgar o mundo, mas para salvá-lo (Marcos 2.17).

Enfim, que todos nós nos voltemos para Jesus Cristo, o único Salvador, que faz o nosso Natal ser de verdade.  Assim como João Batista foi alguém que preparou o caminho do Senhor, espero que você e eu, neste Natal, possamos preparar o caminho para que alguém entenda e admita em seu coração que Jesus é Senhor.

Uma Oração

Senhor Deus, quero que meu Natal seja cheio de verdade e gratidão ao Senhor pela imerecida oportunidade que tenho de eternamente estar ao Seu lado mediante minha em Jesus Cristo como meu exclusivo Salvador. Além de eu querer que Ele seja o foco do meu Natal, quero poder compartilhar essa mensagem, dando a mais pessoas a mesma oportunidade de ter um Natal de verdade. Em nome de Jesus, amém.

12. O Nascimento De Jesus – Natal De Verdade

Lucas 2.1-40

Em todo Israel não havia dia mais esperado que o da vinda do Messias. A opressão do Império Romano, a desigualdade social e o desejo da nação ser solidamente estabelecida no quadro geopolítico, segundo fora profetizado, eram alguns dos fatores que aguçavam a ansiedade do povo israelita.

Todavia, a má compreensão das Escrituras Sagradas causou uma frustração na mesma medida da equivocada expectativa. A liderança judaica, ainda que testemunhasse os milagres de Jesus,40 não reconhecia ser Ele o Messias. Eles buscavam Sua morte, o que culminou na crucificação, um dos métodos mais bárbaros da história humana para execução da pena capital.

Ainda que o Natal não deixe de ser celebrado entre aqueles que desconhecem seu verdadeiro significado, a falta de conhecimento nunca permitirá que tais pessoas desfrutem plenamente desta festa tão importante, cuja essência, Jesus Cristo, divide a história em antes e depois dEle.

Por mais que eu goste dos enfeites natalinos, em especial dos presépios, nenhum deles por si só é capaz de dar toda a informação necessária e correta sobre o nascimento do Salvador. A melhor fonte, que tem poder para salvar todo aquele que crê, é o Evangelho (cf. Romanos 1.16). É por isso que nesta última reflexão, ao invés de comentar o texto, inseri propositalmente a história do nascimento de Jesus, com o desejo de que você adquira conhecimento por si mesmo e, desta maneira, não erre pela ignorância. Enfim, que não sejamos como os saduceus,41 que quando questionaram Jesus, ouviram: Vocês estão enganados porque não conhecem as Escrituras nem o poder de Deus! (Mateus 22.29)

O nascimento de Jesus segundo o evangelho de Lucas:

Naqueles dias César Augusto publicou um decreto ordenando o recenseamento de todo o império romano. Este foi o primeiro recenseamento feito quando Quirino era governador da Síria. E todos iam para a sua cidade natal, a fim de alistar-se.

Assim, José também foi da cidade de Nazaré da Galileia para a Judéia, para Belém, cidade de Davi, porque pertencia à casa e à linhagem de Davi. Ele foi a fim de alistar-se, com Maria, que lhe estava prometida em casamento e esperava um filho.

Enquanto estavam lá, chegou o tempo de nascer o bebê, e ela deu à luz o seu primogênito. Envolveu-o em panos e o colocou numa manjedoura, porque não havia lugar para eles na hospedaria.

Havia pastores que estavam nos campos próximos e durante a noite tomavam conta dos seus rebanhos. E aconteceu que um anjo do Senhor apareceu-lhes e a glória do Senhor resplandeceu ao redor deles; e ficaram aterrorizados. Mas o anjo lhes disse: “Não tenham medo. Estou lhes trazendo boas novas de grande alegria, que são para todo o povo: Hoje, na cidade de Davi, lhes nasceu o Salvador que é Cristo, o Senhor. Isto lhes servirá de sinal: encontrarão o bebê envolto em panos e deitado numa manjedoura”

De repente, uma grande multidão do exército celestial apareceu com o anjo, louvando a Deus e dizendo: “Glória a Deus nas alturas, e paz na terra aos homens aos quais ele concede o seu favor”.

Quando os anjos os deixaram e foram para o céu, os pastores disseram uns aos outros: “Vamos a Belém, e vejamos isso que aconteceu, e que o Senhor nos deu a conhecer”. Então correram para lá e encontraram Maria e José, e o bebê deitado na manjedoura. Depois de o verem, contaram a todos o que lhes fora dito a respeito daquele menino, e todos os que ouviram o que os pastores diziam ficaram admirados. Maria, porém, guardava todas essas coisas e sobre elas refletia em seu coração. Os pastores voltaram glorificando e louvando a Deus por tudo o que tinham visto e ouvido, como lhes fora dito.

Completando-se os oito dias para a circuncisão do menino, foi-lhe posto o nome de Jesus, o qual lhe tinha sido dado pelo anjo antes de ele nascer. Completando-se o tempo da purificação deles, de acordo com a Lei de Moisés, José e Maria o levaram a Jerusalém para apresentá-lo ao Senhor ( como está escrito na Lei do Senhor: “Todo primogênito do sexo masculino será consagrado ao Senhor” ) e para oferecer um sacrifício, de acordo com o que diz a Lei do Senhor: “duas rolinhas ou dois pombinhos”.

Havia em Jerusalém um homem chamado Simeão, que era justo e piedoso, e que esperava a consolação de Israel; e o Espírito Santo estava sobre ele. Fora-lhe revelado pelo Espírito Santo que ele não morreria antes de ver o Cristo do Senhor. Movido pelo Espírito, ele foi ao templo. Quando os pais trouxeram o menino Jesus para lhe fazer conforme requeria o costume da lei, Simeão o tomou nos braços e louvou a Deus, dizendo:

“Ó Soberano, como prometeste, agora podes despedir em paz o teu servo.
Pois os meus olhos já viram a tua salvação,
que preparaste à vista de todos os povos:
luz para revelação aos gentios e para a glória de Israel, teu povo”.

O pai e a mãe do menino estavam admirados com o que fora dito a respeito dele. E Simeão os abençoou e disse a Maria, mãe de Jesus: “Este menino está destinado a causar a queda e o soerguimento de muitos em Israel, e a ser um sinal de contradição, de modo que o pensamento de muitos corações será revelado. Quanto a você, uma espada atravessará a sua alma”.

Estava ali a profetisa Ana, filha de Fanuel, da tribo de Aser. Era muito idosa; havia vivido com seu marido sete anos depois de se casar e então permanecera viúva até a idade de oitenta e quatro anos. Nunca deixava o templo: adorava a Deus jejuando e orando dia e noite. Tendo chegado ali naquele exato momento, deu graças a Deus e falava a respeito do menino a todos os que esperavam a redenção de Jerusalém.

Depois de terem feito tudo o que era exigido pela Lei do Senhor, voltaram para a sua própria cidade, Nazaré, na Galileia. O menino crescia e se fortalecia, enchendo-se de sabedoria; e a graça de Deus estava sobre ele.

Agora você conhece a história do verdadeiro Natal. Ela vai além de simplesmente celebrarmos a vida e nos confraternizarmos com as pessoas que amamos. Vamos celebrar o amor de Deus e louvá-lO pelo dom da vida eterna concedido por meio da fé em Jesus Cristo àqueles que  nEle creem!

Feliz Natal!

Uma oração

Senhor Deus, obrigado por me ensinar a história do verdadeiro Natal. E mais ainda, obrigado por me explicar, por meio da Sua Palavra, o significado do nascimento de Jesus. Hoje eu estou ciente de que minha alegria natalina somente será plena quando eu desfrutar da no sacrifício de Jesus Cristo em meu benefício. Eu me entrego ao Senhor, por tão grande amor. Em nome de Jesus, amém.

Bibliografia

Biblical Studies Press. (2006). The NET Bible First Edition; Bible. English. NET Bible.; The NET Bible. Biblical Studies Press.

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CHILDRESS, G. (2006). Opening up Lukes Gospel (p. 17). Leominster: Day One Publications.

Dicionário Eletrônica da Língua Portuguesa HOUAISS. Versão 1.0.5ª, Novembro 2002 - Editora Objetiva Ltda.

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LEIFELD, W. L. (1984). Luke. In F. E. Gaebelein (Ed.), The Expositors Bible Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke (Vol. 8, p. 821). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.

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SPENCE-JONES, H. D. M. (Ed.). (1909). St. Luke (Vol. 1, p. 10). London; New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.

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1 Palavra de origem hebraica que significa Cristo.

2 Javé é a forma portuguesa de dizer Yahweh, cuja tradução em nossas Bíblias é SENHOR.

3 Ainda que seja um clichê evangélico, a popular frase “Deus é fiel” é verdadeira. No entanto, o equívoco popular é dizer que Deus é fiel a elas, às pessoas, quando, de fato, Deus é fiel a Ele mesmo, às Suas próprias palavras.

4 Primeira parte da Bíblia cristã, escrita antes do nascimento de Jesus.

5 Esta interpretação tem como suporte Lucas 1.49.

6 Esta interpretação tem como base Lucas 2.23.

7 O Antigo Testamento cristão é a Bíblia judaica, chamada de Tanach.

8 Não houve nem nunca haverá maior milagre que a encarnação de Deus; um ser infinito tornou-se finito. A encarnação de Deus nada se relaciona com a doutrina espírita de reencarnação, claramente rejeitada na Bíblia em diversos textos. Um exemplo: o homem está destinado a morrer uma vez e depois disso enfrentar o juízo (Hebreus 9.27).

9 A língua original do Novo Testamento é o grego. A palavra em questão é δούλη.

10 Em grego κύριος.

11 Para os que se interessam por outros idiomas, é no mínimo curioso saber que na língua inglesa a palavra Senhor na Bíblia não é “Sir,” como poderíamos supor, mas “Lord.”

12 Esta é uma brevíssima explicação da essência do significado de Senhor à luz do Novo Testamento.

13 A palavra unigênito é frequente e exatamente explicada como “único filho.” No entanto, se adicionarmos à expressão “do gênero” ou “do tipo” a explicação do significado fica ainda mais exata.

14 Alguns dizem que Isabel e Maria eram primas, no entanto, não é necessariamente este o significado da palavra grega συγγενίς (sungenis), melhor traduzido por parente ou parenta.

15 Ministério (διακονία - diakonia) significa tarefa, serviço, função, ofício. Palavra bastante usada no meio eclesiástico.

16 O enchimento do Espírito Santo é desejo de Deus para todas as pessoas: deixem-se encher pelo Espírito (Efésios 5.18).

17 Como vimos na reflexão anterior: Jesus singular, Maria exemplar.

18 Dicionário Eletrônico da Língua Portuguesa HOUAISS. Versão 1.0.5a - Novembro 2002 - Editora Objetiva Ltda.

19 Senhor, no texto do Novo Testamento, é a tradução da palavra grega Kyrios (κύριος). Por sua vez, a palavra kyrios é a tradução da palavra Yahweh ou Javé (יהוה - SENHOR) do Antigo Testamento, referência ao próprio Deus (cf. Septuaginta). B. F. Westcoot, um dos maiores eruditos do século XIX em grego, disse que confessar Jesus como Senhor é reconhecer Sua divina soberania (The Epistles of St. John, Cambridge: Macmillan, 1892, 142).

20 O texto bíblico diz Simão, o nome hebraico de Pedro. A intenção da mudança aqui foi simplesmente didática.

21 Boa notícia é o significado da palavra evangelho.

22 Isto responde à condição da reflexão Maria Exemplar, Jesus Singular. Uma pessoa somente pode decidir servir ao Senhor se ela, antes, crê na Palavra de Deus, que nos mostra com clareza a pessoa e as obras de Jesus em benefício da humanidade.

23 Evangelho é transcrição da palavra grega εὐαγγέλιον (evangelion) que significa boa notícia.

24 Não se confunda! A perspectiva bíblica de felicidade não está relacionada a posses ou circunstâncias segundo o nosso desejo. A felicidade oferecida por Deus é paradoxal, pois ela nos desafia a perder para ganhar, dar para receber e morrer para viver.

25 De fato, a palavra no texto bíblico não diz que Maria cantou [um hino] (ὑμνέω - hymneo), mas que ela disse (εἶπονeipon) aquelas palavras. Chamamos o trecho (Lucas 1.46-55) de cântico porque ele é historicamente assim reconhecido. Ele possui os elementos de um gênero literário poético, com ritmo (presença de parallelismus membrorum), métrica, artifícios retóricos e difere de seu contexto próximo. Outra opção para Maria cantou, seria Maria recitou. Veja detalhes em Biblical Studies Press. (2006). The NET Bible First Edition; Bible. English. NET Bible.; The NET Bible. Biblical Studies Press.

26 Magnificat traduz a palavra grega Μεγαλύνει (Megalynei), que em português traduzimos por engrandece.

27 Expressão latina que significa “a partir do nada.”

28 A base do cristão verdadeiro é o novo nascimento (cf. João 3).

29 De forma didática, Deus, com a primeira letra maiúscula, representa o Deus verdadeiro, enquanto deus, com a primeira letra minúscula, representa um deus criado pela mente humana, um falso deus.

30 Lembre-se de que na época de Maria o Novo Testamento ainda não havia sido escrito.

31 Veja a nota acima, sobre Deus e deus.

32 MEYER, F. B. Through the Bible day by day. E-sword Version 10.0.5. CD-ROM.

33 Maria muda o cântico da primeira pessoa do singular (eu) para a terceira pessoa do singular (Ele) entres os versículos 50 e 51, marcando uma evidente divisão no texto.

34 A misericórdia de Deus se expressa em Ele não aplicar o castigo merecido.

35 Ou seja, o novo nascimento (João 3.5-8).

36 Benedictus é a primeira palavra deste trecho bíblico na versão latina: “Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel...” (Grifo meu.)

37 Para mais detalhes sobre a relação do Espírito Santo com as palavras de Zacarias, veja a reflexão “A Mãe de seu Senhor” (Lucas 1.43).

38 Transliteração de um dos nomes de Deus, do hebraico ידש לא, que significa Todo-Poderoso.

39 O verbo presentear foi usado propositalmente com o intuito de conduzir o leitor a se lembrar de que a salvação é dada por Jesus Cristo. Presentes são dados gratuitamente. Paulo escreveu aos efésios: Pois vocês são salvos pela graça, por meio da fé, e isto não vem de vocês, é dom de Deus; não por obras, para que ninguém se glorie (2.8-9). E para se obter o presente, basta recebê-lo (através da fé).

40 Os milagres de Jesus apontavam para Sua messianidade. João, quando escreveu seu evangelho, propositalmente escolheu sete milagres, chamados por ele de sinais, para estabelecer relação entre Jesus e o Messias como descrito pelos profetas. Ele disse: Jesus realizou na presença dos seus discípulos muitos outros sinais miraculosos, que não estão registrados neste livro. Mas estes foram escritos para que vocês creiam que Jesus é o Cristo, o Filho de Deus e, crendo, tenham vida em seu nome (João 20.30-31 grifo meu).

41 Os saduceus eram um dos principais grupos político-religiosos nos tempos de Jesus.

Related Topics: Christmas, Devotionals

Rekindle the Fire (Revelation 2-3)

The book of Revelation is filled with symbolism and information about the end times, which we don’t fully understand or even agree on. Yet, as difficult as this book is, there are many lessons applicable to us today found in the letters to the seven churches. Most of these churches had strengths in certain areas, and yet were displeasing to God in other areas. Some had lost their passion and zeal for Christ. The study focuses on rekindling the fire in your heart for Jesus Christ so that your passion and zeal for Him would never flicker or die out.

Please go to the downloadable resources page to view all the resources available to make this a great study for you or your small group.

Related Topics: Curriculum, Women

Lesson 71: Love, Humility, and Cleansing (John 13:1-11)

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November 9, 2014

We all can relate to Linus in the “Peanuts” cartoon strip when he shouts in frustration, “I love mankind; it’s people I can’t stand!” It’s easy to love the human race in the abstract, but when it comes to loving specific irritating people that I can’t avoid, the process becomes a lot more difficult!

In our text we see the Lord Jesus loving men who did not deserve it. Luke (22:24) tells us that at the Lord’s Supper, just after Jesus announced that one of them would betray Him, the disciples got into a dispute about which of them was the greatest. For reasons that we cannot know, John omits Jesus’ instituting the Lord’s Supper during this Passover meal. Some speculate that perhaps by the time John wrote towards the end of the first century, Christians had elevated the rite too highly, where it had even become magical (D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John [Eerdmans/Apollos], p. 458; J. C. Ryle, Expository Thoughts on the Gospels [Baker], pp. 5-6).

But sometime during the supper, Jesus got up and performed this task, which normally was the job of slaves. Since the foot washing came before Jesus mentioned the betrayer (John 13:26), the dispute among the disciples about which of them was the greatest probably came after the graphic lesson they had just observed. Not only were the disciples bickering; also Jesus knew that Judas was about to betray Him, Peter was about to deny Him, and all the disciples would desert Him (John 13:2, 38; 16:32). All of these sins show that the disciples did not deserve Jesus’ love.

Also, the fact that they needed to have their dirty feet washed pictures their need for cleansing from sin. And, we’re just like them. We all have dirty feet that Jesus needs to wash. In fact, the very reason Jesus came was to die in the place of dirty sinners so that they can be cleansed. Also, His example of humility in washing the disciples’ feet gives us a practical example of how we can love those who do not deserve it, even as He has loved us. So our text brings together these three themes: Jesus’ love for those who do not deserve it; His example of demonstrating His love through humble service; and, our need for Jesus to cleanse our sins.

Christ’s love, His humble service, and His cleansing your sins should be realities in your life.

1. Christ’s love, which you didn’t deserve, should be a reality in your life.

John emphasizes through repetition Jesus’ love for His own (John 13:1): “Now before the Feast of the Passover, Jesus knowing that His hour had come that He would depart out of this world to the Father, having loved His own who were in the world, He loved them to the end.” That last phrase seems to be deliberately ambiguous. It can mean that Jesus loved the disciples up to the end of His life. Or, it can mean that Jesus loved them totally or to the uttermost. Both are certainly true.

John’s mention of the Passover draws attention to the fact that Jesus is our Passover lamb. Just as the Jews put the blood of the Passover lamb on their doorposts and lintel to protect them from the angel of death, so Christ’s blood, applied to our hearts by faith, protects us from the wrath of God. The mention that Jesus knew that His hour had come reminds us that God ordained the cross. While the sinful men who crucified Jesus were responsible for their awful deed, at the same time the cross was predestined by God (Acts 4:27-28). It didn’t take Jesus by surprise. He deliberately laid aside His glory, just as here He laid aside His garments. He took on the form of a slave and became obedient to death on the cross (Phil. 2:5-11). Then, after His resurrection from the dead, He returned to the Father in glory. But don’t miss the point: Unless Jesus is your Passover lamb, unless you have applied His shed blood to your heart by faith, then you are under the curse of death, which means, eternal separation from God.

John also emphasizes that Jesus’ disciples were “in the world.” Jesus was about to depart from this world, but His disciples were still in it. As Jesus will pray (John 17:15-18), He doesn’t ask the Father to take these men out of the world. That is the sphere of ministry to which He sends them. But they are to be distinct from the world. But walking in this world means that you get your feet dirty. Thus the need for cleansing.

John (13:1) states that Jesus “loved His own.” John 3:16 states that God loves the world, but here the emphasis is on Jesus’ love for His own, not for the world. God loves the world by making provision for the sins of all that will believe in Jesus. The invitation goes out to all: Come and take the water of life without cost (Rev. 22:17). Yet at the same time, Jesus has a special love for His own that He does not have for the whole world. As Paul writes (Eph. 5:25), Christ “loved the church and gave Himself up for her.”

You understand this principle. As a Christian, I’m commanded to love all my sisters in Christ, but I have a special love for my wife. I’m commanded to love all God’s children, but I have a special love for my own children. In the same way, Jesus has a special love for His own, whom the Father gave to Him (John 6:37). If you have put your trust in Christ, He wants you to know and to feel His special love for you. He loves you “to the end.”

John contrasts Jesus’ love for His own with Judas’ satanic treachery (John 13:2): “During supper, the devil having already put into the heart of Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon, to betray Him …” Jesus loved Judas, even though he was not one of His own. He washed Judas’ feet before he went out to betray the Lord. Jesus had known all along that Judas would betray Him in fulfillment of Scripture (John 6:71; Luke 22:22). And, while Satan was the immediate force behind Judas’ betrayal (John 13:2, 27), yet at the same time, Judas was responsible for his awful sin. He rejected the love of Jesus, whereas the other disciples knew it personally.

So John wants to ask you: In spite of being painfully aware that you don’t deserve it, do you know the love of Christ as a reality in your life? Does His love humble you before the cross? Does His love cause you to hate your sin? Does His love motivate you to serve others in love, even as He has loved you? And, if you’ve never experienced His love, will you respond now to His love?

But John doesn’t just tell us about Jesus’ love. He also shows it in a dramatic, shocking way:

2. Christ’s example of humble service should be a reality in your life.

Sometimes actions speak louder than words. Jesus’ actions here show us both how He loved us when we were unworthy of that love and how we can love others who may not be worthy of it. John (13:3-5) paints the picture like this:

Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into His hands, and that He had come forth from God and was going back to God, got up from supper, and laid aside His garments; and taking a towel, He girded Himself.

Then He poured water into the basin, and began to wash the disciples’ feet and to wipe them with the towel with which He was girded.

By the first phrase, John shows us Jesus’ authority over all of heaven and earth: “The Father had given all things into His hands.” The hands that control the universe, including all the angelic host, humbly washed the dirty feet of twelve undeserving apostles!

To understand this incident, you need to know that washing someone’s feet was the task for the lowest servants (Carson, p. 462). Friends did not wash their friends’ feet. There are no examples in ancient literature of a superior washing the feet of an inferior (ibid.). And so the disciples would have been shocked to have their Teacher and Lord (John 13:13) wash their feet! Apparently, they were so shocked that they sat in stunned silence, until Jesus came to Peter. He probably verbalized the thoughts that the others had been afraid to say when he protested (John 13:8), “Never shall You wash my feet!” But as Jesus will go on to explain (John 13:14-15), He did this to give us an example of how we should humbly serve one another. This humility has at least four practical aspects:

A. Humility recognizes that no task is beneath us to do for Christ’s sake.

I got a lesson on this early in my pastoral ministry. A young woman whose husband had a violent temper called me in tears and asked if I could come over after they had had a bad quarrel. She had a young baby and no means of child care or transportation to come to my office, so I went. When I walked in, I could see beans all over the wall and floor, where the husband had angrily thrown the pot off the stove. But it was the stench of vomit that quickly drew my eyes to the floor in front of me. The woman had vomited all over the floor and was too sick to clean it up. So before I could talk to her about her soul and her marriage, I had to clean up her vomit. Welcome to the ministry!

I’m not suggesting that a pastor’s main role should be to clean up vomit or do other jobs of service. Pastors should devote themselves to the ministry of the Word and to shepherding the flock. Those gifted to serve should devote themselves to service (1 Pet. 4:10-11). But at the same time, never think that a task is beneath your dignity or calling. You’re Christ’s slave. Sometimes He asks His slaves to clean up vomit out of love for Him.

B. Humility requires thinking of others more highly than of yourself.

The disciples hadn’t washed one another’s feet because they were arguing about who was the greatest. But after pointing out that seeking dominance over one another is the way of the world, Jesus said to them (Luke 22:26-27),

“But it is not this way with you, but the one who is the greatest among you must become like the youngest, and the leader like the servant. For who is greater, the one who reclines at the table or the one who serves? Is it not the one who reclines at the table? But I am among you as the one who serves.”

Two women in the church in Philippi were having a dispute. Paul wrote to that church (Phil. 2:3-4), “Do nothing from selfishness or empty conceit, but with humility of mind regard one another as more important than yourselves; do not merely look out for your own personal interests, but also for the interests of others.” He went on to cite the example of Christ, who willingly took on the form of a servant and went to the cross for our sakes. So many quarrels in the church and in our homes would evaporate if we would, with humility of mind, regard the other person as more important than ourselves! Related to this…

C. Humility requires getting your focus off your rights and your needs and onto others’ needs.

As the eternal Son of God to whom the Father had given all things into His hands, who had come forth from God and was going back to God (John 13:3), Jesus certainly had the right for the disciples to wash His feet. I’m sure that His feet were as dirty as theirs. But He wasn’t focused on His needs or His rights, but rather on their needs. They not only needed their dirty feet washed, but they also needed this lesson in humble service.

Again, how many quarrels at church and in our homes would stop before they started if we would take our eyes off ourselves, our rights, and our needs, and instead think about the other person’s needs! A husband thinks, “I’ve worked hard all day, putting up with hassles at work so that I can provide for my family. Don’t I have a right to some peace and quiet when I come home at night?” Maybe, but that’s the wrong focus. Your focus should be on how you can serve your wife and children. The wife thinks, “I’ve been changing diapers, shopping for groceries with screaming kids, cleaning up messes all over the house, and trying to get dinner in time. Don’t I have a right for a little time by myself?” Maybe, but that’s the wrong focus. Humble service requires getting your focus off yourself and onto others’ needs.

D. Humility requires receiving, not just giving.

It’s easy to serve or to give to those in need out of pride. Peter’s unwillingness at first to let Jesus serve him did not stem from humility, but from pride. It embarrassed him to think of Jesus washing his feet. That implied that his feet were dirty and in need of washing! It would have served Peter’s pride much more if he had washed Jesus’ feet. But Jesus explained that if He didn’t wash Peter’s feet, then he had no part with Him.

Many people are offended by the gospel or don’t see their need for it because they’re proud of their good works. They’re proud of all that they do for others. They view themselves as having clean feet. It would embarrass them to admit that their feet are dirty and that Jesus needs to wash them. But to receive the gospel, you’ve got to recognize that your feet are filthy and that no one gets to heaven by washing his own feet or by washing others’ feet. You only get to heaven when you let Jesus wash your feet. That leads to the third theme:

3. Christ’s cleansing your sins should be a reality in your life.

His undeserved love should be a reality in your life. His example of humble service should be true in your experience. But foundational to everything else is your need to have Jesus wash away your sins. So Jesus’ action here foreshadows the cross. One writer, A. M. Hunter, (cited by Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John [Eerdmans], p. 613) observes, “The deeper meaning then is that there is no place in his fellowship for those who have not been cleansed by his atoning death.” He points out that this episode pictures the truth of 1 John 1:7, “the blood of Jesus His Son cleanses us from all sin.” Hunter adds (ibid.),

Many people today would like to be Christians but see no need of the cross. They are ready to admire Jesus’ life and to praise the sublimity of his moral teaching, but they cannot bring themselves to believe that Christ died for their sins, and that without that death they would be lost in sin.

There are at least three reasons that we all need Jesus Christ to cleanse our sins:

A. Cleansing is necessary because of who Jesus is.

As John begins his gospel (1:1, 14), Jesus is the eternal Word who is God, who took on human flesh. He shared the glory of the Father, but willingly laid that aside so that He could come to bear the penalty for our sins on the cross. He is the Light of the world, absolutely pure, just as God is light (John 8:12; 1 John 1:5). He spoke the very words of the Father to us (John 7:16; 8:26, 28, 38). He lived a sinless life, so that He could rhetorically ask His critics (John 8:46), “Which of you convicts Me of sin?”

Limiting ourselves to our text, we see that Jesus is the eternal, omniscient one. He knew that His hour had come and that He would shortly be returning to the Father, with whom He had dwelled before the foundation of the world (John 13:1). He knew that Judas would betray Him (John 13:11). He knows each of us thoroughly.

Also, Jesus is the loving one. In spite of our failures and sins, which He knows in advance, He loves us as His own children.

Further, Jesus is the sovereign one. The Father has given all things into Jesus’ hands. He was in complete control of His own death. Neither Satan nor Judas could thwart God’s sovereign plan through the cross, but rather inadvertently fulfilled it.

Lastly, Jesus is the suffering servant who died for our sins. His example of humble, self-sacrificing service identifies Him as the servant of Isaiah 53. The Passover connection identifies Him as the Lamb of God who takes away our sins. When you come into the presence of the Holy One of God, you instantly recognize your need for cleansing. With Peter, you fall down at His feet and cry out (Luke 5:8), “Go away from me Lord, for I am a sinful man, O Lord!”

B. Cleansing is necessary because of who we are.

We all are guilty sinners in need of cleansing: “All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Rom. 3:23). Contrary to some (R. C. Sproul, John [Reformation Trust], pp. 242-243), this text has nothing to do with baptism. Nor is it instituting a third church ordinance of foot washing. Rather, Jesus meant, “I must wash away your sins by My atoning death or you have no part with Me.”

Jesus mentions two types of cleansing (John 13:10): “He who has bathed needs only to wash his feet, but is completely clean; and you are clean, but not all of you.” The bath refers to the once-for-all washing of regeneration (Titus 3:5), when God cleanses us from all our sins through the blood of Jesus (Rom. 8:1; Heb. 10:10, 14). All the disciples, except Judas, were clean in this sense.

But the foot washing refers to the ongoing application of that once-for-all cleansing to our daily lives. We can compare it to a boy who is adopted into a family. He becomes a full member of the family by virtue of his adoption. He can’t lose that standing. But in his daily relationship with his father, he may disobey or wrong his father. He doesn’t lose his sonship, but he does need to ask his father’s forgiveness so that their relationship can be close. In the same way, we stand before God completely forgiven through faith in Jesus and His shed blood. But in our relationship with God, we often fail Him by sinning. We need to receive the ongoing cleansing for those sins that is symbolized by Jesus washing our feet.

Thus cleansing is necessary because of who Jesus is and because of who we are. Finally,

C. Cleansing is necessary because of where we walk.

We walk in this sinful world, so our feet get dirty. Again, if you have trusted in Christ, you are never so dirty that you need a complete bath again. But at the same time, although you have trusted in Christ, you are never so pure that you don’t need to get your feet washed again. It’s an ongoing process to maintain your relationship with the Lord.

Sometimes, your feet get dirty because of deliberate sin. You choose to do what you know God’s Word forbids you to do. At those times, you need to confess your sin and appropriate the forgiveness that Christ secured for you by His death. At other times, you just feel defiled because of contact with this cruddy, dirty world. Maybe you’ve been bombarded with sensual advertisements or just the magazine covers at the supermarket checkout. Perhaps you’ve had to deal with worldly people at work, so the lusts of the flesh, the lusts of the eyes, and the boastful pride of life (1 John 2:16) have left you feeling defiled. Those are the times to open your Bible and let “the washing of water with the word” (Eph. 5:26) cleanse and refresh your soul. Let Jesus wash your feet!

Conclusion

So ask yourself three questions: (1) Do I consistently experience Christ’s undeserved love? If not, you need to figure out why not and get that problem resolved. (2) Do I consistently follow Christ’s example of humble service? If not, jot down some specific ways that you can begin this week. (3) Do I consistently come to Christ for cleansing from my sins and from the crud of this dirty world? If not, He’s waiting with the basin and the water of His word to wash your feet!

Application Questions

  1. How can you love an irresponsible, self-focused person without enabling him to continue in his irresponsible ways?
  2. How practically can a believer who does not feel Christ’s love remedy the problem?
  3. Can a person know whether he is truly being humble or not? What is the essence of true biblical humility?
  4. What should a Christian do if he has confessed his sins, but he still feels guilty? What steps should he take?

Copyright, Steven J. Cole, 2014, All Rights Reserved.

Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture Quotations are from the New American Standard Bible, Updated Edition © The Lockman Foundation

Related Topics: Christian Life, Love, Soteriology (Salvation)

Lesson 72: Do You Wash Dirty Feet? (John 13:12-20)

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November 16, 2014

Robert Service begins his well-known poem, “The Cremation of Sam McGee”: “There are strange things done in the midnight sun, by the men who moil for gold….” If I may take off on that line, there are strange things done under the sun by the men who claim to be Christians. And one of the strangest was the story of Simeon the Stylite.

Simeon was born about 390 A.D. He lived in different monasteries in northern Syria. Then around 423 he started to live on top of a platform on top of a pillar. Gradually he increased the height of the pillar until it was about 60 feet off the ground. Simeon lived up there by himself as an ascetic for 36 years! Don’t ask how he took care of basic bodily functions! I’m reasonably certain that the pillar was not equipped with modern plumbing! But he thought that he was being holy by being separate from the world. People flocked from miles around to listen to him preach from the top of his pillar. His example led to a movement that lasted for centuries, where others dwelled on top of their own pillars.

Strange! But, maybe Simeon was onto something! Think how much less conflict there would be in the local church if we all built our own pillars out of shouting distance from each other (with no phone or email)! But, seriously, how did such a bizarre idea ever take hold in the Christian world?

Yet, while we aren’t living on top of our own respective pillars, sometimes Christians, at least here in America, are an independent, isolated bunch. We view the Christian life as each of us having our own relationship with God, which is essential. But then often we isolate ourselves from other believers. We go to church on Sundays like we go to the movies. We walk in, nod to others we don’t really know, sit through the program, and go home. Except on a superficial level, we have little personal contact with other believers throughout the week. It’s not unusual for me to counsel someone about a personal problem. After listening, I’ll ask, “Do you know any other believers closely enough with whom you can share these things and pray?” Often the answer is, “No.”

But if we’re not close to one another, we can’t obey Jesus’ command (John 13:14-15), “If I then, the Lord and the Teacher, washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. For I gave you an example that you also should do as I did to you.” To wash someone’s feet requires pretty close personal contact!

Now right away my thought is, “Foot washing is something I can do quite well by myself, thank you.” In fact, I’d rather do it myself! It’s kind of personal, especially if my feet are really dirty! So, please, just let me do it myself. And, I’d really prefer not to wash your dirty feet either. I’ll give you the basin, the water and the towel and let you do it. But I’d rather not wash your dirty feet, either.

But that’s not what Jesus said. He didn’t say, “Provide the basin, the water, and the towel so that everyone can wash their own feet.” He said, “You wash one another’s feet.” But that’s asking us to get a bit too close for comfort, isn’t it? Yet, down in verse 35, Jesus says, “By this all men will know that you are my disciples”—not by you all living sanctified lives by yourselves on top of your own pillars. “By this all men will know that you are My disciples, if you have love for one another.” And so this act of washing one another’s feet is certainly a picture of the love that we should have for one another in the body of Christ. The main idea is:

Jesus commands us all to wash one another’s feet.

But that raises some questions: What do you mean, “wash one another’s feet”? How do we do it? And, why should we do it?

What does it mean to wash one another’s feet?

As you know, some churches take Jesus’ words literally by conducting a foot-washing service. You can always be sure that when they have such a service, nobody actually needs to have their feet washed! Everyone washes their own feet at home just before the service and puts on clean socks! So those who take it literally aren’t washing dirty feet! They’re washing clean feet!

There’s nothing wrong with having such a ceremony, but I don’t believe that is what Jesus was talking about. In verse 12, He asked the disciples, “Do you know what I have done to you?” Obviously, they all knew that He had just washed their feet. But He was pointing to a symbolic meaning behind what He had just done. If this is supposed to be a church ordinance, added to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, you would think that somewhere in the New Testament it would be enjoined on the church. Paul commends widows who have washed the saints’ feet (1 Tim. 5:10), but he wasn’t referring to a church ordinance, but to the widows’ humble service toward other believers. Peter is silent on this in his letters, but he does instruct us to clothe ourselves with humility toward one another (1 Pet. 5:5). I believe that that is the overall idea here, which we can view in four parts:

1. Washing one another’s feet is a ministry of forgiveness, cleansing, refreshment, and humble service.

A. Washing one another’s feet is a ministry of forgiveness.

As we saw in our last study, Jesus’ washing the disciples’ feet pictured the relational forgiveness between each of them and Himself. It is paralleled by 1 John 1:7, “… the blood of Jesus His Son cleanses us from all sin.” This refers to a repeated application of God’s once-and-for-all forgiveness to our ongoing sins. We confess our sins to God and ask His forgiveness, not to secure our position with Him as His children, but to restore our relationship with Him as our Father.

Ephesians 4:32 commands, “Be kind to one another, tender-hearted, forgiving each other, just as God in Christ also has forgiven you.” We are to extend the forgiveness that we have received from God through Christ to those who have wronged us. In that way we symbolically “wash their feet.” It makes me sad when I see believers who do not forgive other believers who have wronged them. Granted, the other person needs to ask for forgiveness before you extend it verbally. But we are required to root out all bitterness and forgive the offender in our hearts so that we are ready to extend forgiveness verbally the instant the offender repents. When you forgive, you wash the offender’s dirty feet.

B. Washing one another’s feet is a ministry of cleansing.

In Ephesians 5:26, Paul talks about Christ cleansing the church “by the washing of water with the word.” When we share the Word with one another, we wash off the sin and crud of this world. Sometimes a brother has fallen into some sin. When that happens, Paul instructs (Gal. 6:1), “Brethren, even if anyone is caught in any trespass, you who are spiritual, restore such a one in a spirit of gentleness; each one looking to yourself, so that you too will not be tempted.” One of the most effective ways to restore a sinning brother is to use God’s Word.

At other times, maybe a brother has dirty feet not because of sin, but just because he’s been walking in this dirty world. To share a verse that God has used in your life or a verse that you’ve memorized and applied to some problem can be a source of cleansing.

But as someone has pointed out, when you wash someone’s feet with the water of the Word, make sure that the temperature is right! Some sanctimonious believers love to wash their brothers’ feet with scalding water! “Here, brother, stick your feet in this basin!” “Yeoww!” That’s why Paul says that we are to restore in a spirit of gentleness. Don’t blast someone with the Word. Restore him so that he will feel cleansed, not scalded! That leads to…

C. Washing one another’s feet is a ministry of refreshment.

When you came in off the dusty roads with dirty feet, it was refreshing to get them washed. In 1 Corinthians, Paul mentions three men who had come to him from the Corinthian church. He adds (1 Cor. 16:18), “For they have refreshed my spirit and yours.” He tells Philemon (1:7), “… the hearts of the saints have been refreshed through you, brother.” Have you ever known someone like that? A person who is always fresh with the Lord, so that when you get around him, you feel refreshed.

I used to have an older pastor friend like that. He had met Christ at age 41, when he was a drug-using, alcoholic night club singer. Every time I got together with him he was rejoicing in some new experience of God’s grace or some new insight in God’s Word. I always came away refreshed. In that way, he washed my feet. Do you do that with others? Do they feel refreshed in the Lord after being with you? What about at home? That’s the test!

So, washing one another’s feet is a ministry of forgiveness, cleansing, and refreshment. Also…

D. Washing one another’s feet is a ministry of humble service in ways that may be unpleasant to you.

Having a foot-washing ceremony where you wash already clean feet is relatively easy. But Jesus’ command here to wash one another’s dirty, smelly feet is not so easy. He meant that we should do unpleasant tasks that serve others in their area of need. As I said last week, this means that no task should be beneath us as we serve others for Christ’s sake.

Years ago, a man went to hear Dr. Alan Redpath speak. Dr. Redpath was the pastor of the large Moody Church in Chicago and was a widely known Christian speaker and author. But the man didn’t know what Dr. Redpath looked like. He got there early and he saw two men setting up chairs before the meeting. One was the janitor, but the man didn’t realize until Dr. Redpath got up to speak that the other man was Dr. Redpath. He was there early helping the janitor set up chairs. He wasn’t advertising it. If this guy had not gotten there before the meeting, he wouldn’t have known what Dr. Redpath had done. But, that kind of humble service is what Jesus was talking about.

One practical way that we all can serve here on Sundays is to pick up litter that you see around the building. Maybe you’re thinking, “Doesn’t our custodian do that?” Yes, he works hard at it. But it shouldn’t be his job only. He’s got a lot to do. What if a visitor walks in before the custodian has had a chance to pick up the litter and the visitor thinks, “This place is a dump. I’m going to find a church that is clean!” You can serve the Lord and that visitor by picking up the trash that you see. Another way you can humbly serve others is, if you’re healthy, don’t grab the closest parking spot unless you have a lot of stuff to carry inside. Leave the closest spots for visitors and get some exercise!

Well, I’m already answering the second question, but let me address a couple of other aspects of it:

How do we wash one another’s feet?

2. We wash one another’s feet by being humble servants of Christ and by being in close relationships with others.

Being humble servants of Christ deals with our focus and motivation; being in close relationships looks at the practical requirement for obeying Christ’s command.

A. We wash one another’s feet by being humble servants of Christ.

In verse 16, Jesus says, “Truly, truly, I say to you, a slave is not greater than his master, nor is one who is sent greater than the one who sent him.” Clearly, Jesus is the master (“Lord,” John 13:13, 14) and we are His slaves. He gives the commands and we are to obey without questioning or grumbling. No task was beneath a slave’s dignity to do. As Jesus taught (Luke 17:7-10):

“Which of you, having a slave plowing or tending sheep, will say to him when he has come in from the field, ‘Come immediately and sit down to eat’? But will he not say to him, ‘Prepare something for me to eat, and properly clothe yourself and serve me while I eat and drink; and afterward you may eat and drink’? He does not thank the slave because he did the things which were commanded, does he? So you too, when you do all the things which are commanded you, say, ‘We are unworthy slaves; we have done only that which we ought to have done.’”

So here He states (John 13:17), “If you know these things, you are blessed if you do them.” “These things” refers back to the example and commandment that He has just given, that we are to wash one another’s feet. We are humbly to serve one another in ways that may be unpleasant to us. But obedience requires more than just doing it while you grumble under your breath. Obedience requires doing it cheerfully and thankfully, out of love for Christ, who gave Himself on the cross for you. It’s all about your mindset and your motivation.

One other thing that Jesus’ example shows us is that we need to wash one another’s feet without looking for or expecting a favorable response from others. In other words, we don’t serve others hoping that they will reciprocate or express their deep gratitude. Often they don’t. Jesus washed Judas’ feet, but he went out and betrayed Jesus. He washed Peter’s feet, but he denied Him that night. He washed Thomas’ feet, but he doubted Jesus’ resurrection. He washed all the disciples’ feet, but they all deserted Him and ran when He got arrested.

If you humbly serve Christ in any capacity, I can guarantee that you will not receive the appreciation you deserve from those you serve. You’ll probably get some appreciation, but you’ll also catch some undeserved criticism. And it won’t come from those outside the church. It will come from believers. So you have to keep your focus on your Master. You are His slave because He bought you with His blood. You serve others for His sake.

B. We wash one another’s feet by being in close relationships with one another.

As I mentioned earlier, foot washing can’t be done if we’re all sitting on top of our individual pillars, with no contact with one another. It can’t be done by sending a robot across the room to wash others’ feet. It requires a rather uncomfortable closeness to wash someone’s feet and to allow them to wash your feet. It requires being vulnerable and honest. You have to let the other person see just how dirty your feet really are.

It’s easy to come to church, smile at everyone and say hello, and go home without ever divulging to anyone that your feet are dirty. I’m not suggesting that you share your innermost struggles with everyone you meet. There needs to be an appropriate relationship of trust before you share where you’re hurting. But the point is, we need to be developing some close, trusting relationships so that we can serve one another by washing each other’s feet. Get involved in a home fellowship or small group. Ask God for a godly brother or sister in Christ that you can get to know well. You can’t wash others’ feet or have your feet washed from a distance.

But then, once you’ve grown close to someone, you’ve still got to do it. You’re blessed not just by knowing that you should wash one another’s feet, but by doing it (John 13:17). It’s not enough to find out that the other person is hurting, and then to say, “I’ll pray for you,” and walk away. You’ve got to get your hands dirty by trying to help. Do it gently, not with boiling water, as I said. But, do it! You can ask, “May I share from God’s Word some ways that I’ve been helped?” Pray with the person. Don’t judge or condemn. Remember, you’ve got dirty feet, too! But the point is to grow close enough in relationships so that we can offer genuine encouragement, help, and refreshment through God’s Word.

So washing one another’s feet is a ministry of forgiveness, cleansing, refreshment, and humble service. We do it by being humble servants of Christ and by being in close relationships with one another.

Why should we wash one another’s feet?

3. We should wash one another’s feet because the Lord and Teacher has washed our feet.

Jesus said (John 13:14), “If I then, the Lord and the Teacher, washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet.” In other words, because Jesus has cleansed your sins by His death on the cross, because He is the Lord of all, and because He is the Teacher from whom you learn how to live, you serve others in love because He commanded you to do so. Or, more succinctly, your salvation is the reason why you serve Jesus Christ. He bought you with His blood. Now you’re His slave.

But Jesus makes an exception for His commandment (John 13:18): “I do not speak of all of you. I know the ones I have chosen; but it is that the Scripture may be fulfilled, ‘He who eats My bread has lifted up his heel against Me.’” The Scripture is from Psalm 41:9 and refers here to Judas. Although Jesus had chosen Judas as an apostle, Judas had never submitted to Jesus as Lord. He had heard His teaching and seen His miracles. He had preached to others about Jesus. He even had his feet washed outwardly. But Judas wasn’t clean all over (John 13:10). Jesus hadn’t cleansed Judas inwardly. So Jesus warns the other disciples of Judas’ defection in advance so that it wouldn’t shake their faith (John 13:19-20):

“From now on I am telling you before it comes to pass, so that when it does occur, you may believe that I am He. Truly, truly, I say to you, he who receives whomever I send receives Me; and he who receives Me receives Him who sent Me.”

The connection between verses 19 & 20 is difficult to understand, but verse 20 seems to be a word of encouragement to the disciples in view of the prophecy about Judas’ defection. Jesus is saying, “Don’t despair when Judas betrays Me and I am crucified. Remember that I told you this in advance. Keep believing that I am He (John 14:19). You will be My ambassadors and whoever receives you receives Me; and “he who receives Me receives Him who sent Me” (John 13:20).

But Judas’ example is a warning: You can be closely associated with Jesus and His followers and you can even serve in ministry, and yet you’ve never had Jesus cleanse your sins. You’ve never come to Him with your dirty heart and said, “Lord, I need You to wash me! I trust in You as God in human flesh who died on the cross for my sins.” He is not your Savior, your Lord, and your Teacher. Until you’ve experienced the salvation Jesus alone can give, you can serve Him by doing good deeds all your life, but it won’t get you into heaven. The only basis for serving Christ is to know that He, your Lord and Teacher, has truly washed your feet.

Conclusion

I heard about a successful doctor in Southern California who met Jesus Christ and left his lucrative practice to serve in a primitive country. His non-Christian partner couldn’t believe that he would do this. On one of his trips around the world, he stopped by to see his former partner. The Christian doctor was performing surgery on a poor woman in very primitive circumstances. The non-Christian said, “Don’t you remember how much you would have made doing this surgery in Southern California?”

“Yes, many thousands.” “Then why are you doing it?”

“Several reasons: See her clenched fist? In it are several coins that she will give to our mission. See those kids in the other room? They will be forever grateful if I can save their mother’s life. But there’s one more thing: I hope to receive from my Lord someday the words, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant.’”

That’s why you should wash others’ dirty feet. You do it because the Lord and Teacher washed your feet. You do it for Him.

Application Questions

  1. List some practical ways that you can get involved in “foot-washing” (humble service). Put it into your schedule and do it.
  2. To what extent should we share our struggles with one another? What criteria apply?
  3. Is it more difficult to wash someone else’s dirty feet or to let them wash your dirty feet? Why? How can the difficulties be overcome?
  4. How can you determine whether it’s your job or someone else’s job to try to help restore a sinning Christian?

Copyright, Steven J. Cole, 2014, All Rights Reserved.

Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture Quotations are from the New American Standard Bible, Updated Edition © The Lockman Foundation

Related Topics: Christian Life, Discipleship, Ecclesiology (The Church)

24. When Division Becomes Multiplication (Acts 15:3-16:10)

Introduction

Those who dislike confrontation and conflict will undoubtedly feel a bit uneasy as we work our way through Acts chapter 15. Not only does Luke record the account of the strong contention between Paul and Barnabas and some of those of the circumcision party, resulting in the Jerusalem Council, but he goes on to report a strong disagreement between Paul and Barnabas, resulting in their going their separate ways, rather than traveling together in a second missionary journey.

We would undoubtedly admit that the first confrontation—between Paul and Barnabas and the Judaizers—was necessary, even though unpleasant. But the second disagreement is much more puzzling. Why did Paul and Barnabas differ so strongly? Why didn’t one or the other change their mind? Why was this wonderful team split up? And why did Luke bother to include this very uncomfortable incident in his writings anyway? Why not simply have stated that the two men went on separate journeys and leave the unpleasant details out? What are we to learn from the disagreement of these two noble saints?

The strong disagreement and separation of Paul and Barnabas is more than just interesting reading. It certainly is not the kind of reporting that we see in the “rags” which are placed before our eyes at the checkout stand in the supermarkets. There is a great deal to be learned from the disagreement and separation of these two men, which I will attempt to point out as we proceed with this lesson.

Paul and Barnabas Part Paths
(15:35-41)

36 And after some days Paul said to Barnabas, “Let us return and visit the brethren in every city in which we proclaimed the word of the Lord, and see how they are.” 37 And Barnabas was desirous of taking John, called Mark, along with them also. 38 But Paul kept insisting that they should not take him along who had deserted them in Pamphylia and had not gone with them to the work. 39 And there arose such a sharp disagreement that they separated from one another, and Barnabas took Mark with him and sailed away to Cyprus.

Paul and Barnabas had returned from Jerusalem, with the decree of the apostles and the elders, defining and defending the gospel against the legalism of those who would force Gentiles Christians to become Jews by undergoing circumcision and placing themselves under the Law of Moses. They also returned with Judas and Silas, the two men who had been sent by the church in Jerusalem to accompany Paul and Barnabas, and to bear witness to the decision rendered in favor of their two companions. Paul and Barnabas stayed on for some time, teaching in preaching, along with others, probably making sure that the error of the Judaizers was laid to rest in Antioch.

Eventually, Paul approached Barnabas with a proposal that they return to every city where they had preached Christ on their first missionary campaign. Every city was to be re-visited, which, as I understand the proposal, would have included those cities visited in Cyprus, as well as in Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. In reality, Paul’s proposal was not that of a second missionary journey at all. It was really just a return trip, a re-run of the first journey. The purpose does not seem to be evangelistic, but edification. It was a trip to strengthen and encourage those who had trusted in Jesus on the first journey, and an opportunity to see how the saints and the churches were doing. Had a disagreement not arisen between Paul and Barnabas, one wonders (humanly speaking) if there would have been a second missionary journey.

Barnabas, as we might expect, was enthusiastic about such a journey, but he was also persistent in his desire to take along John Mark. Paul was adamantly opposed to this proposal, based on Mark’s previous desertion at Perga, and on the fact that he had not gone with then to the work. Barnabas was proposing that Mark retrace his very steps. Paul was opposed for this very reason. He had failed in the same circumstances; why put him back in these a second time, why repeat the same error? Barnabas did not seem to be willing to go without Mark; Paul seemed unwilling to go with him. They had come to an impasse, and neither was willing to change their position. It was, indeed, a “sharp disagreement” (verse 39).

Here is where many of the commentators go too far, in my opinion, making this more than a strong disagreement as to how their ministry should proceed, and thus terminating their partnership and proceeding with two separate ministries. A number seem to feel that this was a personal rift:

“This ‘son of consolation’ loses his temper in a dispute over his cousin and Paul uses sharp words towards his benefactor and friend. It is often so that the little irritations of life give occasion to violent explosions. If the incident in Gal. 2:11-21 had already taken place, there was a sore place already that could be easily rubbed. And if Mark also joined with Peter and Barnabas on that occasion, Paul had fresh ground for irritation about him … Paul and Barnabas parted in anger and both in sorrow. Paul owed more to Barnabas than to any other man. Barnabas was leaving the greatest spirit of the time and of all times.”333

“Robinson thinks, further, that there may have been other problems involved in the contention, including too ambitious a program for Barnabas; Barnabas’ act of siding with Peter (Gal. 2:11); difference of opinion as to the route to be followed; and Paul’s desire to visit his own Cilician country first.”334

I do not believe that the Scriptures give any credence to such a view. A strong disagreement is a vastly different thing, between friends and co-laborers, than a personal falling out.335 The differences between these two giants of the faith were not rooted in pride, personal ambition, or offended feelings, they were rooted in different spiritual gifts, outlook, and calling. Aside from the loss of on-going fellowship, such as they had known in serving side-by-side, the outcome of their separation was very positive. Consider come of the characteristics of this conflict, and see if the Scriptures do not represent this separation in a positive way.

Characteristics of this Conflict

(1) Paul and Barnabas kept the problem on a personal level. These men had a personal disagreement, which they dealt with personally, face to face. So far as we are told, they did not involve others in the disagreement.

(2) Paul and Barnabas did not take the problem personally—they did not let their disagreement alienate them as friends and as brothers. I do not wish to minimize the intensity of the disagreement, but neither do I wish to read into this incident a personal “falling out.” It is a vastly different thing for two men to agree to dissolve a partnership in ministry than to have a friendship turn sour, developing into some kind of personal animosity. I find absolutely no indication in the New Testament which would indicate a loss of love or respect for each other. I see no signs of bitterness or alienation between these two.

(3) Paul and Barnabas saw the matter through to a resolution. These two men stuck to their convictions, and neither was willing to change, but the did come to a solution to the impasse. The solution was a separation—to go on two separate missions, but it was a solution. The problem did not continue to fester.

(4) Neither Paul nor Barnabas appear to have been acting out of self-interest or self-will.  Put differently, it does not seem that these men were acting out of fleshly desires or inclinations. Humanly speaking, it would have been easier for either of the two to have “given in” to the other, or for both to have compromised. For these two men to go their own ways was a personal sacrifice, required by their convictions and calling.

(5) Neither Paul nor Barnabas sought to make this a biblical issue, in which one was “right” and the other was “wrong.” How often, when two Christians differ, they try to sanction their actions with texts of Scripture. Each party in the dispute gathers up a collection of proof texts, and the one with the longest list wins. This was not a biblical issue, in the sense that one of the two was doing the biblical thing and the other was being disobedient. Both Paul and Barnabas were “right” to do what they did, and would have denied their convictions and calling to do what the other felt compelled to do.

(6) Both Paul and Barnabas seem to be acting in accordance with their own spiritual gifts and calling. Who, but Barnabas, would we expect to come alongside Mark, to encourage him and to be used of God to minister to this stumbling saint so as to stand and to serve the Lord? And who, but Paul, would we expect to come down hard on failure to complete a mission?

(7) Both Paul and Barnabas ministered to John Mark by what they did. I see Paul and Barnabas, out of different gifts and ministries, applying this instruction, spelled out by Paul to the Thessalonian church:

And we urge you, brethren, admonish the unruly, encourage the fainthearted, help the weak, be patient with all men (1 Thessalonians 5:14).

Knowing the Paul would not take him along on his next journey surely had an impact on Mark, just as knowing the Barnabas was willing to invest his life and ministry in him, even though he failed, would be an encouragement. Paul’s negative response, combined with Barnabas’ positive action, served to encourage Mark to take his problems seriously and to strive to prove himself a faithful man.

(8) The separation of Paul and Barnabas was a cooperative action, not a competitive one.  All too often, when partners in ministry have separated in an unhealthy way, they have both pursued the same ministry, in the same place, requiring the involvement and support of the same people. In short, division or separation has not solved a problem, it has expanded it, resulted in competition, rather than cooperation. Barnabas took Mark, and went to Cyprus. Paul to Silas, and went in the opposite direction. The itinerary which they had planned was, in effect, cut in two, so that their initial purposes were met, but in a way that created no problems for the ministry of either.

(9) The passing of time bears witness to the fact that both Paul and Barnabas acted in a way that was beneficial to them, to Mark, to each other, and to the gospel. Notice that the result of this separation was two missionary ventures, not just one. Others were involved in ministry, including Silas, Timothy, and Luke. The Book of Mark was, to some degree, the result of Barnabas’ actions and ministry, and the birth of many new churches was the result of Paul’s actions and ministry. Neither Paul nor Barnabas later needed to repent of any wrongdoing in the matter of Mark, and Paul could say of Mark that he was now of profit to his own ministry (2 Timothy 4:9).336

(10) I believe that the New Testament bears witness to some very positive changes in the outlook and ministries of both Paul and Barnabas. Barnabas backed off from taking Mark into the more dangerous areas, choosing instead to take him to Cyprus, where Mark had successfully served, before his desertion at Perga (cf. Acts 13:5, 13). Barnabas also seems to have taken Mark to a ministry of edification in existing churches, as opposed to a front-line ministry of evangelism in hostile territory.337 Barnabas may also have been reminded that one must not only consider the individual, but the cause.338

Paul, on the other hand, may well have grown a great deal through this experience with Mark and Barnabas, and his ministry seems to have been enriched by it. By reducing the number of churches he had to visit, it opened the door to reaching out to new, unreached cities with the gospel. Paul seems to have learned a lesson in choosing to lay hands too quickly on a person, especially one who was not yet proven (cf. 1 Timothy 3:10; 5:22). He may have concluded, as a result of this experience, that in the future he needed to commit himself to faithful, proven men, with gifts similar to his own, so that he could extend and reproduce his own ministry and gift (cf. 2 Timothy 2:2). Paul may have also learned the need to be more sensitive and tender toward those who are not as “thick skinned” as he. I cannot help but see a tenderness and gentleness evidenced in Paul’s letters to Timothy, that does not appear to be present in his dealings with Mark. As I read 1 and 2 Timothy, I see some parallels between Mark’s fears and retreat and Timothy’s uncertainty and hesitancy in ministry, which requires constant encouragement from Paul. Paul seems to have grown in gentleness and understanding, as he deals with Timothy, and I am inclined to think that this experience with Mark was a significant part of his education.339

(11) It appears that Barnabas’ ministry to Paul had come to an end, and that Silas was now the better partner in ministry. One of the strongest gifts of Barnabas was his gift of encouragement (cf. Acts 4:36). Barnabas first came alongside Paul at a time when he was a newly born believer, and when none of the apostles would associate with him, fearing him. Barnabas sought Paul to ministry with him in Antioch, too (Acts 11:25-26). As of Acts 13:9 and following, the need for Barnabas seems to be diminishing. Now, in chapter 15, Mark needed Barnabas’ gift of encouragement much more than Paul did. This strong difference of opinion and of approach was the one means by which God could separate these two “inseparable” friends, brothers, and servants.

The separation of Barnabas paved the way for the selection of Silas (and others, like Timothy and Luke). I am convinced that for the second missionary journey, Silas was a better suited partner than Barnabas. For example, Silas, like Paul, was a Roman citizen (or at least appears to be). I do not know whether or not Barnabas was a Roman citizen. How difficult it would have been for Paul to protest against his unfair treatment as a Roman citizen in Philippi if Barnabas were not a Roman as well (cf. Acts 16:37). If Paul and Barnabas had gone about, reading the decree of the Jerusalem Council it would have had less impact than when Paul and Silas informed the churches of this decision.340 All in all, the gifts and ministries of Silas appear to have been better suited to the second journey than those of Barnabas. And thus God orchestrated a change in personnel, in a most unusual but effective way.

And so we see the hand of God at work once again in Acts, providentially orchestrating and arranging circumstances in such a way that the gospel is advanced and so that the proclamation of the gospel among the Gentiles is assured and assisted. The argument of Paul and Barnabas with the Judaizers resulted in the Jerusalem Council, which defined and defended the gospel, preparing the way for even an even greater expansion of the gospel into Gentile territory. The argument between Paul and Barnabas paved the way for the second major thrust of the gospel by a new team.

Luke’s account of the “strong contention” between Paul and Barnabas informs us of several important truths. First, Christians can disagree with each other, and both can be right. Disagreements are not necessarily a sin, and neither are they evidence of some sin on the part of those who differ. Second, disagreements can serve very beneficial purposes. In the case of the two disagreements of Acts 15, both served to advance the gospel. The dispute which was settled at the Jerusalem Council defined the gospel and cut Gentile Christians loose from the fetters of Jewish legalism and Judaism. It also served to distinguish between Christianity and culture, making it possible to “export” the gospel to any culture. And the disagreement between Paul and Barnabas served to pave the way for the second missionary journey.

If there is a prominent theme in the Book of Acts which is emerging it is UNITY IN THE MIDST OF DIVERSITY. The gospel which our Lord made possible and which His apostles proclaimed was one. Jewish believers and Gentile Christians are recognized as different in Acts, but the gospel they believe and the faith they hold is a common one to both. Paul and Barnabas did have different gifts, different perspectives, and even different callings, but they remained, to the end, one in the faith and in the bonds of love. Their parting was a division, but not a divorce.

The church of our Lord Jesus Christ is one church, one body, but composed of many members, each of whom have unique gifts, a unique function, and a unique contribution to the body. If the church is to be consistent with its nature and its duty, it must maintain unity while promoting and practicing diversity. This truth is one that is emphasized by Paul in his first epistle to the Corinthians, particularly in chapters 12-14.

Unity in diversity is often resisted, even in the church. Too many times, unity is replaced by uniformity. Churches tend toward a denominationalism which tends to put people of the same culture, class, race, gift, and theology together.341 The more we tend toward uniformity, the less we are likely to practice unity in diversity. As a local church, we have purposed to avoid a denominational label or identification. We have also resolved to welcome Christians who represent a broader spectrum of culture, race, class, gift and theology. As a result of our diversity, we must be all the more diligent to strive for the practice of Christian unity.

Because of the commitment and outlook of our church, we have (to some degree) begun to manifest a greater diversity among our members. And because of our structure, we have an added temptation for those who wish to promote their own identity, and thus push us toward uniformity. In most churches, there is no public forum, where an individual member can stand and address the whole church. In our church, we provide an opportunity to do so weekly.342 Because of this “open” worship and sharing time, one can easily be tempted to speak in such a way as to promote one’s particular point of view or practice, and to put down those views or practices of others. The results, as suggested in 1 Corinthians, can be chaotic and destructive. How can we, as a church, be on our guard to promote diversity and unity at the same time?

Our text, I believe, is most instructive, for it teaches us how to disagree in such a way that promotes the gospel and preserves unity. We should, in short, deal with one another in the church as Paul and Barnabas dealt with each other, especially in dealing with their differences. I would like to expand upon our text by looking at the broader context of Scripture, to indicate the various kinds of differences, disagreements (or, if you like, arguments) which a Christian can experience. We must first be certain why it is we differ. This will greatly inform us as to how we should go about differing. And then, I would like to summarize some of the principles of differing which are evident in the disagreement between these two men of God.

Categories of Conflict

Conflicts initiated or caused by unbelievers.

There are essentially two kinds of conflict which are caused by unbelievers, which tend to involve believers. The first is that opposition and resistance caused by those who reject the gospel and who resist Christians as a result. The unbelieving Jews, often joined by unbelieving Gentiles, resisted Paul and Barnabas (and later, Silas) and followed them, stirring up trouble wherever they went (cf. Acts 14:2, 5, 19). Unbelieving Gentiles, prompted by economic or other motivations, opposed believers like Paul as well (cf. Acts 16:19-21; 1 Thessalonians 1:14-16; 2 Thessalonians 1:4-8).

Another form of opposition against the saints and the gospel is the opposition of religious unbelievers, who may claim and even appear to be believers, who seek to pervert the gospel from within the church. They teach false doctrine and they advocate practices which are evil (cf. 2 Corinthians 11:13-15, 26; Galatians 1:6-9; 2:4; 2 Peter 2 & 3; 2 John 7-11; Jude 3-4).

The first group—those who reject the gospel and persecute the church—are avoided by the apostles and others in the New Testament. They take no aggressive action against them, although they do use (not without exception) their civil rights and expect the government to protect them as the law stipulates (cf. Acts 16:35-40; 18:14; 21:37-40; 23:16-17). The second group—the false teachers—are more aggressively exposed and opposed, because their doctrine is both damnable and destructive (cf. Galatians 1:8-9; 2:4-5; 1 Timothy 4:1-3; 2 Timothy 3:6-8, 13; 2 John 7-11; 2 Peter 2:1ff.; Jude 3-4).343

Conflicts between Christians.

The second general category of controversy or conflict is that which occurs between two Christians, or at least that which is carried out by one Christian against another, whether the second responds, reacts, or retaliates. I will outline some of the forms which this conflict may take, based upon biblical examples, as found in the New Testament.

(1) There is the strife, opposition, and conflict which arises from those who teach and minister out of the power and inclinations of the flesh, who are self-seeking, self-asserting, and self-indulgent (Acts 20:28-30; 1 Corinthians; Galatians 5:13-21; Philippians 1:15-17; 1 Timothy 1:3-7; 6:3-10). Some, to be sure, preach the truth, but out of selfish ambition (cf. Philippians 1:15, 17), while others, out of self-interest, corrupt the truth, adapting their message to the whims of their audiences (cf. 2 Corinthians 2:17; 4:2). The appeal of such teachers and leaders is that they teach in such a way as to appeal to the same evil impulses and desires in others, promising God’s blessings in such a way that men can indulge themselves, basking in sin as though it were God’s generosity and grace (cf. 1 Timothy 6:3ff.; 2 Timothy 3:4-13,344 4:1-6; cp. 2 Peter 2:9-22).

(2) There is that painful confrontation which the godly Christian must initiate when a fellow-Christian had erred. There is the obligation of the offended brother to go to the offender (Matthew 18:15-20). And of the stronger brother to seek out the weaker, who is entangled in sin (Galatians 6:1). The unruly must be admonished (1 Thessalonians 5:14). Those who refuse to be corrected and who persist in sin must be shunned (Matthew 18:17; 1 Corinthians 5; 2 Thessalonians 3:6-15). There is also the need to confront those, who by teaching or practice, distort or deny the truth (Galatians 2:11ff.; 2 Timothy 2:23-26; Titus 1:13; 3:10-11).

(3) There are those conflicts and divisions, while wrongly motivated and sinful in nature, which nevertheless have the beneficial effect of revealing those who are “approved” (1 Corinthians 11:19).

(4) There are those confrontations which are to be avoided, because they stem from differences which are often God-given, and which are therefore not clear-cut matters of sin. In Corinth, much of the strife and divisions revolved around the different spiritual gifts, either of certain leaders, or of individual members of the body of Christ. There was an inappropriate evaluation of the “better” gifts, and a tendency for the saints to seek these gifts and to shun their own gifts. There are also the differences among Christians based upon maturity levels and upon personal convictions concerning matters like Christian liberties. Since these are private and personal matters, they are not to be preached, argued, or pushed on others, but kept to oneself (Romans 14:5, 22). Another area has to do with the leading of God in one’s life, for which one is personally responsible. Others ought to avoid pressing their opinion of God’s will for another’s life. Paul found it necessary to resist and reject such well-intentioned advice from Christian friends (cf. Acts 21:10-14).

It is in this area, I believe, that Paul and Barnabas differed. They differed in their spiritual gifts, especially in the matter of how to encourage John Mark. They had now come to the point where God was leading these two men in separate directions. It was not something to press for agreement on, or to try to correct on or the other as wrong, but something which each had to decide upon and to act upon as they believed God would have them to do. They did not allow their differences to become a controversy or a source of contention. They went their separate ways, respecting the other, but convinced about their own actions.

Those who find comfort and security in a neatly laid out plan, which indicates just the right response to every conflict, will not like the following range of responses, which I find indicated in the New Testament. Note the many different ways which Paul instructed Timothy and/or others to respond to those in error:

(1) Timothy and Titus were instructed to positively preach, teach, and practice the truth of the Word of God (1 Timothy 4:6-16; 6:17-21; 2 Timothy 2:15; 3:14-17; 4:1-2; Titus 2:1, 15).

(2) Paul ignored the attack of other preachers, who proclaimed the gospel out of selfish motives (Philippians 1:15-18). Indeed, Paul could actually rejoice in the fact that the gospel was being proclaimed.

(3) Paul trusted in the Spirit of God to change the attitudes of others, rather than to attempt to do so himself (Philippians 3:15). Indeed, Paul was reluctant to judge the attitudes of others (1 Corinthians 4:1-5). He knew, as well, that only some of men’s sins are apparent to the human eye (1 Timothy 5:24-25).

(4) Those who were in error were sometimes to be directly exhorted and refuted (Titus 1:9). Rebuke was to be gentle, in hopes of repentance (2 Timothy 2:23-26).

(5) At times, however, men had to be severely reproved (Titus 1:13), and even put out of the church (Titus 3:10-11).

Because of our fallenness and also by divine design, there are going to be many differences among and between people in this life. Christian unity does not deny these differences, and neither does it attempt to change all of them. If we are to live in unity, we must, as Christians, agree on those few things which are essential to salvation, and on these we must have agreement. For this reason, the Jerusalem Council gave a full airing of opinions and issues, and then the apostles, elders, and saints came to a unanimous decision. This “unity of the faith” must be preserved in the “bond of peace” and harmony (Ephesians 4:3). The “unity of the faith” is that which will only be attained in our glorified state (Ephesians 4:13).

If we are to preserve the “unity of the Spirit,” we must deal biblically with those differences which arise between us. From the example of Paul and Barnabas, and from other biblical texts as well, let me suggest some of the principles which should guide and govern our differences, in such a way that the “unity of the Spirit” can be preserved.

(1) We must recognize that that are many differences, even between believers.

(2) (We should take note of who it is who differs with us, and why.

(3) We should seek to discern the source of our differences, and the seriousness of the issues involved.

(4) We should seek to discover whether the difference is a matter of the gospel, of a clear biblical teaching or doctrine, or whether it is a matter of interpretation, of personal conviction, or of individual gift, calling, and guidance.

(5) We should seek God’s guidance as to the appropriate response, based upon the nature of the difference, and upon the Scriptures governing our response to it.

I believe that Paul and Barnabas have given us a model here for dealing with differences which are based upon our gifts, calling, and ministry. We should praise God that these two men never parted in spirit and in essential unity, but only in ministry.

The Second
Missionary Journey Commenced
(15:40–16:10)

40 But Paul chose Silas345 and departed, being committed by the brethren to the grace of the Lord. 41 And he was traveling through Syria and Cilicia,346 strengthening the churches. And he came also to Derbe and to Lystra.347 And behold, a certain disciple was there,348 named Timothy, the son of a Jewish woman who was a believer, but his father was a Greek, 2 and he was well spoken of by the brethren who were in Lystra and Iconium.349 3 Paul wanted this man to go with him; and he took him and circumcised him350 because of the Jews who were in those parts, for they all knew that his father was a Greek. 4 Now while they were passing through the cities, they351 were delivering the decrees, which had been decided upon by the apostles and elders who were in Jerusalem, for them to observe. 5 So the churches were being strengthened in the faith, and were increasing in number daily.

Taking Silas, with whom Paul and Barnabas had ministered in the past, Paul departed, going first to his own territory in Syria and Cilicia. While Tarsus, Paul’s home, was in this territory, it is not mentioned. Luke does not choose to emphasize this leg of the journey, but quickly passes it by. He moves on to the return of Paul, with Silas, to the cities of Derbe and Lystra, and to Paul’s choice of Timothy to accompany them.

How often I have heard it said that Paul “discipled” Timothy, and how far that statement departs from the words in our text. If anything, we would be more accurate in saying that Barnabas wanted to take Mark along, in order to “disciple” him, something which Paul refused to do. A difficult missionary journey was no occasion for discipling a new or stumbling believer. Paul chose Timothy because he was a disciple, not in order to make a disciple of him (Acts 16:1). In contrast to Mark, Timothy had already been proven. He was “well spoken of by the brethren who were in Lystra and Iconium” (Acts 16:2). And these were not easy cities in which to be a believer. Paul wanted Timothy to accompany them so that he could join in the ministry, as a colleague. As we can see from Paul’s two letters to Timothy, this young man’s ministry was very similar to Paul’s. Paul took Timothy along to expand and to perpetuate his own ministry, just as he later instructed Timothy to do (2 Timothy 2:2).352

Paul circumcised353 Timothy so as to enhance his ministry. It is indeed interesting that Luke would make a point of telling about Timothy’s circumcision by Paul (Acts 16:3) in immediate proximity to his report that they delivered the decree of the Jerusalem Council to the churches there (16:4). In this case, Timothy’s circumcision was not demanded by the Jews, as it was with Titus (Galatians 2:3-5). Titus seems to have been a Gentile, while Timothy was a Jew in Jewish reckoning. Although his father was a Greek, his mother was Jewish, and this made Timothy a Jew in the Jewish way of reckoning it. He was a Jew, but he had not yet been circumcised. Paul thus circumcised him, not because it was demanded by anyone, but simply because Timothy was a Jew. As a circumcised Jew, Timothy, too, could speak in the synagogues. As an uncircumcised Jew his ministry would not be as readily received.

Circumcision was an evil only in the context of those who made it such. I wonder if Luke is not, to some degree, softening or clarifying the position of the Jerusalem Council, so that non-circumcision was not a “law” matter either. It is interesting that the decree, not intended for so distant a place, was delivered there, too, it seems, and thus Paul’s action with Timothy is in juxtaposition with the reading of the decree. I think it is safe to say that “the gospel” is the reason for both Paul’s circumcising (Timothy) and his not circumcising (Titus). In the case of Titus, circumcising him would have been to compromise or corrupt the gospel, but in Timothy’s case, it was to promote the gospel. And so, just as Paul and Barnabas can be right and come to the opposite conclusion, so both circumcision and non-circumcision can be right. There is not a legalistic mindset, with all matters black or white. Notice, too, that it was not Timothy choosing to be circumcised, but rather Paul making the decision for Timothy and having it done. While the Judaisers could not impose circumcision for salvation, Paul could impose it for service. What this says, I think, is that the reasons for doing something or not doing it are all important.

Divinely Directed to Macedonia
(16:6-10)

6 And they passed through the Phrygian and Galatian region,354 having been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia; 7 and when they had come to Mysia, they were trying to go into Bithynia, and the Spirit of Jesus did not permit them; 8 and passing by Mysia, they came down to Troas. 9 And a vision appeared to Paul in the night: a certain man of Macedonia was standing and appealing to him, and saying, “Come over to Macedonia and help us.” 10 And when he had seen the vision, immediately we sought to go into Macedonia, concluding that God had called us to preach the gospel to them.

The Holy Spirit355 guided this missionary party, soon to include Luke,356 to Macedonia. Initially, the guidance of the spirit was prohibitive. They were not permitted to speak the Word in Asia (v. 6). We have no clue as to how this “forbidding” took place. It could have been circumstantial, such as a warning from civil officials or a sore throat, or it could have been an inner hesitation. It could also have been in the form of a vision or some prophetic utterance. By whatever means, it was recognized as the guidance of the Holy Spirit. It was not yet God’s time for the evangelization of Asia. So, too, with Bithynia. For whatever reason, and by whatever means, they were prevented from entrance into Bithynia.357

The need for a more positive guidance was now required. Having arrived at Troas was something like the Israelites reaching the Red Sea: they could not see how they could go back and were not sure they could go forward. In both cases, God did act in a way that made His direction and will evident. Troas was a port city on the Aegean Sea, across from Macedonia. Since they could not preach in Asia or Bithynia, they must either go forward or turn back.

The “Macedonian vision” made the answer clear. Paul alone, it would seem, had the vision of a certain Macedonian man,358 who plead for him to “come over to Macedonia and help us” (16:9). The meaning of the vision was apparent, and Paul’s report of it was all that was needed for the whole group to conclude that God wanted them to go immediately to Macedonia, and thus they proceeded to travel across the sea from Troas to the island of Samothrace, then on to the port city of Neapolis on the other side, and finally on inland to Philippi, a principal city of Macedonia.

Conclusion

As we close this lesson, we shall take up in our next lesson where Paul and Silas and Timothy and Luke (and, perhaps others) arrive at Philippi. But I wish to conclude this message by noting the many ways in which the guidance of God was accomplished, resulting in the arrival of this party in Philippi. There was, first of all, the proposal of Paul to revisit the cities they had first evangelized. Then, this plan was modified by the disagreement between Paul and Barnabas, so that Barnabas went in one direction, with Mark, while Paul and Silas went in the other. The cities that Paul and Silas visited, and the route taken, seem, in many instances, to be based upon human decisions as to the best course. And yet the guidance of God in more direct ways was also evident. The Holy Spirit was recognized as prohibiting evangelization in Asia and Bithynia. And it was through a vision that the region of Macedonia was identified as the next evangelistic target. The choice of Philippi as the specific city in Macedonia seems to have been Paul’s choice, or that of the entire group.

Several things about the guidance of God should be underscored from our text. First, God’s will is not something about which Christians should worry or agonize, as though it were a mystery, a game of hide and seek, and as though we might miss it if we don’t go through all the right steps to discern it. God’s guidance, on the one hand, seems to be something about which no one worried much. We are not even told they spent time praying for it (though they might have). And God’s will was not something which we are given the impression they might have missed. A God who is sovereign will be sure to make His will known, and who will also be certain that we do not miss it. I think that there is too much emphasis on missing God’s will today, as though it is so vague we might not recognize it. Our text, consistent with the message of Acts, shows that our Lord is still in control, bring to pass those things He commanded and promised.

Second, God’s will is not something one finds out by the use of some formula. His guidance and direction is seen in a number of ways. God does not always guide by supernatural intervention. Indeed, He seldom guides by the spectacular and the miraculous means, unless it is necessary. He guides through men’s choices, by their differences, and by circumstances. We dare not look for divine guidance in but one or a few means or mechanisms, for His ways are higher than our own.

Finally, God’s will is not something we find out in advance, and then carry out. God’s will is progressively revealed, as we need to know. Seldom does God tell us what He wants us to do before the time to do it. So it is here. So it is most often.


333 A. T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1930), III, p. 241.

334 Cited by, Charles W. Carter and Ralph Earle, The Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1973), p. 223. Happily, Carter and Earle do not agree, as will be shown later on.

335 “Clarke argues with learning and force that there is nothing in the expression, sharp contention (vs. 39a), to justify the conclusion that ill will characterized either of them. That they were both perfectly sincere in their positions may well be granted. That they were both right from their respective points of view is possible.”

“Let us sum up the resultant facts: first, there appears to have been no breach of fellowship between Paul and Barnabas (1 Cor. 9:6); second, Barnabas was evidently right in giving Mark another chance, as his history reveals and as Paul later recognizes (see Col. 4:10; Philemon 24; 2 Tim. 4:11); third, two missionary parties went forth, each of which had special qualifications for its respective fields of service; fourth, the division appears to have had no ill effects on the church at Antioch, nor to have created any problems on the fields visited; fifth and finally, the incident apparently opened the door of opportunity for Silas to accompany Paul on his Second Missionary Journey, and thus to gain experience that developed him into one of Paul’s closest companions and most useful co-workers in the gospel ministry.”

“Thus we are taught the lesson from first-century Christianity that even great men may forcefully disagree on what they regard as principles and still maintain Christian grace and charity while proceeding on their respective courses, and that out of such vigorous disagreements of energetic men may come greater good than from apathetic acquiescence (Rom. 8:28).” Charles W. Carter and Ralph Earle, The Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1973), pp. 223-224.

336 This is, in no way, an admission of failure or wrong judgment on Paul’s part. It is, however, Paul’s recognition that the problems in Mark’s life which had once made him unprofitable and unfit for ministry to and with Paul were a part of the forgotten past. Mark was profitable and so, too, was the ministry of Barnabas in his life at a time of great need.

337 For example, how would Mark have handled the arrest and beating which Paul and Silas underwent in Philippi (Acts 16:19-24)?

338 From the disagreement between Paul and Barnabas it would seem that Barnabas was thinking primarily in terms of Mark, while Paul was thinking primarily of the ministry.

339 I would encourage you to read through Paul’s epistles in the light of his experiences in Acts. I do think that much of what Paul has written in his epistles has been shaped by his experiences, as described in Acts.

340 The Jerusalem Council was precipitated by the preaching of Paul and Barnabas. The council vindicated these two men, and renounced the authority and teaching of those who contradicted them. Silas was one of two men sent back to Antioch, to testify on behalf of the Jerusalem church that Paul and Barnabas were vindicated by the council. Silas was a much more forceful witness than Barnabas, who was a party in the dispute.

341 The church growth movement, in the name of homogeneity, even tends to promote this uniformity.

342 Due to our understanding of the teaching of Scripture, we grant this opportunity to exercise leadership in the church only to men, in order to obey the precepts of Scripture and the demonstrate the principle of headship (cf. 1 Corinthians 11:1-16; 14:34-36; 1 Timothy 2:11-15; 1 Peter 3:1-6).

343 There is a category of false teachers, a rather large category so far as the New Testament is concerned, of those whose spiritual condition--saved or unsaved--is unclear. Many of these false teachers could well be unsaved, although it is not clearly stated. The Old Testament counterpart would be men like Balaam, whose salvation is at least dubious. These New Testament false teachers are frequently referred to, but in a way that leaves their salvation in question, which may be deliberate. The following texts are illustrative of this “cloudy category” of false teachers: Acts 20:29-30; 2 Corinthians 11:13-14; Philippians 3:17-19; Colossians 2:8-23; 2 Thessalonians 2:1-2; 2 Timothy 2:14-19; 4:3-4, 15; Titus 1:10-16; 2 Peter 3:3-4, 16.

344 Note the contrast between the pleasure-seeking, pleasure promising false teachers, with the godly preaching of Paul and others, which leads to and requires steadfastness in the face of opposition and persecution. Godly preaching does not lead to prosperity, but to persecution. To this the Old Testament prophets would say a hearty “amen.”

345 “Silas had influence in the church in Jerusalem (verse 22) and was apparently a Roman citizen (16:37) also. He is the Silas or Silvanus of the epistles (1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Peter 5:12).” A. T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1930), III, p. 242.

346 This was, of course, Paul’s home and “stomping grounds,” where he was raised, but also where he seemed to serve, prior to Barnabas coming to look for him (cf. Acts 9:11, 30; 11:25; Galatians 1:21).

Robertson writes, “Paul would go ‘by the Gulf of Issus through the Syrian Gates, a narrow road between steep rocks and the sea, and then inland, probably past Tarsus and over Mt. Taurus by the Cilician gates’ (Page).” A. T. Robertson, III, p. 242.

347 “Derbe and Lystra are named in the reverse order from 14:6, since Paul approached them from the east on this occasion.” I. Howard Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, reprint, 1987), p. 259.

348 “It is not stated positively in which city Timothy lived. . . The natural inference is that Paul found Timothy at Lystra.” Charles W. Carter and Ralph Earle, The Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1973), p. 225.

349 “That the brothers in Lystra and Iconium should have known him better than those in Lystra and Derbe is quite natural: Lystra was much nearer to Iconium than to Derbe, although Lystra and Derbe were Lycaonian cities and Iconium was in Phrygia.” F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, Revised Edition (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988), p. 304.

350 “It was Timothy’s mixed parentage that made Paul decide to circumcise him before taking him along as his junior colleague. By Jewish law Timothy was a Jew, because he was the son of a Jewish mother, but because he was uncircumcised he was technically an apostate Jew. If Paul wished to maintain his links with the synagogue, he could not be seen to countenance apostasy. He set his face implacably against any move to circumcise Gentile believers like Titus (Gal. 2:3-5), but Timothy was in a different situation.” F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, Revised Edition (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988), p. 304.

351 “Now the plural is used: ‘they handed over the decrees.’ This was Silas’s duty, not Paul’s. . . . Paul himself, as we have seen, never invokes the Jerusalem ‘decrees’ when he deals with the practices which they forbid.” Bruce, p. 305.

“Paul’s silence about them in Corinth and elsewhere, although he could insist on acting in accord with the general practice of the churches (1 Cor. 11:16; 14:33f.), suggests that he preferred to argue a case from basic principles rather than in the first instance by an appeal to authority.” Marshall, p. 261.

352 I am amazed at the way this text is cited as a “discipleship” text. It is not a discipleship text. Discipleship is for all who come to the faith. Paul speaks here of selecting only those who are faithful men, those who are disciples. Paul is teaching Timothy to perpetuate his gift and ministry through faithful men who have the gift and the calling to do as he is doing--teaching. Men who are gifted should seek those who are faithful and who are similarly gifted, and pour their lives into them, thus perpetuating the ministry of their own gift through others.

353 I think that Paul not only “had Timothy circumcised” but that he, in fact, circumcised Timothy himself.

354 This expression, “the Phrygian and Galatian region,” is the center of much discussion and debate. The issue centers about the “North/South Galatian Theories.” The basic question is whether the first missionary journey included “Galatia” (South Galatia--Galatia in a more generic sense) and thus the Book of Galatians is written to the saints in these cities, or whether “Galatia” is “North Galatia” (the more technical use of Galatia), visited later by Paul. Since this burning issue does not change the meaning or relevance of our text, I will pass by this matter. For further discussion on this question, cf. Marshall, pp. 261-262, or one of the commentaries on Galatians.

355 Notice that the Holy Spirit is also called the “Spirit of Jesus,” linking the ministry of Paul and Silas and the others directly with that of our Lord. The ministry of the Holy Spirit is directly related to that of the Lord Jesus.

356 Note the “we” of verse 10. Luke will come and go in Acts, as indicated by the presence or absence of the pronoun “we.”

357 It is interesting to note in 1 Peter 1:1 that Bithynia is one place where the gospel did reach, as indicated by Peter’s reference to saints in that place. What God prohibited Paul and Silas from doing, He did lead someone else to do.

358 Some have speculated that this “certain man” was, in fact, Luke, but this is highly speculative, and, in my mind, unlikely, since Luke includes himself (“we”) among those who, after the dream was reported by Paul, concluded that they should immediately proceed to Macedonia.

Related Topics: Forgiveness, Issues in Church Leadership/Ministry, Leadership

A Journey of Faith: A Study of the Life of Moses

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Moses' life began as a journey of faith - his parents' faith when they chose to trust God for the protection of their baby boy. His life continued as a life of faith as God led him step by step to carry out the purpose He had for Moses. My prayer as you study the life of Moses is that you would grow deeper in your own journey of faith, that you would be encouraged and be willing to let God work in and through you to carry out His purpose(s) for you.


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