PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS OF MODERN TRANSLATIONS

UBS4	NKJV	NRSV	TEV	NJB
Paul Defends Himself Before Agrippa	Paul's Early Life	Paul's Defense Before Agrippa (25:13-26:32)	Paul Defends Himself Before Agrippa	Paul Appears Before King Agrippa 25:13-26:1
26:1-11	26:1-11	26:1	26:1	Paul's Speech Before King Agrippa
		26:2-3	26:2-3	26:2-3
		26:4-8	26:4-8	26:4-8
		26:9-11	26:9-11	26:9-11
Paul Tells of His Conversion	Paul Recounts His Conversion		Paul Tells of His Conversion
26:12-18	26:12-18	26:12-18	26:12-18	26:12-18
Paul's Testimony to Jews and Gentiles	Paul's Post-conversion Life		Paul Tells of His Work
26:19-23	26:19-23	26:19-23	26:19-23	26:19-23
Paul Appeals to Agrippa to Believe				His Hearers' Reactions
26:24-29	26:24-32	26:24-29	26:24	26:24-29
			26:25-27
			26:28
			26:29
26:30-32		26:30-32	26:30-32	26:30-32

READING CYCLE THREE (from "A Guide to Good Bible Reading")

FOLLOWING THE ORIGINAL AUTHOR'S INTENT AT THE PARAGRAPH LEVEL

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

Read the chapter in one sitting. Identify the subjects. Compare your subject divisions with the five modern translations. Paragraphing is not inspired, but it is the key to following the original author's intent, which is the heart of interpretation. Every paragraph has one and only one main subject.

1. First paragraph

2. Second paragraph

3. Third paragraph

4. Etc.

 

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:1
 ¹Agrippa said to Paul, "You are permitted to speak for yourself." Then Paul stretched out his hand and proceeded to make his defense:

26:1 "stretched out his hand" This was a gesture of greeting and oratorical introduction (cf. Acts 12:17; 13:16 and 21:40, in which gestures of the hand are used for attention and silence).

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:2-3
 ²"In regard to all the things of which I am accused by the Jews, I consider myself fortunate, King Agrippa, that I am about to make my defense before you today; ³especially because you are an expert in all customs and questions among the Jews; therefore I beg you to listen to me patiently.

26:2-3 Paul introduces his defense in a typical formal and flattering way, as he did in his trial before Felix (cf. 24:10), which was probably a culturally expected necessity.

26:2 "In regard to all the things of which I am accused by the Jews" Agrippa II had been put in charge of the Temple and Priesthood by Rome. Although pro-Roman and educated in Rome, he understood the intricacies of the Jewish faith (cf. v. 3).

▣ "fortunate" This is the same term which introduces each of the Beatitudes of Matt. 5:3-12; Luke 6:20-22; and Ps. 1:1 in the Septuagint.

26:3

NASB, NKJV"all customs and questions"
NRSV"all customs and controversies"
TEV"all of the Jewish customs and disputes"
NJB"customs and controversy"

The first term is ethōn, from which we get the English word "ethnic," or the cultural aspect of a particular people group.

The second term dzētēmatōn is used often in Acts to denote debates and arguments over aspects of rabbinical Judaism (cf. 15:2; 18:15; 23:19; 25:19; 26:3). These were not uncommon because of the existence of several factions within first century Judaism : Sadducees, Pharisees (also the theological factions of Shammai and Hillel), and the zealots.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:4-8
 ⁴"So then, all Jews know my manner of life from my youth up, which from the beginning was spent among my own nation and at Jerusalem; ⁵since they have known about me for a long time, if they are willing to testify, that I lived as a Pharisee according to the strictest sect of our religion. ⁶"And now I am standing trial for the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers; ⁷the promise to which our twelve tribes hope to attain, as they earnestly serve God night and day. And for this hope, O King, I am being accused by Jews. ⁸"Why is it considered incredible among you people if God does raise the dead?

26:4 "all Jews know my manner of life" Paul has repeated this several times (cf. Acts 22:3-5; 23:1; 24:16; 25:8). Paul had lived an exemplary life among the Jews in Jerusalem (cf. v. 5).

▣ "my own nation" It is uncertain where Paul grew up. This could refer to (1) Tarsus in Cilicia or (2) Jerusalem.

26:5 "if" This is a third class conditional sentence which means potential action. In this context Paul knows they could testify about his past, but they would not.

▣ "Pharisee according to the strictest sect of our religion" This was a theological sect of Judaism which emerged during the Maccabean Period. It was committed to the oral and written tradition. See Special Topic at 5:34.

26:6 "the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers" This refers to the OT prophecy of (1) the coming of the Messiah or (2) the resurrection of the dead (cf. 23:6; 24:15; Job 14:14-15; 19:25-27; Dan. 12:2). Paul saw "the Way" as the fulfillment of the OT (cf. Matt. 5:17-19; Galatians 3).

For "hope" see Special Topic at 2:25 and the Special Topic: The Kerygma at 2:14.

26:7 "our twelve tribes" The tribal lineage (children of Jacob) was still very important to the Jews. Many of the ten northern tribes never came back from Assyrian exile (722 b.c.). We know some tribal information from the NT.

1. Mary, Joseph, and Jesus were from the tribe of Judah (cf. Matt. 1:2-16; Luke 3:23-33; Rev. 5:5)

2. Anna's tribe is identified as Asher (cf. Luke 2:36)

3. Paul's tribe is identified as Benjamin (cf. Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5)

Herod the Great was jealous of this and had the Temple records, which showed genealogies, burned.

For "twelve" see Special Topic at 1:22.

▣ "hope" One wonders exactly which hope Paul is referring to. From the larger context one would assume the resurrection (cf. v. 8). See SPECIAL TOPIC: HOPE at 2:25.

▣ "as they earnestly serve God night and day" Paul loved his racial group (cf. Rom. 9:1-3). He knew how hard they tried to serve YHWH. He also uniquely knew the danger of legalism, dogmatism, and elitism.

"Night and day" was an idiom of intensity and regularity (cf. 20:31; Luke 2:37).

26:8 "Why is it considered incredible among you people" Paul is speaking to two groups:

1. Agrippa and other Jews present

2. the Gentiles present, such as Festus

 

▣ "if" This is a first class conditional sentence which is assumed to be true from the author's perspective or for his literary purposes.

▣ "God does raise the dead" This phrase speaks of the Jewish hope of a general resurrection (see Job 14:14-15; 19:25-27; Isa. 25:8; 26:19; Dan. 12:2-3), but Paul had Christ's resurrection specifically in mind (cf. I Cor. 15:1-28). These Sadducean accusers would be getting very nervous at this point (cf. 23:1-10).

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:9-11
 ⁹"So then, I thought to myself that I had to do many things hostile to the name of Jesus of Nazareth. ¹⁰And this is just what I did in Jerusalem; not only did I lock up many of the saints in prisons, having received authority from the chief priests, but also when they were being put to death I cast my vote against them. ¹¹And as I punished them often in all the synagogues, I tried to force them to blaspheme; and being furiously enraged at them, I kept pursuing them even to foreign cities."

26:9 Paul (egō, "I" and emautō, "myself") confesses his misdirected religious enthusiasm, which he now realizes was not the will of God (cf. I Tim. 1:13). He thought that by persecuting the followers of Jesus he was serving God and pleasing God. Paul's world and worldview totally changed on the Damascus road (cf. Acts 9).

▣ "the name" This Semitic idiom means "ther person of" (cf. 3:6,16). This is no magic formula, but a personal relationship!

▣ "Jesus of Nazareth" See Special Topics at 2:22.

26:10 "the saints" Literally this is "the holy ones." Paul knew now exactly whom he had persecuted and killed, God's people! What a shock, sorrow, and enlightenment Paul's Damascus vision must have been, a total reorientation of thought and life!

For "saints" see Special Topic at 9:13.

▣ "having received authority" Paul was the "official" persecutor for the Sanhedrin.

▣ "when they were being put to death" This shows the intensity of the persecution. The "Way" was not a minor issue; it was a life-and-death issue and it still is!

▣ "cast my vote against them" This is the technical word in Greek for an official vote either in the Sanhedrin or a local synagogue. But because no local synagogue could/would vote on death issues, it was probably the Sanhedrin. If it was in the Sanhedrin, then Paul had to have been married. The term originally meant "a pebble," which was used to cast a vote—either a black one or a white one (cf. Rev. 2:17)

26:11 "tried to force" This is an imperfect tense of a Greek term that means to force or compel (cf. 28:19), but here it is used in the sense of tried. It refers to a repeated action in past time.

▣ "to blaspheme" Saul attempted to force them to publicly affirm their faith in Jesus as the Messiah and then condemn them. In later persecutions, believers were forced to reject faith in Christ, but this context is a different cultural situation.

NASB"being furiously enraged"
NKJV"being exceedingly enraged"
NRSV"I was so furiously enraged"
TEV"I was so furious"
NJB"my fury against them was so extreme"

This is a very intense adverb ("much more") and participle (present middle [deponent]). Festus uses the same root for Paul (i.e., rave in 26:24)

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:12-18
 ¹²"While so engaged as I was journeying to Damascus with the authority and commission of the chief priests, ¹³at midday, O King, I saw on the way a light from heaven, brighter than the sun, shining all around me and those who were journeying with me. ¹⁴And when we had all fallen to the ground, I heard a voice saying to me in the Hebrew dialect, ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting Me? It is hard for you to kick against the goads.' ¹⁵And I said, ‘Who are You, Lord?' And the Lord said, ‘I am Jesus whom you are persecuting. ¹⁶'But get up and stand on your feet; for this purpose I have appeared to you, to appoint you a minister and a witness not only to the things which you have seen, but also to the things in which I will appear to you; ¹⁷rescuing you from the Jewish people and from the Gentiles, to whom I am sending you, ¹⁸to open their eyes so that they may turn from darkness to light and from the dominion of Satan to God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins and an inheritance among those who have been sanctified by faith in Me.'"

26:12 Luke records Paul's personal testimony three times in Acts, 9:1-31; 22:3-21, and here. God's mercy and election towards Saul are so obvious. If God in Christ can forgive and use this man, He can forgive and use anyone!

26:13 See full note in 9:3.

The fact that there is variation in details in all three places where Paul shares his conversion speaks to the accuracy of Luke's recording of Paul's legal defenses (and, thereby, also the sermons) in Acts!

26:14 See full note at 9:4.

Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology, has a great paragraph on the vital connection between Jesus and His church.

"The most important fact about judgment is that we are judged in relation to Christ. In turn, this is a judgment in relation to his people. Our true relationship to him is reflected in our relationship to his people. To serve them is to serve him and to neglect them is to neglect him (Matt. 25:31-46). Never does the New Testament allow one to divorce his relationship to Christ from that to other people. To persecute them is to persecute him (Acts 9:1-2,4-5; 22:4,7-8; 26:10-11,14-15). To sin against the brethren is to sin against Christ (1 Cor. 8:12). Though we are not saved by our works, we are judged by them; for they reflect our true relationship to Christ and his grace. Judgment is merciful toward them that accept judgment, and judgment is merciful toward them who are merciful (Matt. 5:7)" (p. 333).

▣ "Hebrew dialect" In Paul's three personal testimonies in Acts, this is the only one in which the detail of Jesus speaking Aramaic is mentioned. See full note at 22:2.

▣ "Saul, Saul" This last half of v. 14 and the last part of v. 15, as well as vv. 16-18, are a quote from Jesus to Paul on the Damascus road.

▣ "It is hard for you to kick against the goads" This phrase is unique to this context, possibly because it was a Greek/Latin proverb, not Jewish. Paul always knew to what audience he was speaking and how to communicate to them! This is referring to

1. a pointed stick used by those who directed oxen to pull carts and plows

2. projections on the front of the cart or wagon to keep the animals from kicking backward

This proverb was used to denote the human futility of resisting divine initiatives.

26:15 See complete note at 9:5.

▣ "Jesus whom you are persecuting" This shows the close connection between Jesus and His church, (cf. Matt. 10:40; 25:40,45). To hurt them is to hurt Him!

26:16 "‘But get up and stand on your feet'" These are both aorist active imperatives. This sounds very familiar to the prophetic call of Jeremiah 1:7-8 and Ezekiel 2:1,3.

▣ "'for this purpose I have appeared to you'" God had a specific assignment for Paul. Paul's conversion and call are not typical, but extraordinary! God's mercy is powerfully demonstrated as well as God's election for Kingdom service and kingdom growth.

▣ "I have appeared to you. . .I will appear to you" These are both forms of horaō. The first is aorist passive indicative and the second is future passive indicative. In a sense Jesus is promising Paul future personal encounters. Paul had several divine visions during his ministry (cf. 18:9-10; 22:17-21; 23:11; 27:23-24). Paul also mentions a training period in Arabia in which he was taught by Jesus (cf. Gal. 1:12,17,18).

▣ "to appoint" This is literally "to take into the hand." It was an idiom of destiny (cf. 22:14; 26:16).

▣ "a minister and a witness" The first term literally referred to an "under-rower" on a ship. It came to be used idiomatically for a servant.

From the second term, martus, we get the English term "martyr." It had a double meaning:

1. a witness (cf. Luke 11:48; 24:48; Acts 1:8,22; 5:32; 10:39,41; 22:15)

2. a martyr (cf. Acts 22:20)

Both connotations were the personal experience of most of the Apostles and many, many believers throughout the ages!

26:17 "rescuing you" This is a present middle participle. In the middle voice this word usually means to select or choose. Normally it is translated "rescue or deliver" (cf. 7:10,34; 12:11; 23:27). God's providential care is evident here. Paul received several of these visions during his ministry in order to encourage him. This possibly alludes to the Septuagint's reading of Isa. 48:10 or possibly Jer. 1:7-8,19.

▣ "from the Jewish people and from the Gentiles" Paul will suffer opposition from both groups (cf. II Cor. 11:23-27).

▣ "to whom I am sending you" The "I" is emphatic (egō) here as in v. 15. The verb is apostellō (present active indicative), from which we get the term "Apostle." As the Father sent Jesus, so Jesus sends His witnesses, apostles (cf. John 20:21).

26:18 "to open. . .turn" These are both aorist infinitives. This may be an allusion to Isa. 42:7. The Messiah will open blind eyes as a metaphor for opening spiritual eyes (cf. John 9). Gospel knowledge and understanding must precede the call to a volitional response (repentance and faith). Satan tries to close our minds and hearts (cf. II Cor. 4:4) and the Spirit tries to open them (cf. John 6:44,65; 16:8-11).

▣ "from darkness. . .from the dominion of Satan" Notice the parallelism. "Dominion" is the Greek term exousia, usually translated authority or power (cf. NKJV, NRSV, TEV). The world is under the influence of personal evil (cf. Eph. 2:2; 4:14; 6:10-18; II Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:12-13, see Special Topic at 5:3).

In the OT, particularly the prophecies of Isaiah, the Messiah (see Special Topic at 2:31) was to bring sight to the blind. It was both a physical prediction and also metaphorical for truth (cf. Isa. 29:18; 32:3; 35:5; 42:7,16).

SPECIAL TOPIC: AUTHORITY (EXOUSIA)

▣ "to light. . .to God" Notice the parallelism. Ancient humans feared darkness. It became a metaphor for evil. Light, on the other hand, became a metaphor for truth, healing, and purity. A good parallel passage on the light of the gospel is John 3:17-21.

▣ "that they may receive" The verbal in this phrase is another aorist infinitive. There is no "may" in the Greek text (cf. TEV, NJB). The only condition in this context is "by faith in Me" clause, which is put last in the Greek sentence for emphasis. All of God's blessings are contingent on a faith response (i.e., receive, cf. John 1:12) to His grace (cf. Eph. 2:8-9). This is the NT counterpoint of conditional covenants in the OT.

▣ "forgiveness of sins" Luke uses this term (aphesis) often.

1. In Luke 4:18 it is used in an OT quote from Isa. 61:1, where it means release, which reflects the LXX usage of Exod. 18:2 and Lev. 16:26.

2. In Luke 1:77; 3:3; 24:47; Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18, it means "the removal of the guilt of sin," which reflects the LXX usage of Deut. 15:3, where it is used of the cancellation of a debt.

Luke's usage may reflect the New Covenant promise of Jer. 31:34.

▣ "and an inheritance" This is the Greek term klēros, which denotes the casting of lots (cf. Lev. 16:8; Jonah 1:7; Acts 1:26) to determine an inheritance, as in Gen. 48:6; Exod. 6:8; and Josh. 13:7-8. In the OT the Levites did not have a land inheritance, only the 48 Levitical cities (cf. Deut. 10:9; 12:12), but the Lord Himself was their inheritance (cf. Num. 18:20). Now in the NT all believers are priests (cf. I Pet. 2:5,9; Rev. 1:6). The Lord (YHWH) is our inheritance; we are His children (cf. Rom. 8:15-17).

▣ "those who have been sanctified" This is a perfect passive participle. Believers (faithers) have been and continue to be sanctified by faith in Christ (cf. 20:21). See Special Topic at 9:32. Neither Satan nor the demonic can take this away (cf. Rom. 8:31-39).

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:19-23
 ¹⁹"So, King Agrippa, I did not prove disobedient to the heavenly vision, ²⁰but kept declaring both to those of Damascus first, and also at Jerusalem and then throughout all the region of Judea, and even to the Gentiles, that they should repent and turn to God, performing deeds appropriate to repentance. ²¹"For this reason some Jews seized me in the temple and tried to put me to death. ²²"So, having obtained help from God, I stand to this day testifying both to small and great, stating nothing but what the Prophets and Moses said was going to take place; ²³that the Christ was to suffer, and that by reason of His resurrection from the dead He would be the first to proclaim light both to the Jewish people and to the Gentiles."

26:19 "So, King Agrippa" See note at 25:13, Intro. Paul was trying to reach this man for the gospel (cf. vv. 26-29).

▣ "I did not prove disobedient" The Greek term peithō is from the name of the goddess of persuasion. In this context it has the alpha privative, which negates it, thereby denoting "disobedience" (cf. Luke 1:17; Rom. 1:30; II Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:16; 3:3). So, in a sense, this was a forceful way in Koine Greek to negate something, but in this context, it is a literary way of affirming Paul's obedience!

▣ "heavenly vision" This refers to Paul's Damascus road encounter with the resurrected, glorified Christ.

26:20 "Damascus. . .Jerusalem" See Acts 9:19-25,27 for Paul's ministry in Damascus; 9:26-30 for Paul's ministry in Jerusalem and possibly 9:31 for Paul's ministry in Judea.

▣ "repent and turn to God" Paul's message (cf. Acts 20:21) was the same as

1. John the Baptist's (cf. Matt. 3:1-12; Mark 1:4-8)

2. Jesus' early message (cf. Mark. 1:15)

3. Peter (cf. Acts 3:16,19)

The Greek term repent means a change of mind. The Hebrew word means a change of action. Both are involved in true repentance. See Special Topic at 2:38. The two New Covenant requirements (which are also old Covenant requirements) for salvation are repentance (turning from self and sin) and faith (turning to God in Christ).

▣ "performing deeds appropriate to repentance" The believer's lifestyle (present active participle) confirms his/her initial faith commitment (cf. Matt. 3:8; Luke 3:8; Eph. 2:8-10, James and I John). God wants a people who reflect His character. Believers are called to Christlikeness (cf. Rom. 8:28-29; Gal. 4:19; Eph. 1:4; 2:10). The gospel is

1. a person to welcome

2. truth about that person to believe

3. a life like that person's to live

 

26:21 It was not Paul's theological views, but his preaching to and inclusion of "the Gentiles" (cf. v. 20) that caused the riot in the Temple.

▣ "tried to put me to death" This is an imperfect middle (deponent) indicative (tried again and again) with an aorist middle infinitive (to kill). The Jews (cf. Acts 9:24) from Asia (cf. 20:3,19; 21:27,30) tried to kill Paul several times.

26:22 "testifying both to small and great" This is an inclusive Semitic idiom. It is Paul's affirmation (like Peter's, cf. 10:38) that he, like God, is not respecter of persons (cf. Deut. 10:17; II Chr. 19:7, see fuller note at 10:34). He preaches to all humans.

▣ "stating nothing but what the Prophets and Moses said" Paul is asserting that his message and audience (i.e., Gentiles) are not an innovation, but OT prophecy. He is simply following OT guidelines (see Special Topic at 1:8), promises and truths.

26:23 Notice that Paul's message consisted of three parts:

1. the Messiah suffered for human forgiveness

2. the Messiah's resurrection was first fruits of all believers' resurrection

3. this Good News was for Jews and Gentiles

These three theological aspects must be combined with verse 20 which shows how we personally receive Christ (repentance, turning from self and sin; faith, turning to God in Christ).

▣ "that the Christ was to suffer" For the basic theological points of the Apostolic sermons in Acts see Special Topic at 2:14. It was the stumbling block for the Jews (cf. I Cor. 1:23), but it was an OT prediction (cf. Gen. 3:15; Psalm 22; Isaiah 53). This same truth is found in Luke 24:7,26,44-47.

The Greek "the Christ" reflects the Hebrew title "the Messiah." Paul asserts that Jesus, who was crucified, was truly the Christ, the Promised One, the Anointed One (cf. 2:36; 3:6,18,20; 4:10,26; 13:33; 17:3; 26:23, see special Topic: Messiah at 2:31).

▣ "that by reason of His resurrection from the dead" Because of this text, and Rom. 1:4, there developed an early heresy called "adoptionism" (see glossary), which asserted that the human Jesus was rewarded for a good life by being raised from the dead. However, this aberrant Christology ignored all the texts about His pre-existence, such as John 1:1; Phi. 2:6-11; Col. 1:15-17; and Heb. 1:2-3. Jesus has always existed; He has always been divine; He was incarnated in time.

▣ "the light" Light is an ancient metaphor of truth and purity (cf. v. 18; Isa. 9:2; 42:6-7).

▣ "to the Jewish people and to the Gentiles" There is only one gospel for both groups (cf. Eph. 2:11-3:13). This was the mystery that had been hidden from the ages, but is now fully revealed in Christ. All humans are made in the image of the one creator God (cf. Gen. 1:26-27). Genesis 3:15 promises that God will provide salvation for fallen humanity. Isaiah affirms the universality of the Messiah (e.g., Isa. 2:2-4; 42:4,6,10-12; 45:20-25; 49:6; 51:4; 52:10; 60:1-3; and also Mic. 5:4-5).

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:24-29
 ²⁴While Paul was saying this in his defense, Festus said in a loud voice, "Paul, you are out of your mind! Your great learning is driving you mad." ²⁵But Paul said, "I am not out of my mind, most excellent Festus, but I utter words of sober truth. ²⁶For the king knows about these matters, and I speak to him also with confidence, since I am persuaded that none of these things escape his notice; for this has not been done in a corner. ²⁷King Agrippa, do you believe the Prophets? I know that you do." ²⁸Agrippa replied to Paul, "In a short time you will persuade me to become a Christian." ²⁹And Paul said, "I would wish to God, that whether in a short or long time, not only you, but also all who hear me this day, might become such as I am, except for these chains."

26:24 "Festus said in a loud voice" Paul's message was unbelievable to him. His world-view and culture, education, and position biased his ability to understand.

▣ "Your great learning is driving you mad" In a roundabout way this shows the depth, clarity, and persuasiveness of Paul's defense.

26:25 "of sober truth" The Greek term sōphrosunē comes from two Greek words, "sound" and "mind." They mean a balanced approach to life and thinking. It is the antonym of "out of your mind" and "mad" (cf. v. 24).

▣ "the truth" See Special Topic below.

SPECIAL TOPIC: "TRUTH" IN PAUL'S WRITINGS

26:26-28 "the king knows about these matters" There has been much discussion about these verses. Apparently Paul wanted to use Agrippa II to confirm his testimony and if possible bring him to acceptance of its truth. Verse 28 could be translated, "Do you want me to be a Christian witness?"

26:26 "I speak to him also with confidence" Luke often uses this term in Acts, it is always connected with Paul (cf. 9:27,28; 13:46; 14:3; 18:26; 19:8). It is usually translated "speaking with boldness" (cf. I Thess. 2:2). This is one of the manifestations of being Spirit-filled. It was the object of Paul's prayer request in Eph. 6:20. Gospel proclamation with boldness is the Spirit's goal for every believer.

▣ "for this has not been done in a corner" Peter made this same assertion again and again to his first hearers in Jerusalem (cf. 2:22,33). The facts of the gospel were verifiable and historical.

26:27 Paul knew that Agrippa was knowledgeable of the OT. Paul is claiming that his gospel message was clearly discernable from OT Scriptures. It was not a "new" or "innovative" message! It was fulfilled prophecy.

26:28

NASB"In a short time you will persuade me to become a Christian"
NKJV"You almost persuade me to become a Christian"
NRSV"Are you so quickly persuading me to become a Christian"
TEV"In this short time do you think you will make me a Christian"
NJB"A little more, and your arguments would make a Christian of me"

There is a lexical option about how to understand oligō (meaning small or little), "in a short time" (NASB, NRSV, TEV), or "with little effort" (NKJV, NJB). This same confusion is also present in v. 29.

There is also a textual variant related to this phrase: "to do" or "to make" (poieō) in the manuscripts P⁷⁴, א, A (UBS⁴ gives it an "A" rating), or "to become" in MS E and the Vulgate and Peshitta translations.

The meaning in the larger context is obvious. Paul wanted to present the gospel in such a way that those who knew and affirmed the OT (Agrippa) would be brought under conviction or at the least, affirm the relevance of these OT prophecies.

▣ "Christian" The people of "the Way" (followers of Christ) were first called Christians at Antioch of Syria (cf. 11:26). The only other place this name appears in Acts is on the lips of Agrippa II, which means the name had become widely known.

26:29 "I would wish to God" Verse 29 is a partial Fourth class conditional sentence (an with the optative mood), which expresses a desire that might remotely come to reality. It is usually a prayer or wish. Paul wished all of his hearers, Roman and Jewish, would come to faith in Christ like himself.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 26:30-32
 ³⁰The king stood up and the governor and Bernice, and those who were sitting with them, ³¹and when they had gone aside, they began talking to one another, saying, "This man is not doing anything worthy of death or imprisonment." ³²And Agrippa said to Festus, "This man might have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar."

26:30 How did Luke get this information? It was a private conversation between governmental leaders (and their families).

1. a servant have heard this and passed it on to Luke?

2. Luke assumes what they said by subsequent statements

3. Luke uses this opportunity to reinforce his literary purpose of showing that neither Paul or Christianity is a threat to Rome

 

26:31-32 "This man might have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar" This shows one of Luke's major purposes in writing Acts, which was to show that Christianity was not treasonous to Rome. This is a second class conditional sentence which makes a false assertion to accentuate a truth. This man might have been set free (which he was not) if he had not appealed to Caesar (which he did).

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

These discussion questions are provided to help you think through the major issues of this section of the book. They are meant to be thought-provoking, not definitive.

1. How is this defense different from the defense before Festus and Felix?

2. How does Paul's personal testimony fit into his overall defense?

3. Why was a suffering Messiah so alien to the Jews?

4. Why is verse 28 so difficult to interpret?

5. How does the discussion of Festus, Agrippa and Bernice (vv. 30-31) fit into Luke's overarching literary purpose in Acts?

 

Copyright © 2012 Bible Lessons International

PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS OF MODERN TRANSLATIONS

UBS4	NKJV	NRSV	TEV	NJB
Paul on the Island of Malta	Paul's Ministry on Malta	Paul in Malta	In Malta	Waiting in Malta
28:1-10	28:1-10	28:1-6	28:1-6	28:1-6
		28:7-10	28:7-10	28:7-10
Paul Arrives at Rome	Arrival at Rome	The Journey to Rome	From Malta to Rome	From Malta to Rome
28:11-15	28:11-16	28:11-15	28:11-15	28:11-14
			In Rome	28:15-16
28:16		28:16	28:16
Paul Preaches in Rome	Paul's Ministry at Rome	Paul and the Jews of Rome		Paul Makes Contact with the Roman Jews
28:17-22	28:17-31	28:17-22	28:17-20	28:17-20
			28:21-22	28:21-22
				Paul's Declaration to Roman Jews
28:23-29		28:23-29	28:23-27	28:23-27
				(26-27)
			28:28	28:28
		Conclusion	28:29	Epilogue
28:30-31		28:30-31	28:30-31	28:30-31

READING CYCLE THREE (from "A Guide to Good Bible Reading")

FOLLOWING THE ORIGINAL AUTHOR'S INTENT AT THE PARAGRAPH LEVEL

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

Read the chapter in one sitting. Identify the subjects. Compare your subject divisions with the five modern translations. Paragraphing is not inspired, but it is the key to following the original author's intent, which is the heart of interpretation. Every paragraph has one and only one main subject.

1. First paragraph

2. Second paragraph

3. Third paragraph

4. Etc.

 

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:1-6
 ¹When they had been brought safely through, then we found out that the island was called Malta. ²The natives showed us extraordinary kindness; for because of the rain that had set in and because of the cold, they kindled a fire and received us all. ³But when Paul had gathered a bundle of sticks and laid them on the fire, a viper came out because of the heat and fastened itself on his hand. ⁴When the natives saw the creature hanging from his hand, they began saying to one another, "Undoubtedly this man is a murderer, and though he has been saved from the sea, justice has not allowed him to live." ⁵However he shook the creature off into the fire and suffered no harm. ⁶But they were expecting that he was about to swell up or suddenly fall down dead. But after they had waited a long time and had seen nothing unusual happen to him, they changed their minds and began to say that he was a god.

28:1 "they had been brought safely through" This is the term sōzō (cf. 27:31) with dia prefixed. It was used regularly for someone reaching safety (cf. 23:24; 27:44; 28:1,4). Luke even uses it for physical healing in Luke 7:3.

The aorist passive participle shows that Luke attributed the safety as being provided by God (passive voice) according to His word (cf. 27:21-26).

▣ "Malta" The Phoenician sailors also called this island Melita, which was a Canaanite term that meant "refuge." This was originally a Phoenician colony. It is located between Sicily and North Africa. It is only eighteen miles long and eight miles wide, but its location afforded great maritime commercial value. It has several good harbors.

28:2 "natives" This is literally "barbarians." This is not a derogatory title, but simply refers to anyone who did not speak Greek or Latin.

NASB"extraordinary kindness"
NKJV, NRSV,
NJB"unusual kindness"
TEV"were very friendly"

This intensified phrase has the term philanthrōpos, which is literally "lover of men" as in 27:3. The specific care and provision given by the natives was because they saw Paul's miraculous encounter with a serpent on the beach. This, and other miraculous acts (cf. vv. 7-10), opened the door for evangelism! Paul always had a mind toward gospel proclamation (cf. I Cor. 9:19-23).

28:3 "Paul had gathered a bundle of sticks" This really shows Paul's humility. He worked along with all the others. No elitism since the road to Damascus!

▣ "a viper. . .fastened itself on his hand" This term's basic meaning is "to attach." It can mean "a bite" or "coiled around."

28:4 "the creature" This term for "creature" became the medical term for poisonous snakes (cf. 10:12).

▣ "justice has not allowed him to live" "Justice" or "Fate" was the name of one of their gods. They were expressing the irony of the situation, similar to Amos 5:19. Verse 6 shows that the native islanders were superstitious polytheists.

28:6 These islanders had personal experience with the snakes on the island. Their radical change of attitude is similar to the pagan reactions to the miraculous in Acts 14:11-13.

▣ "to swell up" This is one of many medical terms used by Luke (cf. v. 8). It is found only here in the NT.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:7-10
 ⁷Now in the neighborhood of that place were lands belonging to the leading man of the island, named Publius, who welcomed us and entertained us courteously three days. ⁸And it happened that the father of Publius was lying in bed afflicted with recurrent fever and dysentery; and Paul went in to see him and after he had prayed, he laid his hands on him and healed him. ⁹After this had happened, the rest of the people on the island who had diseases were coming to him and getting cured. ¹⁰They also honored us with many marks of respect; and when we were setting sail, they supplied us with all we needed.

28:7 "the leading man" This word means some type of governmental official, literally, "the first" (cf. 13:50; Luke 19:47, "of people"; 16:12, "of a city"). It has been found in two inscriptions on this island, one Greek and one Latin. Rome had allowed this island self-rule and at some point, full Roman citizenship.

28:8 "lying in bed afflicted with recurrent fever and dysentery" Malta was known for its fever which came from microbes in their goats' milk.

▣ "laid his hands on him and healed him" See Special Topis: Laying on of Hands at 6:6.

28:9 Both of these verbs are imperfect, which implies repeated or continuing action in past time (indicative mood). They kept coming. God kept healing them through Paul.

The Greek verb behind the English translation "getting cured" is therapeuō, from which we get the English "therapy." The term can be used for "service" as well as "healing." Only a specific context can determine which one is appropriate.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:11-15
 ¹¹At the end of three months we set sail on an Alexandrian ship which had wintered at the island, and which had the Twin Brothers for its figurehead. ¹²After we put in at Syracuse, we stayed there for three days. ¹³From there we sailed around and arrived at Rhegium, and a day later a south wind sprang up, and on the second day we came to Puteoli. ¹⁴There we found some brethren, and were invited to stay with them for seven days; and thus we came to Rome. ¹⁵And the brethren, when they heard about us, came from there as far as the Market of Appius and Three Inns to meet us; and when Paul saw them, he thanked God and took courage.

28:11 "an Alexandrian ship" This was probably another large grain ship going to the Bay of Naples from Egypt (cf. 27:6,38).

▣ "ship which had wintered at the island" The Mediterranean Sea was too stormy to navigate during the winter months. The shipping lanes opened back up in late February or March.

▣ "the Twin Brothers for its figurehead" This refers to Zeus' twin sons, Caster and Pollox. They were the patrons of sailors in the Roman pantheon. Poseidon had given them power and control over wind, waves, and storms. Their special constellation was Gemini. Apparently there was a carving of them on the bow, two little elf-like men.

28:12 "Syracuse" This was the principal city of Sicily located on the eastern coast. This port was eighty miles north of Malta.

28:13 "sailed around" The ancient uncial manuscripts א (Siniaticus), and B (Vaticanus) have "weighing anchor," which was a technical sailing term (so characteristic of Luke), but other ancient manuscripts P⁷⁴, א^c, and A have "passing by," like 16:8.

▣ "Rhegium" This is the city at the southwestern tip of Italy.

▣ "Puteoli" This was the grain importing center for Rome in the Bay of Naples. They traveled about 180 miles in two days.

28:14 "There we found some brethren" There were existing Christian congregations in Italy (cf. v. 15) and Rome who embraced Paul.

28:15 "Market of Appius" This was the end of the barge trip from the south of Italy and the beginning of the great Roman highway called the Appian Way. It was forty-three miles to Rome.

▣ "Three Inns" This was a rest stop about thirty-three miles from Rome.

▣ "Paul. . .took courage" Paul apparently had become discouraged again. He seems to have been prone to this. Jesus appeared to him personally several times to encourage him.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:16
 ¹⁶When we entered Rome, Paul was allowed to stay by himself, with the soldier who was guarding him.

28:16 "When we entered Rome" This was not the way Paul expected to come to Rome. But, this was God's way to arrange for Paul to speak to the Roman governmental, military, and religious leaders.

▣ "Paul was allowed to stay by himself with the soldier who was guarding him" Paul was placed under house arrest. The testimony of the officer who brought him was instrumental in this decision.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:17-22
 ¹⁷After three days Paul called together those who were the leading men of the Jews, and when they came together, he began saying to them, "Brethren, though I had done nothing against our people or the customs of our fathers, yet I was delivered as a prisoner from Jerusalem into the hands of the Romans. ¹⁸And when they had examined me, they were willing to release me because there was no ground for putting me to death. ¹⁹But when the Jews objected, I was forced to appeal to Caesar, not that I had any accusation against my nation. ²⁰For this reason, therefore, I requested to see you and to speak with you, for I am wearing this chain for the sake of the hope of Israel." ²¹They said to him, "We have neither received letters from Judea concerning you, nor have any of the brethren come here and reported or spoken anything bad about you. ²²But we desire to hear from you what your views are; for concerning this sect, it is known to us that it is spoken against everywhere."

28:17 "Paul called together those who were the leading men of the Jews" This was Paul's standard approach (cf. Rom. 1:16; 2:9). He explains his current circumstances and opens the door for a gospel presentation.

28:18-19 Here again Luke's apologetic purpose can be clearly seen! Christianity was not a threat to the Roman government.

28:19 "the Jews objected" This phraseology seems strange spoken to Jewish leaders in Rome. Luke uses Ioudaios (Jews) in two senses.

1. nationality – 2:5,11; 9:22; 10:22,28; 11:19; 13:56; 14:1; 16:1,3,20; 17:1; 17:10,17; 18:2,4,5,19; 19:10,17,34; 20:21; 21:21,39; 22:3,12; 24:5,9; 24:24,27; 25:8,9,24; 20:7; 28:17

2. those who had eyewitness knowledge of the last week of Jesus' life – 2:15; 10:39

He also used it in different evaluations.

1. in a negative sense – 9:23; 12:3,11; 13:45,50; 14:2,4,5,19; 17:5,13; 18:12,14,28; 19:13,14,33; 20:3,19; 21:11,27; 22:30; 23:12,20,27; 24:19; 25:2,7,10,15; 26:2,21; 28:19

2. in a positive sense – 13:43; 14:1; 18:2,24; 21:20

Possibly the best text in Acts which shows the different connotations of this term is 14:1-2.

28:20 "for the sake of the hope of Israel" Paul is addressing these Jewish leaders in such a way as to establish a relationship with his audience. He tries to find a common ground with these Jewish leaders in "the hope of Israel." For Paul, that referred to Jesus, for them, the Promised Coming One, the Messiah or possibly to the resurrection!

28:21 This lack of information about Paul is surprising in light of Paul's ministry on three mission journeys and the events and rumors in Jerusalem.

28:22 It is obvious that the news about Jesus was spreading and that many were responding to the gospel. In Jewish circles this was not good news! However, these Jewish leaders were willing to give Paul a hearing.

▣ "This sect" See Special Topic: Jesus the Nazarene at 2:22.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:23-29
 ²³When they had set a day for Paul, they came to him at his lodging in large numbers; and he was explaining to them by solemnly testifying about the kingdom of God and trying to persuade them concerning Jesus, from both the Law of Moses and from the Prophets, from morning until evening. ²⁴Some were being persuaded by the things spoken, but others would not believe. ²⁵And when they did not agree with one another, they began leaving after Paul had spoken one parting word, "The Holy Spirit rightly spoke through Isaiah the prophet to your fathers, ²⁶saying, ‘Go to this people and say, You will keep on hearing, but will not understand; And you will keep on seeing, but will not perceive; ²⁷For the heart of this people has become dull, And with their ears they scarcely hear, And they have closed their eyes; Otherwise they might see with their eyes, And hear with their ears, And understand with their heart and return, And I would heal them.' ²⁸Therefore let it be known to you that this salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles; they will also listen." ²⁹[When he had spoken these words, the Jews departed, having a great dispute among themselves.]

28:23 "they came. . .in large numbers. . .from morning until evening" Paul explained the Christian faith to these Jews all day! What a marvelous opportunity.

▣ "the kingdom of God" This was the central theme of Jesus' preaching and teaching (parables). It is a present reality in the lives of believers and a future consummation of God's reign over all the fallen earth (cf. Matt. 6:10). This phrase is obviously not related to Israel only, but it was an integral part of Israel's hope (cf. v. 20). See Special Topic at 1:3.

▣ "the Law of Moses and from the Prophets" This is two of the three divisions of the Hebrew canon (see Special Topic at 13:15 and the note at 24:14) which stood for the entire OT (cf. Matt. 5:17; 7:12; 22:40; Luke 16:16; 24:44; Acts 13:15; 28:23). Paul's methodology (Christological typology and predictive prophecy) was to set the OT texts alongside the life of Jesus.

28:24 This reflects the mystery of the gospel. Why some believe and some do not is the mystery of a sovereign God and human free will.

In one sense Paul's ministry to the Jewish leaders in Rome is a microcosm of Paul's ministry. He first shared with the Jews. He shared Jesus' fulfillment of OT Scriptures. Some believed, but most did not. This too, was predicted in the OT (cf. Isa. 6:9-10).

28:25-27 "The Holy Spirit rightly spoke through Isaiah" This reveals Paul's view of the mystery of Israel's unbelief! The quote in verses 26-27 is from Isa. 6:9-10. Jesus used this verse often of human unbelief (cf. Matt. 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:39-40). By this time Paul had already penned Romans 9-11 (why has Israel rejected her Messiah?). Israel of the OT would not/did not fully believe either. There was a remnant of faith, but a majority of unbelief.

SPECIAL TOPIC: THE REMNANT, THREE SENSES

28:28 "this salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles" This may be an allusion to Psalm 67, especially v. 2. This universal aspect of Christianity is what caused the riot in Jerusalem and was an ongoing problem for many Jews. This is logical from Gen. 1:26,27; 3:15; 12:3. It was prophesied in Isaiah, Micah, and Jonah. It is clearly stated as God's eternal plan by Paul in Eph. 2:11-3:13! See Special Topic at 1:8.

▣ "they will also listen" This is the truth of Romans 9-11. The Jews rejected the Messiah because He did not fit their expectations and because the gospel opened the door of faith to all people.

The NT issue really is not Jew vs. Gentile, but believer vs. unbeliever. The issue is not who is your mother, but is your heart open to God's Spirit and God's Son?!

28:29 This verse is omitted in the ancient Greek manuscripts P⁷⁴, א, A, B, and E. It does not appear in any Greek manuscript before P, which dates to the sixth century a.d. UBS⁴ rates its exclusion as "A" (certain).

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 28:30-31
 ³⁰And he stayed two full years in his own rented quarters and was welcoming all who came to him, ³¹preaching the kingdom of God and teaching concerning the Lord Jesus Christ with all openness, unhindered.

28:30 "two full years" This was possibly

1. the normal period of time required to see the Caesar

2. the time needed to get new papers from Festus

3. the mandatory waiting period for witnesses from Asia or Jerusalem

4. close to the legal statute of limitations

It was during this time that Paul wrote his prison letters (Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, and Philippians).

▣ "in his own rented quarters" Paul had some source of income.

1. he worked at tent making or leather working

2. he was helped by churches (Thessalonica and Philippi)

3. he had some inherited funds

 

▣ "welcoming" Luke uses this term often with the connotation of "heartily welcome" (cf. 18:27; 28:30 and paradechōmai in 15:4). It is used of the crowd welcoming Jesus in Luke 8:40 and 9:11. It is used of welcoming the gospel as preached by Peter in Acts 2:41.

▣ "all who came" This was the problem. Paul's gospel had a universal reach. It was "good news" for all humans, not just Jews!

28:31 "preaching. . .teaching" The early, post-apostolic church made a distinction between these two ways of presenting truth. The body of sermons recorded in Acts (Peter, Stephen, Paul) is called the Kerygma (proclamation, cf. 20:25; 28:31; Rom. 10:8; Gal. 2:2; I Cor. 9:27; II Tim. 4:2), while the teaching of Jesus interpreted in the Epistles is called the Didache (teaching, cf. 2:42; 5:28; 13:12; Rom. 16:17; I Cor. 14:20).

▣ "the kingdom of God" This was the subject of Jesus' preaching. It refers to the reign of God in man's hearts now that will one day be consummated on earth as it has been in heaven. This passage also shows that the topic is not only for Jews. See Special Topic at 1:3.

▣ "the Lord" "Lord" is the translation of the Hebrew term adon, which meant "owner, husband, master, or lord" (see SPECIAL TOPIC: NAMES FOR DEITY at 1:6). The Jews became afraid of pronouncing the sacred name YHWH lest they take it in vain and break one of the Ten Commandments. Whenever they read the Scriptures, they substituted Adon for YHWH. This is why our English translations use all capitals Lord for YHWH in the OT. By transferring this title (kurios in Greek) to Jesus, the NT authors assert His deity and equality with the Father.

▣ "Jesus" "Jesus" is the name given to the baby in Bethlehem by the angel (cf. Matt. 1:21). It is made up of two Hebrew nouns: "YHWH," the covenant name for deity, and "salvation" (i.e., Hosea). It is the same Hebrew name as Joshua. When used alone it often identifies the man, Jesus of Nazareth, son of Mary (e.g., Matt. 1:16, 25; 2:1; 3:13,15,16).

▣ "Christ" "Christ" is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Messiah (i.e., an Anointed One, see Special Topic at 2:31). It asserts Jesus' OT title as YHWH's promised One sent to set up the new age of righteousness.

NASB"with all openness, unhindered"
NKJV"with all confidence, no one forbidding him"
NRSV"with all boldness and without hindrance"
TEV"speaking with all boldness and freedom"
NJB"with complete fearlessness and without any hindrance from anyone"

This verse shows that the Roman authorities did not consider Christianity subversive or dangerous. The Greek text ends with the adverb "unfettered" or "unhinderedly." This seems to emphasize the ongoing nature of the task of proclamation and the power of the Spirit.

Many have assumed, based on Acts 1:1 use of "first," which implies more than two, that Luke planned to write a third volume. Some even think that this third volume may be the Pastoral Letters (I Timothy, II Timothy and Titus).

For the Greek term (parrhēsia), translated "openness" by NASB, see Special Topic at 4:29.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

These discussion questions are provided to help you think through the major issues of this section of the book. They are meant to be thought-provoking, not definitive.

1. Why does Acts end with Paul still in prison? Why does it end so abruptly?

2. Why does Luke take so much time in describing Paul's trip and stay in Rome?

3. Why did Paul always try to witness to the Jews first?

4. Explain the difference between the Kerygma and Didache.

 

Copyright © 2012 Bible Lessons International

I. Schema

A. Indirizzo (1:1-2)

1. Mandanti (1:1a)

2. Destinatari (1:1b)

3. Il Saluto (1:2)

B. Conforto di Dio in mezzo alle Prove (1:3-11)

1. Il Motivo per cui Dio conforta Paolo e i suoi Compagni (1:3-7)

2. Afflizioni in Asia (1:8-11)

II. Il Conforto di Dio nella Sofferenza e la nostra Responsabilità

A. Indirizzo (1:1-2)

1. I Mandanti (1:1a)

Paolo è lo scrittore della Lettera e Timoteo lo serve con l’opera dell’Evangelo a Corinto. Paolo si descrive come un Apostolo,cioè come colui al quale il Signore ha dato l’Autorità di predicare la Parola e chiamare tutti gli Uomini all’Obbedienza dell’Evangelo (1 Cor 9:1-3; Rom 1:5). Paolo ha parlato con autorità nel nome del Signore. Dopotutto, Lui è stato un Apostolo per volere di Dio (Gal 1:1).

2. I Destinatari (1:1b)

Sebbene la prima Lettera ai Corinzi riveli le enormi difficoltà nella Chiesa, incluse la divisione e la discordia (1-4), un tipo di immoralità sessuale che non si trovava neanche tra i Pagani (5), processi l’uno contro l’altro (6), comprensione errata riguardo il matrimonio e il divorzio (7), l’uso corretto della Libertà e il fatto di scandalizzare gli altri (8-10), dispute riguardo il coprirsi il capo, ubriachezza ed eccessivo egoismo alla Cena del Signore (11), smoderatezza dei doni spirituali con una dannosa concentrazione del miracoloso (in particolare il parlare in lingue) come segno di una grande spiritualità (12-14) ed una visione sbagliata riguardo la resurrezione (15), nonostante tutto questo – senza menzionare i problemi che loro stessi causarono agli apostoli – Paolo si riferisce a loro come la Chiesa di Dio in Corinto. Leggendo la prima e la seconda lettera ai Corinzi bisogna notare la presenza del termine Fratelli per comprendere che Paolo li considerava Cristiani (sebbene forse non tutti singolarmente) anche se era afflitto profondamente per la loro immaturità e la mancanza di Amore (cfr. 1 Cor 3:1-17; 6:11, ecc.).

3. Il Saluto (1:2)

Paolo si rivolge alla Chiesa col saluto tradizionale. La Grazia si riferisce alla benignità di Dio immeritata verso peccatori indegni, una grazia che porta alla Pace nei loro cuori ( cioè la Pace di Dio che Egli stesso contiene), nel loro rapporto con Dio ed anche nel loro rapporto con gli altri. Qualsiasi insegnamento di Paolo è sempre Cristocentrico perché solo in Cristo il piano di Dio è realizzato nelle Vite dei santi. Per Paolo, tutto proviene dalla sua comprensione dell’Evangelo (1 Tim 1:11).

B. Conforto di Dio in mezzo alle Prove in Asia (1:3-11)

Dopo che Paolo nella lettera ha fatto un introduzione formale e ha dato il suo saluto tradizionale inizia a trattare la natura del suo ministerio apostolico tra i Corinzi fin da quando è stato preso di mira da alcuni oppositori (cfr 2 Cor 11:23). In questo paragrafo spiega il cambiamento della rotta del viaggio che è stato un punto dolente per la Chiesa. Il fatto che Lui non apra il discorso con un ringraziamento per la Chiesa (cfr Fl 1:3-8; Col 1:3-8) né con una preghiera (Fl 1:9-11; Col 1:9-14) rivela che il problema della sua prova in Asia è ancora fresca nella sua mente e che la prova, così come il suo viaggio, doveva essere discusso immediatamente. In questo paragrafo si parla soltanto della prova in Asia. Comunque, il contesto deve essere riguardato in modo che chi legge possa comprendere che il passo 1:3-11 si svolge in un campo semantico più vasto, vale a dire 1:3 e 7:6 così allora, dopo che Paolo parla del conforto che Dio gli ha dato nella provincia dell’Asia (1:3-11) affronta il problema del fratello che pecca nel passo 2:5-11. Infine il passo 2:14 e 7:6 è dedicato alla natura del ministerio apostolico. Presi insieme, i passi 1:3 e 7:6 servono a ravvivare nelle loro menti il suo impegno per loro per fargli comprendere la natura e i problemi del ministerio spirituale.

1. Il Motivo per cui Dio conforta Paolo e i suoi Compagni (1:3-7)

v. 3 Paolo inizia questo paragrafo attribuendo benedizione a Dio. Sebbene questo saluto di apertura sia il modo tradizionale con cui gli ebrei si avvicinavano a Dio, tuttavia esso esprimeva profonda devozione e riverenza. Qui, così come in Efesini 1:3 (cfr. anche 1 P 1:3) Dio è identificato in modo specifico come Dio e Padre del nostro Signore Gesù Cristo. Come abbiamo accennato nell’Introduzione, per Paolo tutto è Cristocentrico e ,di conseguenza, il modo in cui si conosce e si realizza Dio è attraverso Suo Figlio, Gesù Cristo.Dunque è il “figlio” che è il nostro Signore (Kyrios). L’utilizzo della parola Signore - riferendosi a Gesù - è ripreso dalla traduzione della Bibbia dal Greco YHWH come Signore (Kyrios) e conferma la posizione elevata di Gesù. Utilizzando la parola Nostro, Paolo dimostra la sua solidarietà con la Chiesa sotto la signoria di Cristo.

Dio deve essere lodato per molti motivi, per tutto ciò che Lui è e per ciò che fa, per la sua immensa grandezza del suo essere (Sl 145:3), per il suo Amore (Sl 86:15), la sua Fedeltà (La 3:22-23), la sua Forza (Is 41:10) e per la sua imperscrutabilità ( Ro 11:36). Qui Paolo, considerando il fatto di essere stato liberato da circostanze mortali in Asia minore riflette e ringrazia Dio per il suo infinito Amore. Infatti Paolo chiama Dio il Padre delle misericordie (da notare il plurale “misericordie”) e il Dio di ogni consolazione (Mi 7:19; Is 40:1; 66:13 ). La Misericordia di Dio è la sua compassione per noi nella nostra condizione impotente (sebbene non necessariamente innocente) e ciò lo si dimostra nel suo Conforto che lui ci dimostra. Paolo aveva sperimentato quella profonda compassione di un Padre che da alla parola amore un significato completamente nuovo e che ama un figlio nel bisogno estendendo il suo amore verso il figlio nel mezzo delle sue battaglie (cfr. Ro 5:1-5: L’amore di Dio è stato sparso nei notri Cuori ..”). Senza nessun dubbio ha confortato l’apostolo attraverso lo Spirito Santo e li ha infine liberati dal pericolo mortale (v. 11).

v. 4 Dio non seleziona chi deve confortare e, oltretutto, non ci sarà mai un momento in cui ci meriteremo la sua presenza speciale nell’Amore. Dobbiamo ricordare che è secondo le sue misericordie – le quali sono tante – e che in tutte le nostre afflizioni, dunque in qualsiasi afflizione potremmo ritrovarci. Forse hai peccato e ne stai patendo le conseguenze di ciò, ma Dio non di meno si avvicina a te per confortarti se glielo permetti.

Dio ci conforta in tutte le nostre afflizioni. Un Motivo per cui lui fa questo è affinché noi possiamo confortare coloro che sono nelle afflizioni col conforto del quale siamo stati confortati da Dio. Di certo è così affinché noi stessi sperimentiamo il suo amore e il suo aiuto,ma anche perché Lui vuole che noi diventiamo canali di questo tipo di Amore e non dei recipienti che trattengono tutto per sé. Una volta che abbiamo realizzato la compassione e il conforto di Dio nel mezzo di una prova,siamo meglio equipaggiati per ministrare lo stesso conforto verso gli altri. Noi sappiamo cosa c’è di bisogno, per la grazia di Dio,per aiutare gli altri che stanno soffrendo: questo è il punto centrale dell’evangelo.

V. 5 Paolo spiega il motivo per cui il verso 4 è vero, e cioè che come abbondano le sofferenze di Cristo in noi, così, per mezzo di Cristo, abbonda anche la nostra consolazione. Le Sofferenze di Cristo non si riferiscono a nessuna delle sofferenze che il Messia ha sopportato in quel cammino per assicurare la nostra redenzione. Esse piuttosto, si riferiscono alle sofferenze che Paolo ha subìto nel contesto del suo ministerio apostolico, cioè soffrire per Cristo in cui in effetti ogni Cristiano si ritrova come risultato del vivere nell’ “adesso.. ma non ancora..”. C’è un elemento escatologico nelle sofferenze in quanto sono prestabilite da Dio per completare la piena misura delle sofferenze di Cristo (Col 1:24). Sono le sofferenze di Cristo che vengono come risultato della sua vita in noi. Per certo, poiché vive in noi nel termine attuale del Regno, lui li sopporta insieme a noi fino a quando sono complete.

Così come le sofferenze abbondano, così anche il nostro conforto per mezzo di Gesù Cristo abbonda. Paolo dice che più si soffre, più si realizza il conforto per mezzo di Cristo. La particolare enfasi qui è sull’esperienza del conforto in mezzo alle sofferenze, non il fatto di essere confortati togliendo la sofferenza. Sebbene Paolo fu liberato da un tale pericolo mortale (1:8-11) tuttavia fu confortato in mezzo alla prova.

1:6 Paolo riprende il pensiero generale del verso 4 e lo applica nel rapporto suo con i Corinzi. Nel verso 4 dice che Dio conforta coloro che sono nelle prove affinché essi possano confortare gli altri che vivono delle prove. Paolo chiarisce questa verità al verso 6 quando dice “Ora se siamo afflitti, ciò è per la vostra consolazione e salvezza; se siamo consolati, ciò è per la vostra consolazione e salvezza, che operano efficacemente nel sostenere le medesime sofferenze che patiamo anche noi ” .

Due punti che devono essere notati al verso 6. Primo, le afflizioni di Paolo nel corso del suo ministerio nel predicare l’evangelo per Cristo risultano in salvezza di coloro che ascoltano il messaggio. Questo,ovviamente, ha incluso i Corinzi. Perciò è come se i Corinzi devono la loro salvezza – che gli ha portato conforto e realizzazione della presenza di Dio – alle sofferenze di Paolo. Secondo, il fatto che Paolo sia confortato nelle sue prove dimostra ai Corinzi che anche loro possono essere confortati da Dio. L’accenno di questo fatto, sebbene non siamo a conoscenza delle specifiche afflizioni dei Corinzi, risveglia in loro il fatto poter avere conforto da Dio. Il risultato finale è che tutto ciò che Dio ha fatto attraverso Paolo è stato sia per il proprio beneficio di Paolo che per il beneficio dei Corinzi.

1:7 Poiché le sofferenze a cui si riferisce Paolo sono uniche nel Cristiano – sofferenze che il cristiano subisce in conseguenza al fatto di essere un cristiano in un mondo decaduto – e nei Corinzi i quali condividono le sofferenze, Paolo è fiducioso che la Chiesa condividerà anche un simile conforto: Paolo è estremamente sicuro che Dio li conforterà. Ciò significa che anche loro saranno in grado di confortarsi l’un l’altro nelle prove che sopportano.

2. Difficoltà in Asia (1:8-11)

1:8 Utilizzando il tradizionale modo di scrivere nelle lettere di Paolo, l’apostolo dice “Perché non vogliamo, fratelli, che ignoriate..”. Paolo vuole che essi vengano a conoscenza dell’ afflizione che ci capitò .. in Asia,che lui e gli altri sono stati eccessivamente gravati, al di là delle loro forze, tanto da disperare della vita stessa. Il termine Perché (gar) unisce questo paragrafo, cioè i versi 8-11, con i versi 3-7 nel modo seguente: poiché loro riescono a condividere le sue sofferenze e il suo conforto, Paolo gli racconta della sua grande battaglia in Asia. Gli studiosi non sono sicuri di cosa sia esattamente accaduto nella provincia dell’Asia, ma molti hanno l’impressione che ciò si riferisca in qualche modo ai Giudei che si opposero a Paolo e che gli causarono dolore (cfr. 2 Cor 11:23). Sebbene non possiamo conoscere con sicurezza quale fu la difficoltà, tuttavia portò Paolo, per così dire, a inginocchiarsi: lui aveva un peso che andava oltre la sua capacità di sopportazione, oltre la sua forza che arrivava al punto di disperare della sua vita stessa.

Un’annotazione sulle afflizioni di Paolo in Asia

Ci sono stati molti suggerimenti riguardo a cosa potesse essere accaduto precisamente a Paolo riferendosi ai versi 1:8-11: (1) Sulla base di 2 Cor 11:25 si è pensato che quell’ “affondare” potesse essere un afflizione. Ciò è improbabile in quanto il termine affondare non lo si pensa come ad un’afflizione e oltretutto ciò è improbabile nella provincia dell’Asia; (2) Altri credono che Paolo stesse parlando del combattimento contro le belve selvagge ad Efeso (1 Cor 15:32); (3) Altri credano che si riferisca al tumulto ad Efeso istigato dall’orafo Demetrio con l’aiuto di altri (Atti 19:23-41); (4) Alcuni studiosi suggeriscono che Paolo si stia riferendo a qualche sorta di malattia mortale. Questa opzione sembra adattarsi bene quando si legge “ricevere la sentenza di morte in loro” (2 Cor 1:9); (5) Un’altra opzione è che la sua difficoltà in Asia si riferisca ai Giudei che gli hanno causato molto dolore. In Atti 20:19 Paolo stesso parla delle “prove che gli sono avvenute per le insidie dei Giudei” e quando Paolo è stato a Gerusalemme, sono stati i giudei di Gerusalemme che aizzarono la folla a mettere le mani addosso all’apostolo (Atti 21:27; cfr. anche Atti 19:23-41 e il ruolo di Alessandro in 2 Tim 4:14). Il complotto dei Giudei finalizzate a far del male a Paolo riflettono bene l’opposizione giudaica descritta nel libro (cfr. 2 Cor 11:23).¹ In ultima analisi,dunque, non possiamo essere certi di che genere di prova Paolo abbia sopportato, ma possiamo dire che è stato qualcosa di estremamente doloroso e forse potenzialmente fatale.

1:9 Paolo dice di aver capito che ci fosse stata una sentenza e come verdetto ci fosse stata la morte o quantomeno questo è quello che gli è passato per la mente. Paolo aveva sicuramente creduto che non ci sarebbe stata nessuna via d’uscita e che la morte sarebbe stata inevitabile. Dopo che l’intera vicenda si concluse,però, Paolo disse che Dio lo aveva permesso “affinché (sia lui che altri) non confidassimo in noi stessi ma in Dio che fa risorgerei morti”. Paolo era arrivato al punto di vedere l’intera sua Vita nelle mani sovrane di Dio e nei suoi buoni propositi. Sapeva che Dio aveva permesso che accadesse tutta quella sofferenza per diversi motivi,facendo diventare la dipendenza dell’Apostolo da Dio il punto centrale più importante.Come Cristiani- e in virtù del fatto di diventare un cristiano - abbiamo imparato ad appoggiarci su Cristo e non su noi stessi. Questo l’abbiamo imparato nella conversione. Tale lezione però non finisce mai e in qualche modo si accelera di molto quando soffriamo: più la sofferenza è profonda,più ci disperiamo e più ci disperiamo, più avvertiamo il senso di morte e più profondo il senso della morte ,più il nostro grido va a Colui che può salvarci dalla morte. Cosa produce tutto ciò? Una capacità donata da Dio nel confortare in modo più profondo gli altri che stanno soffrendo.

1:10-11 Paolo è convinto che Dio abbia liberato lui e quelli che erano con lui da un pericolo di morte così grande e che continuerà a fare così anche in futuro,però vuole che i Corinzi sappiano che quella liberazione avviene quando il popolo di Dio prega e ne fa richiesta in situazioni del generi. La Preghiera è più di una semplice liberazione. Essa serve per l’intera opera di proclamazione del Vangelo e di tutto ciò che comporta tale opera. Il Risultato finale di tale preghiera e di questo “aiuto” è che molti daranno gloria a Dio per conto del suo dono di liberazione dato per grazia a Paolo e per l’avanzamento dell’evangelo.

III. Principi di Applicazione

1. L’adorazione per Dio non è una cosa cristiana del tempo passato: essa è la nostra vita stessa ed è una parte integrale della vita cristiana: è come collegare il blue al colore del Cielo. Non puoi avere una parte senza avere anche l’altra. “Come un regalo ponderato rispecchia la celebrazione di un compleanno,come un evento speciale rispecchia la celebrazione dell’anniversario,come un elogio sentito rispecchia la celebrazione alla vita, come un’unione sessuale rispecchia la celebrazione del matrimonio .. Così il culto di Adorazione rispecchia la celebrazione di Dio”(Ronald Allen, Worship: Rediscovering the Missing Jewel). La Lode è parte integrante della celebrazione dell’Amore e della compassione di Dio su Noi ,persone non amabili. Paolo loda suo Padre e lo benedice. Possiamo noi fare di meno?

2. La Chiesa cristiana in America è risolutamente individualistica, eppure il segno più evidente dei primi passi del cristiano è il pensiero che sta dilagando tra le nostre chiese che tutto ciò che riceviamo è per noi soltanto e che Dio ci benedice senza pensare ad estendere questa benedizione agli altri. Dio, però,ha detto ad Abrahamo che avrebbe benedetto Lui e il mondo attraverso di lui ! Paolo dice che Dio ci conforta affinché noi possiamo confortare gli altri con lo stesso conforto che abbiamo ricevuto da Dio: ecco ciò che ci salva da una religione senza utilità! Nella nostra cultura di certo c’è qualcuno disposto a prendere l’incoraggiamento di Dio attraverso di Te: Trovalo ed Amalo.

3. “Per due anni degli scienziati si sono segregati in un ambiente artificiale chiamato Biosfera 2. All’interno della loro comunità auto-sostenibile, i Biosferiani hanno creato una serie di mini-ambienti che includono il deserto,una foresta tropicale e persino un oceano. Quasi tutte le condizioni atmosferiche potrebbero essere simulate,tranne il vento .Durante quel periodo, la conseguenza della mancanza di vento divenne evidente: un numero di alberi di acacia si piegarono e caddero anche. Senza la spinta del vento che rafforza il tronco,esso è cresciuto debole e non riusciva a reggere il proprio peso (Jay akkerman). “Dobbiamo ricordare che il vento dell’avversità rafforza la nostra determinazione ad appoggiarci sul Signore e non su noi stessi. In effetti così come gli alberi sono soggetti ai venti delle tempeste,alla fine anche noi possederemo una forza maggiore. Così lo è stato per Paolo e così sarà il nostro caso se ci appoggeremo sul Signore che fa risorgere i morti.

4. Il risultato finale di tutto ciò che Dio fa è la Lode. Paolo inizia questa parte di 1:3-11 con la lode e benedicendo e finisce con lode unita a ringraziamento data a Dio. Ricorda che nella tua Vita tutta la Lode va a Dio,perché da Lui,attraverso Lui e per Lui sono tutte le cose!

Greg Herrick si è laureato al seminario Teologico di Dallas con Master in Teologia nel 1994 e con il Dottorato di Ricerca nel 1999. Greg e sua Moglie sono dei canadesi che vivono con i loro quattro figli in Texas.

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¹ Vedi Colin Kruse, The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, The Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, ed. Leon Morris (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 68-69.

 

PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS OF MODERN TRANSLATIONS

UBS4	NKJV	NRSV	TEV	NJB
Salutation	Greetings Salutations	Salutation	Salutation	Address
1:1-7	1:1-7	1:1-6	1:1	1:1-2
			1:2-6
				1:3-7
		1:7a	1:7a
		1:7b	1:7b
Paul's Desire to Visit Rome	Desire to Visit Rome	Thanksgiving	Prayer of Thanksgiving	Thanksgiving and Prayer
1:8-15	1:8-15	1:8-15	1:8-12	1:8-15
			1:13-15
The Power of the Gospel	The Just Live By Faith	The Theme of the Letter	The Power of the Gospel	The Theme Stated
1:16-17	1:16-17	1:16-17	1:16-17	1:16-17
The Guilt of Mankind	God's Wrath on Unrighteousness	God's Judgment Upon Sin	The Guilt of Mankind	God's Retribution Against the Gentiles
1:18-23	1:18-32	1:18-23	1:18-23	1:18-23
1:24-32		1:24-25	1:24-25	1:24-25
		1:26-27	1:26-27	1:26-27
		1:28-32	1:28-32	1:28-32

READING CYCLE THREE

FOLLOWING THE ORIGINAL AUTHOR'S INTENT AT THE PARAGRAPH LEVEL

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

Read the chapter in one sitting. Identify the subjects. Compare your subject divisions with the five modern translations. Paragraphing is not inspired, but it is the key to following the original author's intent, which is the heart of interpretation. Every paragraph has one and only one subject.

1. First paragraph

 

* Although they are not inspired, paragraph divisions are the key to understanding and following the original author's intent. Each modern translation has divided and summarized the paragraphs. Every paragraph has one central topic, truth, or thought. Each version encapsulates that topic in its own distinct way. As you read the text, ask yourself which translation fits your understanding of the subject and verse divisions.
In every chapter we must read the Bible first and try to identify its subjects (paragraphs), then compare our understanding with the modern versions. Only when we understand the original author's intent by following his logic and presentation can we truly understand the Bible. Only the original author is inspired—readers have no right to change or modify the message. Bible readers do have the responsibility of applying the inspired truth to their day and their lives.
Note that all technical terms and abbreviations are explained fully in the following documents: Brief Definitions of Greek Grammatical Structure,  Textual Criticism, and Glossary.

2. Second paragraph

 

3. Third paragraph

 

4. Etc.

 

CONTEXTUAL INSIGHTS

A. Verses 1-7 form the introduction to the letter. It is the longest introduction of any of Paul's letters. He was trying to introduce himself and his theology to a church who did not know him personally and may have heard negative information about him.

 

B. Verses 8-12 are an opening prayer of thanksgiving. This was characteristic of Greek letters generally and of Paul's writings specifically.

 

C. Verses 16-17 state the theme of the book.

 

D. Verse 18 through 3:20 form the first literary unit and the first point of Paul's gospel; all humans (3 groups) are lost and need to be saved (cf. Genesis 3).

1. immoral pagans

2. moral pagans

3. Jews

 

E. Romans 1:18-3:20 reflects Genesis 3 (surprisingly the rabbis do not focus on this text, but Genesis 6, as the origin of sin). Humanity was created for fellowship with God, in His very image (cf. Gen. 1:26-27). However, mankind chose enlightenment and the promise of power and independence. In effect, humans exchanged the exaltation of God for the exaltation of themselves (atheistic humanism)!

God allowed this crisis. To be in God's image is to be responsible, to be morally accountable, to be volitionally free with consequences. God separates humans by both His choice and theirs (a covenant relationship)! He allows them to choose self with all its consequences. God is grieved (cf. Gen. 6:5-7), but humans are free moral agents with all the rights and responsibilities that brings. The repeated phrase "God gave them over" (cf. 1:24,26,28) is the recognition of that freedom, not a willful rejection by God. This was not God's choice. This is not the world that God intended (cf. Gen. 3:22; 6:5-7,11-13)!

F. The theological summary of 1:18-3:20 is found in 3:21-31. This is the first theological point of the "good news" of the gospel-all humans have sinned and have need of God's forgiveness. God graciously provides a way back to intimate fellowship (i.e., Eden experience, compare Genesis 1-2 with Revelation 21-22).

 

G. In this first literary unit of Paul's presentation of the gospel it is interesting to note that fallen mankind is held responsible for their rebellion and sin without any reference to Satan or the demonic (cf. Rom. 1:18-3:20). This section certainly reflects the theology of Genesis 3, but without a personal tempter. God will not allow fallen mankind to blame Satan again (cf. Gen. 3:13) or God Himself (cf. Gen. 3:12). Humans are made in God's image (cf. Gen. 1:26; 5:1,3; 9:6). They have the right, power and obligation to choose. They are responsible for their choices both corporately in Adam and individually in personal sin (cf. 3:23).

 

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:1-6
 ¹Paul, a bond-servant of Christ Jesus, called as an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God, ²which He promised beforehand through His prophets in the holy Scriptures, ³concerning His Son, who was born of a descendant of David according to the flesh, ⁴who was declared the Son of God with power by the resurrection from the dead, according to the Spirit of holiness, Jesus Christ our Lord, ⁵through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles for His name's sake, ⁶among whom you also are the called of Jesus Christ;

1:1 "Paul" Most Jews of Paul's day had two first names, one Jewish, one Roman (cf. Acts 13:9). Paul's Jewish name was Saul. He, like the ancient King of Israel, was of the tribe of Benjamin (cf. Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5). His Roman name in Greek form, Paul (Paulos), meant "little." This referred to

1. his physical stature which was alluded to in a second century non-canonical book, The Acts of Paul, in a chapter about Thessalonica called "Paul and Thekla"

2. his personal sense of being least of the saints because he originally persecuted the Church (cf. 1 Cor. 15:9; Eph. 3:8; 1 Tim. 1:15)

3. simply the name given by his parents at birth

Option #3 seems best.

▣ "a bond-servant" NKJV, NRSV, TEV and JB translations read "servant." This concept was either

1. antithetical to Jesus as Lord

2. an OT honorific title (cf. Moses in Num. 12:7 and Jos. 1:1; Joshua in Jos. 24:29; and David in the Psalms (title), and Isaiah 42:1, 19; 52:13)

 

NASB, TEV,
NJB, REB"Christ Jesus"
NKJV, NRSV"Jesus Christ"

"Christ Jesus" is more unusual and, therefore, probably original (cf. MSS P¹⁰, B). The UBS⁴ gives it a "B" rating (almost certain).

However, the other form has really good attestation (cf. MSS P²⁶, א, A, D, G, and most early church Fathers).

See Appendix Two on the assumptions of Textual Criticism. Most of the textual variants are like this one in the sense that they do not affect the basic meaning of the Greek text.

▣ "called as an apostle" This was God's choice, not his (cf. Acts 9:15; Gal. 1:15; Eph. 3:7). With this phrase Paul is asserting his spiritual qualifications and authority, as he does in 1 Cor. 1:1; 2 Cor. 1:1; Gal. 1:1; Eph. 1:1; Col. 1:1; 1 Tim. 1:1; Titus 1:1) to this church he had never met. See SPECIAL TOPIC: CALLED at 1:6.

The Koine term "apostle" in Palestinian Jewish circles of the first century meant "one sent as an official representative" (cf. 2 Chr. 17:7-9). In the NT this term was used in two senses: (1) of the Twelve special disciples and Paul and (2) of a spiritual gift that continues in the church (cf. 1 Cor. 12:28-29; Eph. 4:11).

SPECIAL TOPIC: SEND (APOSTELLŌ)

▣ "set apart" This is a perfect passive participle, which implied that he was set apart by God in the past (cf. Jer. 1:5 and Gal. 1:15) and this continued as a state of being. This was a possible play on the Aramaic word for "Pharisee." They were separated to Jewish legalism (and Paul also [Phil. 3:5] before his Damascus Road encounter with Jesus), but now he was separated to the gospel.

It is related to the Hebrew word for "holy" (BDB 872), which meant "set apart for God's use" (cf. Exod. 19:6; 1 Pet. 2:5). The terms "saint," "sanctify," and "set apart" all had the same Greek root, "holy" (hagios).

▣ "for the gospel of God" The preposition eis in this context (and v. 5) shows the purpose of Paul's "call" (v. 1b) and being "set apart" (v. 1c).

Gospel is a compound word from "good" (eu) and "message" (angellos). It became the term that described the doctrines revealed in the New Covenant (cf. Jer. 31:31-34; Ezek. 36:22-32) related to God's promised Messiah (cf. vv. 3-4). It is the "gospel of His Son" (v. 2).

This is God's gospel, not Paul's (cf. 15:16; Mark 1:14; 2 Cor. 11:7; 1 Thess. 2:2,8,9; 1 Pet. 4:17). Paul was not an innovator or cultural adapter, but a proclaimer of the truth he received (cf. Acts 9; 1 Cor. 1:18-25).

1:2 "He promised beforehand through His prophets in the holy Scriptures" This verb is an aorist middle (deponent) indicative. It is used only in Paul's writings (here and 2 Cor. 9:5). The gospel was no afterthought with God, but His eternal, purposeful plan (cf. Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Exod. 19:5; Isa. 53; Ps. 118; Mark 10:45; Luke. 2:22; Acts 2:23; 3:18; 4:28; Titus 1:2). The early sermons in Acts (the kerygma) present Jesus as the fulfillment of OT promises and prophecies.

The OT is referred to in the NT in two common ways.

1. "it is written" (or "writings," i.e., 2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet. 3:16)

2. Scripture(s)

It is also referred to in connection with the prophets. In the Jewish mind prophets wrote Scripture.

1. "the Law or the Prophets," Matt. 5:17-18; also note Luke 24:44

2. "prophecy," Luke 24:27

3. "writings of the prophets," Matt. 26:56

4. "prophetic writings," Rom. 16:26 (Rom. 1:2 also mentions "prophets")

5. "prophecy of Scripture," 2 Pet. 1:20

There are two instances of the adjective "holy" attached.

1. "holy Scriptures" (full clause also mentions "prophets"), Rom. 1:2

2. "sacred writings," 2 Tim. 3:15

 

SPECIAL TOPIC: THE KERYGMA OF THE EARLY CHURCH

1:3 "concerning His Son" The central message of the Good News is a person, Jesus of Nazareth, virgin-born son of Mary. In the OT the nation, the king, and the Messiah were called "son" (cf. 2 Sam. 7:14; Hos. 11:1; Ps. 2:7; Matt. 2:15).

In the OT God spoke through servants and prophets. Jesus was not a servant of God. He was a family member (cf. Heb.1:1-2; 3:6; 5:8; 7:28). Surprisingly this is the only place in the book where Paul focuses on Christology. Romans is not a complete systematic theology.

SPECIAL TOPIC: THE SON OF GOD

▣ "who was born a descendant of David" This relates to the prophecy of 2 Samuel 7. The Messiah was of the royal line of David (cf. Isa. 9:7; 11:1,10; Jer. 23:5; 30:9; 33:15) from the tribe of Judah (cf. Gen. 49:4-12; Isa. 65:9). In Matthew's Gospel Jesus is acknowledged as David's descendant several times (cf. 1:6; 9:27; 12:23; 15:22; 20:30,31; 21:9,15; 22:42), which reflected the Jewish hope of a coming Davidic savior.

It is surprising that Paul did not emphasize this aspect of Jesus. He mentioned it only here and in 2 Tim. 2:8; both passages may have been quotes from an early church's creedal formula. The NIDNTT, vol. 3, p. 61, lists several NT Scripture texts which may reflect early Christological creeds/hymns/liturgy (i.e., Rom. 1:3-4; 8:34; 1 Cor. 15:3-4; Phil. 2:6-11; 1 Tim. 3:16; 2 Tim. 2:8; 1 Pet. 3:18-20).

NASB, NKJV,
NRSV"according to the flesh"
TEV"as to his humanity"
NJB"according to human nature"

This was fulfillment of prophecy and an affirmation of Jesus' humanity, which was often denied in the eclectic religious world of the first century (cf. 1 John 1:1-4; 4:1-3). This verse clearly shows that Paul did not always use the term "flesh" (sarx) in a negative sense (cf. 2:28; 9:3). However, usually Paul used "flesh" to contrast "spirit" (cf. 6:19; 7:5,18,25; 8:3-9,12,13; 1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Cor. 1:17; 11:18; Gal. 3:3; 5:13,16,17-19,24; 6:8; Eph. 2:3; Col. 2:11,13,18,23).

This grammatical construction kata (according to) plus an accusative is paralleled in v. 4. Jesus is both human (according to the flesh, v. 3) and divine (according to the Spirit, v. 4). This doctrine of incarnation is crucial (cf. 1 John 4:1-3). It may also be the implication of Jesus' self-chosen designation, "Son of Man" (cf. Ps. 8:4; Ezek. 2:1 [human] and Dan. 7:13 [divine]).

SPECIAL TOPIC: FLESH (SARX)

1:4

NASB, NKJV,
NRSV, NIV"declared"
TEV"shown"
NJB, RSV"designated"
NET"appointed"
REB"proclaimed"

This is an aorist passive participle. God definitively appointed Jesus "the Son of God." This does not imply that Bethlehem was the beginning of Jesus or that He is inferior to the Father. See SPECIAL TOPIC: THE TRINITY at 8:11. See third paragraph below.

▣ "to be the Son of God with power" The NT authors did not often refer to Jesus by the title "Son of God" (cf. Matt. 4:3) because of the false implications from Greek mythology (the same is true of the virgin birth). The concept is usually qualified by "unique, one of a kind" (monogenes, cf. John 1:18; 3:16,18; 1 John 4:9). Thus the meaning is "Jesus, the only true Son of God." See Special Topic at 1:3.

The NT has two theological poles related to God the Father and Jesus the Son.

1. they are equal (cf. John1:1; 5:18; 10:30; 14:9; 20:28; 2 Cor. 4:4; Phil. 2:6; Col. 1:15; Heb. 1:3)

but   2. they are separate personalities (cf. Mark 10:18; 14:36; 15:34)

It is possible that Paul was quoting an early Christological creed or alluding to YHWH's Messianic King in Ps. 2:6,7 or 110:1 (cf. Acts 2:34-36). In so doing he was emphasizing the whole phrase "the Son of God with power" (NIDNTT, vol. 2, p. 79) which focused, not on His birth or baptism, but His ascension. However, Adoptionist Christologies (see Glossary) took the verse and quoted it for their own reasons. With this proof-texting method of Bible interpretation, one can make the Bible say anything (see my seminar on Biblical Interpretation free online at www.freebiblecommentary.org).

▣ "by the resurrection" God the Father affirmed Jesus' life and message by raising Him from the dead (cf. 4:24; 6:4,9; 8:11; Acts 2:31-33). The deity (cf. John 1:1-14; Col. 1:15-19; Phil. 2:6-11; Heb. 1:2-3) and resurrection of Jesus (cf. 4:25; 10:9-13; 1 Corinthians 15) are twin pillars of Christianity.

▣ This verse was often used to advocate the heresy of "adoptionism" which asserted that Jesus was rewarded and elevated by God for His exemplary life of obedience. The heretics asserted that He was not always (ontologically) deity, but became deity when God raised Him from the dead. Although this is clearly untrue, which is obvious from many texts such as John 1 and 17, something wonderful was conferred on Jesus at His resurrection. It is difficult to express how deity can be rewarded, yet that is what happened. Even though Jesus shared eternal glory with the Father, His status was somehow enriched by the perfect fulfillment of His assigned redemptive task. The resurrection was the Father's affirmation of the life, example, teachings, and sacrificial death of Jesus of Nazareth; eternally divine, fully human, perfect savior, restored and rewarded, unique Son! See Appendix three - Adoptionism.

NASB, NKJV"according to the Spirit of holiness"
NKJV"according to the spirit of holiness"
TEV"as to his divine holiness"
NJB"in the order of the spirit, the spirit of holiness"

Some translations capitalize the "S" in Spirit, implying the Holy Spirit, while the lowercase "s" would refer to the human spirit of Jesus. As God the Father is Spirit, so too, is Jesus. The ancient Hebrew and Greek texts had no capitalizations, no punctuation, and no chapter or verse divisions, so these are all points of tradition or the interpretation by translators.

There are three ways to view verses 3 and 4.

1. as a reference to Jesus' two natures, human and divine

2. as a reference to two stages in His earthly life, human and resurrected Lord

3. as a parallel to "Jesus Christ our Lord"

 

▣ "Jesus" The Aramaic name Jesus is the same as the Hebrew name Joshua. It was a compound of two Hebrew words "YHWH" and "salvation." It can mean "YHWH saves," "YHWH delivers" or "YHWH is salvation." The thrust of the meaning can be seen in Matt. 1:21,25.

▣ "Christ" This was the Greek translation of the Hebrew term messiah (BDB 603), which meant "an anointed one." In the OT several groups of leaders (prophets, priests, and kings) were anointed as a sign of God's choice and equipping. Jesus fulfilled all three of these anointed offices (cf. Heb. 1:2-3).

The OT predicted that God would send a special "anointed one" to usher in the New Age of Righteousness. Jesus was His special "servant," "son," and "Messiah."

SPECIAL TOPIC: MESSIAH

▣ "Lord" In Judaism the Covenant name for God, YHWH, became so holy that the rabbis substituted the title "Lord," (Adon) when reading the Scriptures because they were afraid they might take God's name in vain (cf. Exod. 20:7; Deut. 5:11) and thereby break one of the Ten Commandments. When NT authors called Jesus "Lord" ("Kurios") in theological contexts, they were affirming His deity (cf. Acts 2:36; Rom. 10:9-13; Phil. 2:6-11).

SPECIAL TOPIC: NAMES FOR DEITY

1:5 "we" Paul mentions no other person in his introduction, as he often does in his other letters. This first phrase refers to Paul's Damascus Road conversion and appointment (cf. Acts 9), which strongly implies the editorial use of "we."

▣ "we have received grace and apostleship" Paul is affirming not only the gift of salvation through Christ, but also and connected to it, the call to be the apostle to the Gentiles. All of this occurred instantaneously on the road to Damascus (aorist active indicative, cf. Acts 9:1-22; 22:3-16; 26:9-18). It was not from merit, but purposeful grace!

It is possible that "grace" and "apostleship" are to be taken as one unit, "the gift of apostleship" (NET note #13). All of the various translations listed in The New Testament in 26 Translations (p. 646) see it as a hendiadys also.

▣ "to bring about" This is a second use of eis in a purpose context (cf. v. 1). The gospel restores the image of God in mankind through faith in Jesus. This allows the original purpose of God to be manifested, which is a people in intimate fellowship with Him who reflect His character (cf. v. 7).

NASB, NJB"the obedience of faith"
NKJV"for obedience to the faith"
NRSV"to bring about the obedience of faith"
TEV"to believe and obey"

This is the first usage of the pivotal term, "faith," in Romans (see Special Topic at 4:5). It was used in three distinct ways in this chapter and book.

1. Verse 5. It is used of a body of truths or doctrines related to Jesus and the Christian life (cf. Acts 6:7; 13:8; 14:22; 16:5; Rom. 14:1; 16:26; Gal. 1:23; 6:10; Jude 3, 20).

2. Verse 8. It is used in the sense of personal trust in Jesus. The English terms "believe," "faith," and "trust" all translate one Greek term (pistis/pisteuo). The gospel is both conceptual (doctrine) and personal (cf. v.16; John 1:12; 3:16). See Special Topic at 4:5.

3. Verse 17. It is used in its OT sense of trustworthiness, loyalty, or dependability. This is the meaning of Hab. 2:4. In the OT there was not a developed doctrine of faith, but example after example of lives of faith (cf. Abraham in Gen. 15:6), not perfect faith but struggling faith (cf. Hebrews 11). The hope of mankind is not in their ability to perform or believe correctly, but in God's character (cf. 3:24; 6:23; Eph. 2:8-9). Only God is faithful (cf. Mal. 3:6)!

There is a series of acts that can be called the salvation event.

a. repentance (cf. 2:4; Mark 1:15; Luke 13:3,5; Acts 3:16,19; 20:21)

b. belief/faith (cf. 1:16; John 1:12; 3:16; Acts 16:31, baptism is the public declaration of one's faith)

c. obedience (cf. 2:13; 2 Cor. 9:13; 10:5; 1 Pet. 1:2,22)

d. perseverance (cf. 2:7; Luke. 18:1; 2 Cor. 4:1,16; Gal. 6:9; I1 Thess. 3:13)

These are the conditions of the New Covenant. We must receive/believe and continue to receive/believe God's offer in Christ (cf. v. 16; John 1:12).

SPECIAL TOPIC: Believe, Trust, Faith, and Faithfulness in the Old Testament (אמן)

NASB "for His name's sake"
NKJV"for His name"
NRSV"for the sake of his name"
TEV"for the sake of Christ"
NJB"for the honor of his name"

See Special Topic at 10:9. 

▣ "the obedience of faith" The literal Greek phrase is "for (eis) obedience." The gospel has an

1. immediate obedience of repentance and faith

2. lifestyle obedience of Christlikeness and perseverance

The gospel is a grace gift but with expected results! The NT is a covenant like the OT. Both demand a faith/obedience response. They both have benefits, responsibilities, and expectations (i.e., E ph. 1:4; 2:10). This is not a works righteousness but a works confirmation (cf. James, 1 John)! Eternal life has observable characteristics!

NASB, NRSV"among all the Gentiles"
NKJV"among all nations"
TEV"people of all nations"
NJB"to all pagan nations"

This is the universal gospel. God's promise of redemption in Gen. 3:15 included all mankind. Jesus' substitutionary death included all of the fallen children of Adam (cf. 5:18; John 1:29; 3:16; 4:42; 6:33,51; 1 Cor. 15:22; 2 Cor. 5:19; Eph. 2:11-3:13; 1 Tim. 2:4; 4:10; Titus 2:11; Heb. 2:9; 2 Pet. 3:9; 1 John 2:2; 4:14). Paul sees his special call as preaching God's gospel to Gentiles (cf. Acts 9:15; 22:21; 26:17; Rom. 11:13; 15:16; Gal. 1:16; 2:29; Eph. 3:2,8; 1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 4:17).

SPECIAL TOPIC: YHWH's ETERNAL REDEMPTIVE PLAN

1:6 "you also" Paul was an extreme example (i.e., persecutor of the church) of the grace of God, but his readers were also examples of the undeserved, unmerited grace of God.

NASB, NKJV"the called of Jesus Christ"
NRSV"who are called to belong to Jesus Christ"
TEV"whom God has called to belong to Jesus Christ"
NJB"by his call belong to Jesus Christ"

This may be

1. a play on the term "church," which meant "the called out ones" or "gathered ones"

2. a reference to divine election (cf. Rom. 8:29-30; 9:1ff; Eph.1:4, 11; 3:21; 4:1,4)

3. the Revised English Bible translation of the phrase, "you who have heard the call and belong to Jesus Christ."

This also reflects the understanding of this phrase as translated in the NRSV, TEV, and JB. See Special Topic below.

SPECIAL TOPIC: CALLED

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:7
 ⁷to all who are beloved of God in Rome, called as saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

1:7 "beloved of God" This phrase was often used of Jesus (cf. Matt. 3:17; 17:5). Now it was used of the church in Rome! This shows the depth of God's love for those who trust in His Son. This kind of transfer can also be seen in Eph. 1:20 (God's actions on behalf of Jesus) and Eph. 2:5-6 (Jesus' actions on behalf of believers).

▣ "in Rome" Paul did not start this church. No one knows who did (see Intro.). Romans was a letter introducing himself to a church already established. The book of Romans is Paul's most developed presentation of the gospel he preached. It is least affected by a local situation although there existed tensions between Jewish and Gentile believers to whom he comments throughout the letter (esp. chaps. 9-11).

NASB"called as saints"
NKJV, NRSV,
NJB"called to be saints"
TEV"called to be his own people"

The term "saints" referred to the believers' position in Christ (see Special Topic at 6:4), not their sinlessness. It should also describe their progressive Christlikeness. The term was always plural except in Phil. 4:21. However, even in this context it is corporate. To be a Christian is to be part of a community, a family, a body.

Verse 1 indicates that Paul was called to be an apostle. Believers are "the called of Jesus Christ" in verse 6. Believers are also called "saints" in verse 7. This "calling" was a NT way of asserting the truth of the initiating priority of God (see Special Topic at 1:6). No fallen human ever called himself (cf. 3:9-13; Isa. 53:6; 1 Pet. 2:25). God always takes the initiative (cf. John 6:44,65; 15:16). He always brings the covenant (see Special Topic at 9:4) to us. This is true of our salvation (our imputed righteousness or legal standing), but also our giftedness for effective service (cf. 1 Cor. 12:7,11), and our Christian lives. See Special Topic following.

SPECIAL TOPIC: SAINTS

▣ "Grace to you and peace from God" This is Paul's characteristic opening blessing. It is a word play on the traditional Greek term "greetings" (charein) and the uniquely Christian term "grace" (charis). Paul may have been combining this Greek opening with the traditional Hebrew greeting shalom or "peace." However, this is only speculation. Notice that theologically grace always precedes peace.

▣ "from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ" Paul regularly uses only one preposition for both names (cf. 1 Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. 1:3; Gal. 1:3; Eph. 1:2; Phil. 1:2; 2 Thess. 1:2; 1 Tim. 1:2; 2 Tim. 1:2; Titus 1:4). This was his way of grammatically linking these two Persons of the Trinity. This would emphasize Jesus' deity and equality with the Father.

SPECIAL TOPIC: FATHERHOOD OF GOD

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:8-15
 ⁸First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all, because your faith is being proclaimed throughout the whole world. ⁹For God, whom I serve in my spirit in the preaching of the gospel of His Son, is my witness as to how unceasingly I make mention of you, ¹⁰always in my prayers making request, if perhaps now at last by the will of God I may succeed in coming to you. ¹¹For I long to see you so that I may impart some spiritual gift to you, that you may be established; ¹²that is, that I may be encouraged together with you while among you, each of us by the other's faith, both yours and mine. ¹³I do not want you to be unaware, brethren, that often I have planned to come to you (and have been prevented so far) so that I may obtain some fruit among you also, even as among the rest of the Gentiles. ¹⁴I am under obligation both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish. ¹⁵So, for my part, I am eager to preach the gospel to you also who are in Rome.

1:8 "First" In this context "first" means "from the beginning" or "I must begin" (J. B. Phillips).

▣ "I thank my God through Jesus Christ" Paul normally addresses his prayers to God through Jesus Christ. Jesus is our only way to approach God! See Special Topic: Paul's Prayers of Praise and Thanksgiving at 7:25.

▣ "for you all" This use of "all," like v. 7, may reflect the jealousy and conflict between the believing Jewish leaders who fled Rome under Nero's edict and the resultant believing Gentile leaders who had replaced them for a few years. Romans 9-11 addresses this same issue.

It is also possible that the inclusion is addressed to "the weak" and "the strong" of Rom. 14:1-15:13. God loves all of the church at Rome and He loves them equally!

▣ "because your faith is being proclaimed throughout the whole world" Romans 16:19 made allusion to the same truth. This was obviously an Oriental overstatement (hyperbole) referring to the Roman world (cf. 1 Thess. 1:8).

1:9 "God. . .is my witness" Paul was taking an oath in God's name (cf. 9:1; 2 Cor. 1:23; 11:10-11,31; 12:19; Gal. 1:20; 1 Thess. 2:5). This was his Jewish way of asserting his truthfulness.

NASB"how unceasingly"
NKJV, NRSV"without ceasing"
NJB"continually mention"
NIV"how constantly"

This theme of Paul's constant and urgent prayers (cf. 1 Thess. 1:2; 2:13; 2 Tim. 1:3) should be an example church leaders diligently follow (cf. 1 Thess. 5:17). Prayer opens a powerful spiritual door. We have not because we ask not (James 4:2).

▣ "in my spirit" This is a good example of the use of pneuma for the human spirit (cf. 8:5,10,16; 12:11) used in the sense of human life (i.e., breath, Hebrew ruach, BDB 924, cf. Gen. 6:17; 7:15,22).

SPECIAL TOPIC: SPIRIT (PNEUMA) IN THE NT

1:10 "always in my prayers making request" Paul did not start this church and yet he consistently prayed for them (cf. 2 Cor. 11:28), as he did for all his churches! See SPECIAL TOPIC: INTERCESSORY PRAYER at 9:3. However, Paul had many friends and co-workers in the Roman church as chapter 16 clearly shows.

▣ "if" This is a first class conditional sentence which is assumed to be true from the author's perspective or for his literary purposes. Paul planned to visit Rome on his way to Spain (cf. 15:22-24). He probably did not plan to stay a long time. Paul always wanted to minister in a new field where no other person had worked (cf. 15:20; 2 Cor. 10:15,16). It is possible that one of the purposes of the Roman letter was to solicit funds for his missionary journey to Spain (cf. 15:24).

▣ "by the will of God I may succeed in coming to you" This is paralleled in v. 13 and 15:32. Paul did not feel that his life and travel plans belonged to himself, but to God (cf. Acts 18:21; 1 Cor. 4:19; 16:7). See Special Topic at 12:2.

Also notice that God's will can be affected by believers' prayers!

1:11 "'For I long to see you'" This parallels 15:23. For a long time Paul wanted to meet the believers in Rome (cf. Acts 19:21).

▣ "that I may impart some spiritual gift to you" The phrase "spiritual gift" was used in the sense of spiritual insight or blessing (cf. 11:29; 15:27). Paul saw himself as uniquely called to be the Apostle to the Gentiles (cf. v. 15).

▣ "that you may be established" This is an aorist passive infinitive of histēmi. The word has three meanings.

1. establish, Rom. 1:11; 16:25; 1 Thess. 3:13; 2 Pet. 1:12

2. strengthen, Luke 22:32; 1 Thess. 3:2; 2 Thess. 2:17; 3:3; James 5:8; Rev. 3:2

3. a Semitic idiom for making a firm decision, Luke 9:51

See Special Topic at 5:2.

1:12 This is the purpose of Christian fellowship. The gifts are meant to unite believers into a ministering community. Believers are gifted for the common good (cf. 1 Cor. 12:7). All gifts are relevant. All the gifts are given by the Spirit at salvation (cf. 1 Cor. 12:11). All believers are called, gifted, full-time ministers (cf. Eph. 4:11-12). Paul clearly states his sense of Apostolic authority, but also a community-wide mutuality. Believers need one another! Believers are the Body of Christ.

1:13 "I do not want you to be unaware, brethren" This is an idiom which Paul uses often to introduce important statements (cf. 11:25; 1 Cor. 10:1; 12:1; 2 Cor. 1:8; 1 Thess. 4:13). It is similar in literary purpose to Jesus' "Amen, amen."

▣ "and have been prevented thus far" This is a passive verb. This same phrase occurs in 1 Thess. 2:18 where Satan is the agent. Paul believed his life was guided by God but disrupted by Satan. Somehow both are true (cf. Job 1-2; Dan. 10). The use of this term in 15:22 implies the hindrance was Paul's missionary work in the eastern Mediterranean area, which is not yet complete (but close).

▣ "that I might obtain some fruit among you" In this context "fruit" may refer to converts, but in John 15:1-8 and Gal. 5:22 it referred to Christian maturity. Matthew 7 says "by your fruit you shall be known," but it does not define the term fruit. The best parallel is probably Phil. 1:22, where Paul uses this same agricultural metaphor.

1:14 "I am under obligation" Paul uses this term several times in Romans.

1. Paul is obligated to preach the gospel to all Gentiles (here).

2. Paul is not obligated to "the flesh" (8:12).

3. The Gentile church is obligated to help the mother church in Jerusalem (15:27).

 

▣ "to Greeks" This referred to the civilized, cultured people around the Mediterranean Sea. Alexander the Great and his followers had Hellenized the known world. The Romans had taken over and assimilated the Greek culture.

▣ "to Barbarians" This (onomatopoeia) term meant the uneducated or uncultured people groups, usually to the north. It was used of people who did not speak Greek. Their speech sounded like "bar bar bar" to the Greeks and Romans.

▣ "to the wise and to the foolish" It is possible that this is parallel in the Greek text to "barbarians," but not necessarily so. This may be another way of referring to all people groups and individuals.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:16-17
 ¹⁶For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. ¹⁷For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, "But the righteous man shall live by faith."

1:16-17 Verses 16-17 are the theme of the entire book. This theme is amplified and summarized in 3:21-31.

1:16

NASB, NRSV"I am not ashamed of the gospel"
NKJV"I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ"
TEV"I have complete confidence in the gospel"
NJB"I am not ashamed of the Good News:"

Paul may be alluding to Jesus' words in Mark 8:38 and Luke 9:26. He is not ashamed of the content of the gospel or its resulting persecution (cf. 2 Tim. 1:12,16,18).

In 1 Cor. 1:23 the Jews were ashamed of the gospel because it affirmed a suffering Messiah and the Greeks because it affirmed the resurrection of the body.

▣ "salvation" In the OT, the Hebrew term (yasho) primarily referred to physical deliverance (cf. James 5:15), but in the NT the Greek term (sōzō) refers primarily to spiritual deliverance (cf. 1 Cor. 1:18, 21). See Robert B. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old Testament, pp. 124-126.

SPECIAL TOPIC: SALVATION (OLD TESTAMENT TERM)

NASB"to every one who believes"
NKJV"for everyone who believes"
NRSV"to everyone who has faith"
TEV"all who believe"
NJB"all who have faith"

The gospel is for all humans (oh, how I love the words "everyone," "whosoever," "all," see note at 1:5, 6^th item), but believing is one of the conditions for acceptance (cf. Acts 16:30-31). The other is repentance (cf. Mark 1:15; Acts 3:16 and 19; 20:21). God deals with mankind by means of covenant (see Special Topic at 9:4). He always takes the initiative and sets the agenda (cf. John 6:44,65). But there are several reciprocal conditions (see note at 1:5, 4^th item).

The Greek term, here translated "believe," can also be translated in English by the terms "faith" or "trust." The Greek word has a wider connotation than any one English word. Notice it is a present participle. Saving faith is continuing faith (cf. 1 Cor. 1:18; 15:2; 2 Cor. 2:15; 1 Thess. 4:14)! See special Topic at 10:4.

Originally the related Hebrew terms behind this Greek term for "faith" meant a stable stance, a man with his feet apart so that he could not be easily moved. The opposite OT metaphor would be "my feet were in the miry clay" (Ps. 40:2), "my feet almost slipped" (Ps. 73:2). The Hebrew related roots, emun, emunah, aman, came to be used metaphorically of someone who was trustworthy, loyal, or dependable. Saving faith does not reflect fallen mankind's ability to be faithful, but God's! Believers' hopes do not reside in their abilities but in God's character and promises. It is His trustworthiness, His faithfulness, His promises! See Special Topic at 1:5.

▣ "to the Jew first" The reason for this is discussed briefly in 2:9-10 and 3:1-20 and fully developed in chapters 9-11. It follows Jesus' statements in Matt. 10:6; 15:24; Mark 7:27; John 4:22.

This may relate to the jealousy between believing Jew and Gentile leadership in the Roman church.

1:17 "the righteousness of God" This phrase in context referred to (1) God's character, and (2) how He gives that character to sinful mankind. The Jerusalem Bible (JB) translation has "this is what reveals the justice of God." While this does refer to the believer's moral lifestyle, it primarily concerns his legal standing before the Righteous Judge. This imputation of the righteousness of God to fallen, sinful mankind, since the Reformation, has been characterized as "justification by grace through faith" (cf. 2 Cor. 5:21; Phil. 3:9). This is the very verse that changed Martin Luther's life and theology!

However, the goal of justification is sanctification, Christlikeness, or the righteous character of God (cf. Rom. 8:28-29; Gal. 4:19; Eph. 1:4; 2:10; 4:13; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:3; 1 Pet. 1:15). Righteousness is not only a legal pronouncement, it is a call to a holy life; the image of God in mankind is to be functionally restored (cf. 2 Cor. 5:21).

SPECIAL TOPIC: RIGHTEOUSNESS

NASB, NKJV"from faith to faith"
NRSV"through faith for faith"
TEV"it is through faith, from beginning to end"
NJB"it shows how faith leads to faith"

This phrase has two prepositions, ek and eis, which denote a transition or development. He uses this same structure in 2 Cor. 2:16 and apo and eis in 2 Cor. 3:18. Christianity is a gift which is expected to become a characteristic and a lifestyle.

There are several possibilities in translating this phrase. The Williams NT translates it as "the Way of faith that leads to greater faith." The main theological points are

1. faith comes from God ("revealed")

2. mankind must respond and continue to respond

3. faith must result in a godly life

One thing is certain, "faith" in Christ is crucial (cf. 5:1; Phil. 3:9). God's offer of salvation is conditioned on a faith response (cf. Mark 1:15; John 1:12; 3:16; Acts 3:16 and 19; 20:21). See Special Topics at 1:5; 4:5; and 10:4.

NASB"But the righteous man shall live by faith"
NKJV"The just shall live by faith"
NRSV"The one who is righteous will live by faith"
TEV"He who is put right with God through faith shall live"
NJB"The upright man finds life through faith"

This was a quote from Hab. 2:4, but not from the Masoretic Text (MT) or the Septuagint (LXX). In the OT "faith" had the expanded metaphorical meaning of "trustworthiness," "faithfulness," or "loyalty to" (see Special Topic at 1:5). Saving faith is based on God's faithfulness (cf. 3:5,21,22,25,26). However, human faithfulness is evidence that one has trusted in God's provision. This same OT text is quoted in Gal. 3:11 and Heb. 10:38. The next literary unit, Romans 1:18-3:20, reveals the opposite of faithfulness to God.

It may be helpful to list how several modern commentators understand the last part of the phrase.

1. Vaughan: "begins in faith and ends in faith"

2. Hodge:  "by faith alone"

3. Barrett:  "on the basis of nothing but faith"

4. Knox:  "faith first and last"

5. Stagg:  "the upright out of faith shall live"

 

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:18-23
 ¹⁸For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men who suppress the truth in unrighteousness, ¹⁹because that which is known about God is evident within them; for God made it evident to them. ²⁰For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse. ²¹For even though they knew God, they did not honor Him as God or give thanks, but they became futile in their speculations, and their foolish heart was darkened. ²²Professing to be wise, they became fools, ²³and exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for an image in the form of corruptible man and of birds and four-footed animals and crawling creatures.

1:18 "for" Notice the number of times gar is used in the theme statement of verses 16-17-three times, and now it introduces Paul's first point of the gospel (1:18-3:31), which is contrasted with the power of God unto salvation (1:16-17).

▣ "the wrath of God" Verses 18-23 depict the pagan world of Paul's day. Paul's characterization of the pagan world is also found in Jewish literature (cf. Wisdom of Solomon 13:1ff. and Letter of Aristeas, 134-38) and even in Greek and Roman ethical writings. The same Bible that tells us of God's love also reveals His wrath (cf. vv. 23-32; 2:5,8; 3:5; 4:15; 5:9; 9:22; 12:19; 13:4-5).

Both wrath and love are human terms which are applied to God. They express the truth that God has a way He wants believers to respond to and live. One's willful rejection of God's will (the gospel of Christ) results in consequences both temporal, as in this verse, and eschatological (cf. 2:5). However, God must not be viewed as vindictive. Judgment is His "strange work" (cf. Isa. 28:21ff). Love is His character, compare Deut. 5:9 to 5:10; 7:9. In Him justice and mercy predominate. Yet all will give an account to God (cf. Eccl. 12:13-14; Gal. 6:7), even Christians (cf. 14:10-12; 2 Cor. 5:10).

SPECIAL TOPIC: GOD DESCRIBED AS HUMAN (ANTHROPOMORPHISM)

▣ "is revealed" As the gospel is a revealed truth (v. 17), so too, the wrath of God! Neither is an act of human discovery or logic.

▣ "who suppress the truth" This referred to human willful rejection, not ignorance (cf. vv. 21,32; John 3:17-21). This phrase can mean

1. they know the truth but reject it

2. their lifestyle shows they reject the truth

3. their lives and/or words cause others not to know and receive the truth

 

SPECIAL TOPIC: "TRUTH" IN PAUL'S WRITINGS

1:19 "that which is known about God is evident within them; for God made it evident to them" All humans know something of God from creation (cf. v. 20; Job 12:7-10 and Ps. 19:1-6 through nature). In theology this is called "natural revelation." It is not complete, but it is the basis of God's holding responsible those who have never been exposed to God's "special revelation" in Scripture (cf. Ps. 19:7-14) or, ultimately, in Jesus (cf. Col. 1:15; 2:9).

The term "know" was used in two senses in the NT: (1) its OT sense of intimate personal relationship (cf. Gen. 4:1; Jer. 1:5) and (2) its Greek sense of facts about a subject (cf. v. 21). The gospel is both a Person to be welcomed and a message about that Person to be received and believed! In this verse it was used only in the sense of #2.

SPECIAL TOPIC: KNOW (USING MOSTLY DEUTERONOMY AS A PARADIGM)

1:20 This verse mentions three aspects of God.

1. His invisible attributes (His character, cf. Col. 1:15; 1 Tim. 1:17; Heb. 11:27)

2. His eternal power (seen in natural creation, cf. Ps. 19:1-6)

3. His divine nature (seen in His acts and motives of creation, cf. Genesis 1-2)

 

▣ "for since the creation of the world" The preposition apo is used in a temporal sense. A similar phrase is found in Mark 10:6; 13:19; 2 Pet. 3:4. The invisible God is now seen in

1. physical creation (this verse)

2. Scripture (Ps. 19, 119)

3. ultimately in Jesus (cf. John 14:9)

 

▣ "divine nature" From Greek literature theiotēs could be translated "divine majesty." This is seen supremely in Jesus. He uniquely bears the divine image (cf. 2 Cor. 4:4; Heb. 1:3). He is God's full revelation in human form (Col. 1:19; 2:9). The wonderful truth of the gospel is that fallen mankind, through faith in Christ, will share Christlikeness (cf. Heb. 12:10; 1 John 3:2). The image of God in humanity (cf. Gen. 1:26-27) has been restored (theios, cf. 2 Pet. 1:3-4)!

NASB"have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made"
NKJV"are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made"
NRSV"have been understood and seen through the things he has made"
TEV"have been clearly seen; they are perceived in the things that God has made"
NJB"have been clearly seen by the mind's understanding of created things"

The combination of noeō (cf. Matt. 15:17) and kathoraō (both present passive) implies a true perception. God has written two books: (1) nature (cf. Ps. 19:1-6) and (2) Scripture (cf. Ps. 19:7-14). They are both capable of human understanding and demand a response (cf. Wisdom 13:1-9).

▣ "so that they are without excuse" This is literally "no legal defense." This Greek term (a plus apologeomai) is used only here and in 2:1 in the NT. Remember the theological purpose of 1:18-3:20 is to show the spiritual lostness of all mankind. Humans are responsible for the knowledge they do have. God holds humans responsible only for that which they know or could know (cf. 4:15; 5:13).

1:21 "for even though they knew God" Humans are not progressing religiously-they are progressively evil. Since Genesis 3 humanity has been going downhill. The darkness is increasing!

▣ "they did not honor Him as God, or give thanks" This is the tragedy of pagan idolatry in vv. 23, 24 (cf. Jer. 2:9-13). Believers "glorify" God by Christlike living (cf. Matt. 5:16; Rom. 12:1-2; 1 Cor. 6:20; 10:31; Phil. 1:20; 1 Pet. 4:11). YHWH wants a people who reflect/reveal His character to a fallen, blind world!

▣ "but they became futile in their speculations, and their foolish heart was darkened." The New Testament: A New Translation by Olaf M. Morlie has "rather they busied themselves with silly speculations about Him, and their stupid minds groped about in the dark." Human religious systems are monuments to spiritual rebellion and pride (cf. v. 22; Col. 2:16-23).

The word translated "futile" was used in the LXX to refer to the "vain," "non-existent" idols of Israel's neighbors. Paul was a Hebrew thinker who knew the Septuagint. The use of Greek words in the LXX is a better guide to the NT authors' thoughts than Greek lexicons.

The two verbs are aorist passive indicatives. Does the passive voice imply that their lack of understanding and proper response was because God veiled their hearts or that their rejection of the light had hardened their hearts (cf. 10:12-16; 2 Kgs. 17:15; Jer. 2:5; Eph. 4:17-19)? This is the same theological question related to Pharaoh in the exodus.

 

God hardened his heart	Pharaoh hardened his own heart
Exod. 4:21 9:12 10:20 11:10 14:4 14:8 14:17	Exod. 8:15 8:32 9:34

In 9:35 the hardening could refer to God or Pharaoh. This is the mystery of divine sovereignty and human free will!

▣ "heart" This was used in the OT sense of the entire person. However, it was often a way of referring to the thinking and feeling process. See Special Topic at 1:24.

1:22

NASB, NKJV"Professing to be wise, they became fools"
NRSV"Claiming to be wise, they became fools"
TEV"They say they are wise, but they are fools"
NJB"The more they called themselves philosophers, the more stupid they grew"

From the Greek word "fool" we get the English "moron." The problem is in mankind's pride and confidence in their own knowledge (cf. 1 Cor. 1:18-31; Col. 2:8-23). This goes back to Genesis 3. Knowledge brought separation and judgment. It is not that human knowledge is always wrong, it is just not ultimate!

1:23 Willfully ignorant humans who were made in God's image (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1,3; 9:6) turned God into earthly images such as

1. animals (Egypt)

2. forces of nature (Persia)

3. human forms (Greece/Rome)-idols! Even God's own people did this (cf. Deut. 4:15-24)

Some new forms of this old sin are

1. environmentalism (mother earth)

2. New Age eastern thought (mysticism, spiritualism, and the occult)

3. atheistic humanism (Marxism, utopianism, progressive idealism, and ultimate faith in politics or education)

4. holistic medicine (health and longevity)

5. education.

 

▣ "glory" See Special Topic at 3:23

▣ "corruptible man" See Special Topic following.

SPECIAL TOPIC: DESTROY, RUIN, CORRUPT (PHTHEIRŌ)

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:24-25
 ²⁴Therefore God gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, so that their bodies would be dishonored among them. ²⁵For they exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.

1:24, 26, 28 "God gave them over" This is the worst possible judgment. It is God saying "let fallen humanity have their own way" (cf. Ps. 81:12; Hosea 4:17; Acts 7:42 quotes several OT texts on this theological issue). Verses 23-32 describe God's rejection (temporal wrath) of the pagan world and its religiosity (and ours)! Paganism was and is characterized by sexual perversion and exploitation!

1:24 "hearts" See Special Topic following.

SPECIAL TOPIC: THE HEART

1:25 "exchanged the truth of God for a lie" This can be understood in several ways.

1. the self-deification of mankind (cf. 2 Thess. 2:4,11)

2. mankind's worship of that which he has made-idols (cf. Isa. 44:20; Jer. 13:25; 16:19) instead of YHWH who created all things (cf. vv. 18-23)

3. mankind's ultimate rejection of the truth of the gospel (cf. Jn 14:17; 1 John 2:21,27)

In context #2 fits best.

▣ "worshiped and served" Mankind will always have gods. All humans sense there is someone, some truth, or something beyond themselves.

▣ "who is blessed forever. Amen" Paul burst into a Jewish blessing, which is so characteristic of him (cf. Rom. 9:5; 2 Cor. 11:31). Paul's prays often as he writes (cf. 9:5; 11:36; 15:33; 16:27).

▣ "forever" See Special Topic below.

SPECIAL TOPIC: FOREVER (GREEK IDIOM)

▣ "Amen" See Special Topic below.

SPECIAL TOPIC: AMEN

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:26-27
 ²⁶For this reason God gave them over to degrading passions; for their women exchanged the natural function for that which is unnatural, ²⁷and in the same way also the men abandoned the natural function of the woman and burned in their desire toward one another, men with men committing indecent acts and receiving in their own persons the due penalty of their error.

1:26,27 Homosexuality is one example of life apart from God's obvious will in creation (be fruitful). It was a sin and a major cultural problem

1. in the OT (cf. Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Deut. 23:18)

2. in the Greco-Roman world (cf. 1 Cor. 6:9; 1 Tim. 1:10)

3. in our day

Homosexuality is probably listed as one example of the fallen life because of the entire context's orientation to Genesis 1-3. Mankind was made in God's image (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1,3; 9:6). Mankind was made male and female (cf. Gen. 1:27). God's command was to be fruitful and multiply (cf. Gen. 1:28; 9:1,7). Mankind's fall (cf. Genesis 3) disrupted God's plan and will. Homosexuality is an obvious violation! However it must be stated that this is not the only sin mentioned in the context (cf. vv. 29-31). All sins show mankind's separation from God and their deserved punishment. All sin, especially lifestyle sin, is abhorrent to God.

SPECIAL TOPIC: HOMOSEXUALITY

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: 1:28-32
 ²⁸And just as they did not see fit to acknowledge God any longer, God gave them over to a depraved mind, to do those things which are not proper, ²⁹being filled with all unrighteousness, wickedness, greed, evil; full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, malice; they are gossips, ³⁰slanderers, haters of God, insolent, arrogant, boastful, inventors of evil, disobedient to parents, ³¹without understanding, untrustworthy, unloving, unmerciful; ³²and although they know the ordinance of God, that those who practice such things are worthy of death, they not only do the same, but also give hearty approval to those who practice them.

1:28-31 This is one sentence in Greek. It characterized rebellious, fallen, independent mankind (cf. Rom. 13:13; I Cor. 5:11; 6:9; Gal. 5:19-21; Eph. 5:5; 1 Tim. 1:10; Rev. 21:8).

Humanity's sin was that they chose existence apart from God. Hell is that existence made permanent. Independence is a tragedy! Mankind needs God; he is lost, inadequate, and unfulfilled apart from Him. The worst part of an eternal hell is God's relational absence!

1:29 "a depraved mind" What fallen mankind sees as freedom is self-worship: "Anything and everything for me!" The agent of the passive voice is stated as God in 1:24,26,28, but in this context's relationship to Genesis 1-3 it is mankind's choice of knowledge and self which caused the problem. God allowed His creation to suffer the consequences of their own choices, their own independence.

▣ "being filled with" This is a perfect passive participle. Humans are filled and characterized by what they dwell upon. The rabbis would say that in every human heart is a black (evil yetzer) dog and a white (good yetzer) dog. The one who is fed the most becomes the largest.

1:29-31 These are the results and symptoms of life without God. They characterize individuals and societies who choose to reject the God of the Bible. This was one of several lists of sins that Paul gave (cf. 1 Cor. 5:11; 6:9; 2 Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:19-21; Eph. 4:31; 5:3-4; Col. 3:5-9).

SPECIAL TOPIC: VICES AND VIRTUES IN THE NT

1:30 "arrogant" This is huperēphanous (see C., 3 below).

SPECIAL TOPIC: PAUL'S USE OF "HUPER" COMPOUNDS

1:32 "those who practice such things are worthy of death" This statement reflects the Law of Moses. It is summarized in Rom. 6:16,21,23; 8:6,13. Death is the opposite of God's will and God's life (cf. Ezek. 18:32; 1 Tim. 2:4; 2 Pet. 3:9).

▣ "but also give hearty approval to those who practice them" Misery loves company. Fallen mankind uses the sins of others as an excuse, "everyone is doing it." Cultures are characterized by their particular sins!

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

These discussion questions are provided to help you think through the major issues of this section of the book. They are meant to be thought-provoking, not definitive.

1. Why did Paul write to the Roman church?

2. Why was Romans such an important theological statement of Christianity?

3. Outline 1:18-3:20 in your own words.

4. Will those who have never heard the Gospel be rejected for not trusting Christ?

5. Explain the difference between "natural revelation" and "special revelation."

6.  Describe human life without God.

7.  Do verses 24-27 address the issue of homosexuality?

 

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