Lesson 13: Confident in His Righteousness (1 John 2:28-3:3)

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Walking through the Christian life day after day, it can be easy for believers to forget why it is exactly that they have hope and what it is that they are looking forward to. This is why followers of Jesus need the truths of the gospel reinforced to them, not just at the beginning of their journey, but every day following. One key component of this glorious message is the righteousness of Christ—a righteousness that permits every saint to stand before a holy God, a righteousness that gives each one hope for the eternity a disciple will enjoy with Him. Pastor Daniel explains the attitude that believers enjoying the imputed righteous of Jesus should have: “In Christ, I long to boldly approach Him when He returns.”

Summary by Seth Kempf, Bethany Community Church Staff

Lesson 14: The Practice of Sinning (1 John 3:4-10)

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John didn’t beat around the bush concerning the consequences of sin—sometimes his words might even give true Christians a start or make them scratch their heads. Though this passage might elicit a similar response, he also provided some points of clarification about sinful behavior and how we should examine it in terms of patterns or consistency. A bit of that clarification is found here. The practice of sinning is the distinguishing factor he mentions, a distinction that helps believers as they inspect their own hearts and then also seek to admonish one another. The true Christian life must be a life of continual repentance, repentance from the sins that will undoubtedly be committed, even by the genuine believer…the genuine believer who will not be OK with continuing in sin. Pastor Daniel emphasizes, “There are reasonable yet terrifying conclusions we can draw about the eternal destiny of the person who is committed to rebellion against God. We can learn much about a person’s relationship with God by that person’s relationship with sin.”

Summary by Seth Kempf, Bethany Community Church Staff

Related Topics: Christian Life, Hamartiology (Sin)

Lesson 15: What Does It Mean to Hate My Brother? (1 John 3:11-15)

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Few people would want to think of themselves as murderers. It’s one of those sins of which almost everyone can say, “Well, I’m an OK person; it’s not like I’ve ever killed anyone!” But the Apostle John, as he addresses his readers, presses in on the topic of murder much harder than this. Equating a hateful heart with this most heinous crime is the difficult reality he puts before the church. “You might as well be Cain” is the message he presents to those who would want to dismiss any harbored disdain for a brother. Pastor Daniel brings out the extreme nature of John’s language by emphasizing the main idea, “The one who doesn’t love his brother hates him.” There is no middle ground to walk in between love and hate. The fruits that flow from either a loving heart or a hateful one will be consistent with that particular heart.

Summary by Seth Kempf, Bethany Community Church Staff

Related Topics: Hamartiology (Sin), Love

Lesson 3: Three Wrong Thoughts About Your Sin, Part 1 (1 John 1:5-10)

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How dangerous is sin, really? It is easy to judge actions in life according to how tragic or immediate the consequences are. In other words, a person might view sin as not that big of a deal if he isn’t struck with a serious illness or experiences great loss immediately afterward. But the Bible speaks of sin in a far different way, a way that needs to be understood if one is going to follow Christ wholeheartedly, walking in communion with God. In his first of two sermons covering this particular text, Pastor Daniel puts forward the “truth test,” stating, “How you view sin reveals if you are truly in fellowship with God.” Laying the foundation for the wrong thoughts people can have about their sin, he picks up on John’s message about God being light, the One who is completely good.

Summary by Seth Kempf, Bethany Community Church Staff

Related Topics: Fellowship, Hamartiology (Sin)

13. Lado a Lado – A História de Áquila e Priscila

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No ano 52 da nossa era, o imperador romano Cláudio publicou um decreto expulsando todos os judeus da cidade de Roma. De acordo com o historiador romano Suetônio, parece que eles estavam perseguindo seus vizinhos cristãos e causando grande perturbação na cidade. Cláudio pouco se importava com a razão dos problemas e, menos ainda, com quem estava a culpa. Ele sabia que eram judeus e isso era o suficiente; por isso, todos os judeus foram arrancados de suas casas e banidos de Roma, inocentes junto com culpados.

Foi quando um judeu chamado Áquila, que havia migrado da província do Ponto, no Mar Negro, para Roma, empacotou suas coisas, despediu-se de seus amigos e embarcou para a cidade de Corinto. Junto com ele foi sua fiel esposa, Priscila. Não sabemos ao certo se ela era judia ou romana, nem se na época os dois eram cristãos. No entanto, de uma coisa nós sabemos – eles foram juntos. Na verdade, eles estavam sempre juntos. O nome de um nunca aparece sem o nome do outro.

Em primeiro lugar, eles ganhavam a vida juntos. “Pois a profissão deles era fazer tendas” (Atos 18:3). Todo garoto judeu dos tempos do Novo Testamento aprendia algum tipo de ofício. Já que as tendas eram parte importante da vida hebraica, os pais de Áquila decidiram que seu filho deveria aprender esse meio prático de subsistência. Suas tendas eram feitas de tecido rústico de pele de cabra, o que exigia grande habilidade para cortá-las e costurá-las da forma correta. Áquila adquiriu essa habilidade e depois a ensinou à sua esposa, e ela alegremente o ajudava em seus negócios.

Nem todos os casais conseguem fazer como Áquila e Priscila. É preciso uma relação madura para trabalhar junto sob a pressão às vezes gerada por um emprego. Mas, evidentemente, esse era o tipo de relacionamento entre eles. Eles não eram apenas companheiros e amantes, também deviam ser parceiros e bons amigos. É provável que estivessem mais dispostos a dar do que tentavam receber. E fossem capazes de aceitar sugestões da mesma forma que as davam. Eles gostavam de estar juntos e de trabalhar juntos. Eles eram inseparáveis, e eram iguais.

Assim, quando chegaram a Corinto, eles foram juntos à praça para procurar um lugarzinho ao ar livre para alugar e montar seu negócio de fazer tendas. É obvio que isso ocorreu no tempo de Deus, pois tão logo eles se estabeleceram, um outro judeu da mesma profissão chegou à cidade, vindo de sua recente cruzada evangelística por Atenas, o apóstolo Paulo. Sempre que entrava em alguma cidade, ele dava uma volta pela praça procurando uma oportunidade para falar de Jesus, alguma indicação de Deus para um futuro ministério e, é claro, um trabalho com o qual pudesse se sustentar durante o seu ministério. Era inevitável que ele topasse com a oficina de Áquila e Priscila. A Escritura conta a história da seguinte forma: “Depois disto, deixando Paulo Atenas, partiu para Corinto. Lá, encontrou certo judeu chamado Áquila, natural do Ponto, recentemente chegado da Itália, com Priscila, sua mulher, em vista de ter Cláudio decretado que todos os judeus se retirassem de Roma. Paulo aproximou-se deles. E, posto que eram do mesmo ofício, passou a morar com eles e ali trabalhava, pois a profissão deles era fazer tendas” (Atos 18:1-3).

A empatia entre eles foi instantânea e uma amizade profunda e duradoura nasceu naquele dia. Paulo veio a trabalhar com eles, e até mesmo a morar na casa deles, enquanto esteve em Corinto. Se antes eles não conheciam a Cristo, agora, com certeza, eles O conheciam, pois ninguém podia passar algum tempo na presença de Paulo sem ser impactado por seu amor entusiástico e contagiante pelo Salvador. Áquila e Priscila viveram juntos, trabalharam juntos, suportaram o exílio juntos e vieram a conhecer e amar a Cristo juntos; e isso tornou seu casamento completo. Agora eles eram um em Cristo, e o amor do Salvador fez de um bom casamento um casamento ainda melhor. Talvez seja isso justamente o que falte ao seu casamento. Se um de vocês ainda não depositou sua fé no sacrifício de Jesus por seus pecados, seu casamento não pode estar completo. A verdadeira união só pode ser encontrada em Cristo.

Desde o dia em que Áquila e Priscila conheceram o Salvador, eles cresceram juntos na Palavra. Sem dúvida, todos os sábados, eles iam com Paulo à sinagoga, quando ele discorria com judeus e gregos, persuadindo-os a crer na salvação em Cristo (Atos 18:4). Nem todos aceitaram o testemunho de Paulo. Alguns resistiram e blasfemaram. Por isso, ele deixou a sinagoga e passou ensinar na casa de Tício Justo, contígua à sinagoga. E Deus abençoou seu ministério. Até o principal da sinagoga veio a crer em Cristo. “E ali permaneceu um ano e seis meses, ensinando entre eles a palavra de Deus” (Atos 18:11). Pense nisso, dezoito meses de estudo intensivo da Bíblia com o maior professor de Bíblia da igreja primitiva. Como Áquila e Priscila devem ter crescido!

E, quando as aulas acabavam, provavelmente os três iam para casa e ficavam até as primeiras horas da manhã conversando sobre o Senhor e Sua Palavra.

Áquila e Priscila amavam cada mais a Palavra de Deus. E, embora trabalhassem muito em sua oficina, fazendo e consertando tendas, mantivessem a casa e cuidassem de seu hóspede ilustre, eles sempre encontravam tempo para estudar a Bíblia com afinco. Estudar a Bíblia juntos fortalecia o amor de um pelo outro e seu espírito de união.

É exatamente isso o que falta em muitos casamentos cristãos. Marido e mulher precisam abrir a Palavra juntos. Na casa de um pastor, talvez isso não seja tão difícil. Quando estou preparando uma mensagem, muitas vezes converso com minha esposa e aceito sua opinião sobre o texto que estou estudando. Quando ela está preparando uma aula, pode pedir minha ajuda para entender determinado versículo e, assim, estudamos a Palavra juntos. No entanto, na casa de vocês isso pode ser um pouco mais difícil, especialmente se nunca fizeram isso antes. Ensinar na Escola Dominical e dividir com o outro a preparação da aula pode ser uma boa maneira de começar. Ler e discutir um guia devocional baseado na Bíblia também pode ser útil. Ler um livro da Bíblia juntos vai permitir que Deus fale à vida de ambos. Seja como for, a Palavra de Deus é um ingrediente essencial para enriquecer o relacionamento de um com o outro.

Os acontecimentos seguintes na narrativa de Atos mostram o quanto Áquila e Priscila aprenderam sobre a Palavra de Deus. Quando Paulo deixou Corinto e foi para Éfeso, eles o acompanharam e, quando ele embarcou para a sua igreja em Antioquia (Atos 18:18-22), eles ficaram em Éfeso. A mudança foi providencial, pois, enquanto Paulo estava fora, “chegou a Éfeso um judeu, natural de Alexandria, chamado Apolo, homem eloqüente e poderoso nas Escrituras. Era ele instruído no caminho do Senhor; e, sendo fervoroso de espírito, falava e ensinava com precisão a respeito de Jesus, conhecendo apenas o batismo de João. Ele, pois, começou a falar ousadamente na sinagoga” (Atos 18:24-26).

Áquila e Priscila foram ouvi-lo e ficaram profundamente impressionados com sua sinceridade, seu amor por Deus, seu conhecimento das Escrituras do Antigo Testamento e sua brilhante oratória. Ele poderia ser poderosamente usado no serviço de Jesus Cristo, mas sua mensagem era incompleta. Tudo o que ele conhecia além do Antigo Testamento era a mensagem de João Batista, a qual simplesmente aguardava a vinda do Messias. “Ouvindo-o, porém, Priscila e Áquila, tomaram-no consigo e, com mais exatidão, lhe expuseram o caminho de Deus” (Atos 18:26). Com amor e paciência, eles lhe expuseram detalhadamente a vida e o ministério de Jesus Cristo na terra, Sua morte sacrificial e substitutiva na cruz do Calvário pelos pecados dos homens, Sua ressurreição vitoriosa da morte e Sua gloriosa ascensão aos céus, a descida do Espírito Santo no Pentecostes e a origem do Corpo de Cristo, bem como outras importantes doutrinas do Novo Testamento.

Áquila e Priscila talvez não pregassem em público, mas eram diligentes estudiosos da Palavra e amavam estudá-la junto com outras pessoas. Eles até mesmo se dispuseram a investir o tempo necessário para tomar aquele jovem sob seus cuidados e ministrar a ele as coisas concernentes a Cristo. Apolo tinha uma mente aguçada e de rápida compreensão. Ele absorveu a verdade de tudo quanto eles lhe ensinaram e tornou-a parte do seu ministério. E, em consequência desse encontro com Áquila e Priscila, ele se tornou um grande servo de Deus, ao qual, tempos depois, algumas pessoas de Corinto colocaram no mesmo nível de Pedro e Paulo (1 Coríntios 1:12).

Alguns de nós nunca serão grandes pregadores, mas podemos ser estudiosos fieis da Palavra e nossas casas poderão se abrir para pessoas cujo coração esteja ávido para ouvi-la. Podemos ter o agradável privilégio de ensinar algum jovem Apolo que um dia terá um amplo e poderoso ministério para Jesus Cristo.

Áquila e Priscila não apenas ganhavam juntos a vida e cresciam juntos na Palavra, eles também serviam juntos ao Senhor. Sabemos disso pelo que já vimos, mas há ainda outro aspecto do seu serviço cristão que dá suporte a essa afirmação. Quando Paulo partiu de Antioquia na sua terceira viagem missionária, ele viajou por terra pela Ásia Menor, voltando a Éfeso, onde permaneceu cerca de três anos ensinando a Palavra de Deus (cf. Atos 26:31). Durante esse período, ele escreveu sua primeira carta aos Coríntios e disse: “As igrejas da Ásia vos saúdam. No Senhor, muito vos saúdam Áquila e Priscila e, bem assim, a igreja que está na casa deles” (1 Co. 16:19).

Quando Áquila e Priscila ainda iniciavam seu negócio em Corinto, sua casa provavelmente não era grande o suficiente para receber todos os cristãos, por isso foi usada a casa de Tício Justo. No entanto, parece que depois Deus os abençoou materialmente e, em Éfeso, eles usaram seus próprios recursos para a glória de Deus. Sua casa foi um lugar de reunião da igreja de Éfeso.

E essa não seria a última vez que sua casa serviria a esse propósito. Quando Paulo deixou Éfeso e foi para a Grécia, evidentemente eles acreditaram que Deus os estava levando de volta a Roma. Cláudio já estava morto, por isso, a mudança parecia segura e, com certeza, Roma carecia do testemunho do evangelho. Assim, eles partiram. Paulo escreveu a epístola aos Romanos da Grécia, durante a sua terceira viagem missionária, e disse: “Saudai Priscila e Áquila, meus cooperadores em Cristo Jesus, os quais pela minha vida arriscaram a sua própria cabeça; e isto lhes agradeço, não somente eu, mas também todas as igrejas dos gentios; saudai igualmente a igreja que se reúne na casa deles” (Romanos 16:3-5). Eles mal chegaram a Roma e já havia reunião da igreja em sua casa. As igrejas do Novo Testamento não podiam se dar ao luxo de possuir terras e construir edifícios, e nem seria sensato fazê-lo, tendo em vista as constantes pressões e perseguições. Por isso, eles se reuniam nas casas. E a casa de Áquila e Priscila estava sempre aberta às pessoas que quisessem aprender mais sobre Cristo e aos cristãos que quisessem crescer na Palavra.

Embora hoje tenhamos igrejas, nada substitui as casas como centro de evangelismo e alimento espiritual na comunidade. Alguns cristãos fazem refeições evangelísticas em que convidam amigos não crentes para ouvir um importante testemunho pessoal. Muitas mulheres dedicadas usam a mesa da cozinha para estreitar o relacionamento com suas vizinhas durante um cafezinho, compartilhando com elas o amor de Cristo. Estudos bíblicos nas casas podem ser uma boa ferramenta para ensinar os perdidos ou para o crescimento dos crentes na Palavra. Nossos moços têm sido grandemente beneficiados por adultos que abrem suas casas para grupos de jovens. As possibilidades de uso das casas para servir ao Senhor são infinitas. Este é um bom motivo para marido e mulher conversarem a respeito e orarem juntos.

Há ainda uma pequena informação na saudação da carta de Paulo aos Romanos que não podemos deixar passar: “os quais pela minha vida arriscaram a sua própria cabeça; e isto lhes agradeço, não somente eu, mas também todas as igrejas dos gentios”. Não sabemos a que Paulo está se referindo, nem quando isso aconteceu, mas em algum lugar, por alguma razão, Áquila e Priscila juntos arriscaram a própria vida para salvar a vida de Paulo. E nós também podemos agradecer a Deus por isso. Nosso conhecimento da verdade divina seria incompleto sem as epístolas que Deus o inspirou a escrever. Seus dois amigos estavam dispostos a dar tudo pelo serviço do Salvador, até mesmo a própria vida.

Áquila e Priscila são mencionados mais uma vez no Novo Testamento, no último capítulo do último livro escrito pelo apóstolo Paulo. Já tinham se passado dezesseis anos desde que Paulo os encontrara pela primeira vez em Corinto e, agora, ele estava numa prisão em Roma pela segunda vez. Sua morte pelas mãos do imperador Nero era iminente e ele estava escrevendo o último parágrafo de uma vida longa e frutífera: “Saúda Prisca, e Áquila, e a casa de Onesíforo” (1 Tm. 4:19). Paulo estava pensando em seus queridos amigos, os quais tinham voltado a Éfeso, onde Timóteo era ministro, provavelmente tendo deixado Roma para escapar do último rompante de Nero em perseguição aos cristãos. A saudação foi breve e simples, usando a forma abreviada do nome Priscila que vemos em outras passagens. Mas, em suas últimas horas de vida, Paulo queria que eles se lembrassem dele.

No entanto, há uma interessante observação a ser feita sobre esse pequeno versículo. O nome de Priscila aparece antes do nome de Áquila. Na verdade, o nome dela aparece em primeiro lugar em quatro das seis referências bíblicas a eles. E isso é muito incomum! A maioria das referências sobre casais na Bíblia coloca o nome do homem em primeiro lugar. Qual seria a razão da mudança? Muitas explicações têm sido sugeridas, mas a mais razoável parece ser a de que Priscila era a mais talentosa dos dois e, muitas vezes, assumia o papel de maior destaque. Ainda assim, parece que isso nunca afetou o amor entre eles, nem sua compreensão mútua e a capacidade de trabalharem juntos.

Todavia, nem sempre é assim. Alguns maridos se sentem ameaçados quando a esposa tem mais instrução ou capacidade que eles e, para evitar algum constrangimento e manter as aparências, às vezes, eles se tornam espiritualmente ausentes. Para eles, é mais fácil não se expor do que ser ofuscado por elas. Outros se tornam dominadores e agressivos, na tentativa de estabelecer uma posição de autoridade.

Em alguns casos, a culpa é da esposa. Parece que elas têm de provar alguma coisa, competindo com o marido pelos holofotes, ávidas de autoridade e primazia. Por isso, não é de admirar que alguns maridos se sintam ameaçados. A ordem de Deus de autoridade no casamento nunca mudou. Mesmo a esposa sendo mais inteligente e habilidosa que ele, Deus ainda quer que ela o considere como líder. Nem sempre isso é fácil para mulheres extremamente talentosas, mas para Priscila foi. Ela não ficava competindo com Áquila. Ela simplesmente usava a capacidade concedida por Deus, como auxiliadora de seu marido, para a glória de Deus. Tenho certeza de que Áquila sempre agradecia a Deus por ela e, em muitas ocasiões, aceitava seu sábio conselho. Ela era uma dessas mulheres realmente liberadas, pois não há liberdade que traga mais alegria e satisfação do que a liberdade de obedecer à Palavra de Deus.

Vamos Conversar Sobre Isso

Você tem procurado oportunidades para falar de Cristo aonde quer que esteja, como Paulo procurava? Será que quem passa muito tempo perto de você é contagiado pelo seu amor por Cristo? Como você pode melhorar nesse aspecto?
Que contribuição espiritual você tem dado à vida dos outros? Que mais pode fazer para falar da Palavra de Deus a outras pessoas?
Como você pode usar melhor a sua casa para servir ao Senhor?
Vocês conversam um com o outro sobre a Palavra de Deus? Discutam que tipo de estudo bíblico poderá funcionar melhor para vocês dois; então, comprometam-se a fazê-lo regularmente.
Para os maridos: Você fica incomodado quando sua esposa se sobressai? Como Deus deseja que você a trate nessas ocasiões?
Para as esposas: Você tem ameaçado seu marido, lutando para provar sua superioridade em determinadas áreas? Você busca o louvor dos outros às custas dele? Como você pode evitar esse tipo de armadilha?
Existem ocasiões nas quais você sente que seu cônjuge faz pouco de você em público? Conversem sobre isso e vejam como podem evitar esse tipo de coisa.
Se você e seu cônjuge estão pensando em montar um negócio juntos, que tipo de problemas acham que poderiam ter? O que poderiam fazer agora para evitá-los?
Como podem demonstrar melhor a igualdade que têm em Cristo como marido e mulher?

Tradução: Mariza Regina de Souza

List of Abbreviations (for the NET Bible Footnotes)

As found on the Lumina Study Tool.

Abbreviations for Biblical Books and Nonbiblical Literature

Jump to the definitions for sn,tn,tc click here

Old Testament

Gen	Genesis
Exod	Exodus
Lev	Leviticus
Num	Numbers
Deut	Deuteronomy
Josh	Joshua
Judg	Judges
Ruth	Ruth
1 Sam	1 Samuel
2 Sam	2 Samuel
1 Kgs	1 Kings
2 Kgs	2 Kings
1 Chr	1 Chronicles
2 Chr	2 Chronicles
Ezra	Ezra
Neh	Nehemiah
Esth	Esther
Job	Job
Ps(s)	Psalms
Prov	Proverbs
Eccl	Ecclesiastes
Song	Song of Songs
Isa	Isaiah
Jer	Jeremiah
Lam	Lamentations
Ezek	Ezekiel
Dan	Daniel
Hos	Hosea
Joel	Joel
Amos	Amos
Obad	Obadiah
Jonah	Jonah
Mic	Micah
Nah	Nahum
Hab	Habakkuk
Zeph	Zephaniah
Hag	Haggai
Zech	Zechariah
Mal	Malachi

Books of the Old Testament Apocrypha

Bar	Baruch
Add Dan	Additions to Daniel
Pr Azar	Prayer of Azariah
Bel	Bel and the Dragon
Sg Three	Song of the Three Young Men
Sus	Susanna
1–2 Esd	1–2 Esdras
Add Esth	Additions to Esther
Ep Jer	Epistle of Jeremiah
Jdt	Judith
1–4 Macc	1–4 Maccabees
Pr Man	Prayer of Manasseh
Ps 151	Psalm 151
Sir	Sirach/ Ecclesiasticus
Tob	Tobit
Wis	Wisdom of Solomon

New Testament

Matt	Matthew
Mark	Mark
Luke	Luke
John	John
Acts	Acts
Rom	Romans
1 Cor	1 Corinthians
2 Cor	2 Corinthians
Gal	Galatians
Eph	Ephesians
Phil	Philippians
Col	Colossians
1 Thess	1 Thessalonians
2 Thess	2 Thessalonians
1 Tim	1 Timothy
2 Tim	2 Timothy
Titus	Titus
Phlm	Philemon
Heb	Hebrews
Jas	James
1 Pet	1 Peter
2 Pet	2 Peter
1 John	1 John
2 John	2 John
3 John	3 John
Jude	Jude
Rev	Revelation

Abbreviations for Bible Versions

English Versions

NET	The NET Bible / New English Translation (NT, 1998; First Beta Edition, 2001; Second Beta Edition, 2003; First Edition, 2005)³
TNIV	Today’s New International Version (NT, 2001)
NLT	New Living Translation (1996)
CEV	The Contemporary English Version (1995)
NIrV	New International Reader’s Version (1995)
*Message*	E. H. Peterson, The Message: The New Testament in Contemporary Language (1993)
NCV	New Century Version (1991)
REB	Revised English Bible (1989)
NRSV	New Revised Standard Version (1989)
NJB	New Jerusalem Bible (1985)
NJPS	Tanakh (1985), produced by the Jewish Publication Society
NKJV	New King James Version (1979)
TEV	Today’s English Version, also known as Good News for Modern Man (1976)
NIV	The New International Version (NT, 1973; OT, 1978)
LB	The Living Bible (1971)
NASB	New American Standard Bible (1971; update 1995)
NAB	The New American Bible (1970)
NEB	The New English Bible (1970)
JB	Jerusalem Bible (1966)
Amplified	The Amplified Bible (1965)
BBE	C. K. Ogden, The Bible in Basic English (1965)
JPS	The Torah (1962), The Prophets (Nevi’im) (1978), The Writings (Kethuvim) (1982), produced by the Jewish Publication Society
MLB	Modern Language Bible: New Berkeley Version (1959; rev. 1969)
Phillips	J. B. Phillips, The New Testament in Modern English (1958)
RSV	Revised Standard Version (NT, 1946; OT, 1952)
Knox	R. A. Knox, The New Testament in English (1945)
AT	The Bible—An American Translation (1927)
Moffatt	James Moffatt, A New Translation of the Bible (1926)
TCNT	The Twentieth Century New Testament (1898-1901; rev. 1904)
ASV	American Standard Version (1901)
RV	Revised Version (NT 1881; OT 1885)
YLT	Young's Literal Translation (1862; rev. 1898)
KJV (=AV)	The King James Version, known in Britain as the Authorized Version (1611)
AV (=KJV)	The Authorized Version, known in America as the King James Version (1611)
Douay	Douay-Rheims Version, a translation for the Roman Catholic Church (NT 1582; OT 1609-1610)

Ancient Versions

MT	Masoretic Text (the traditional rabbinical text of the Hebrew Bible, dating from the medieval period)
LXX	Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament, translated between 250-100 b.c.)

General Abbreviations

NET Bible Footnote Types

tn	Translator’s Note—explains the rationale for the translation and gives alternative translations, interpretive options, and other technical information.
sn	Study Note—includes comments about historical or cultural background, explanation of obscure phrases or brief discussions of context, discussions of the theological point made by the biblical author, cross references and references to Old Testament quotations or allusions in the New Testament, or other miscellaneous information helpful to the modern reader.
tc	Text-critical Note—discusses alternate (variant) readings found in the various manuscripts and groups of manuscripts of the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament.
map	Map Note—gives map coordinates for site within the two map sections, “The Journeys of Paul” and “The Holy Land from the Heavens.”

tc Note abbreviations Many of the tc notes in the New Testament are from the Nestle-Aland 27 Greek New Testament. You can read about them here. For example in John 3:13 the note on the "son of man" says: "Most witnesses, including a few important ones (A* Θ Ψ 050 ƒ M latt sy^c,p,h), have at the end of this verse “the one who is in heaven” (ὁ ὢν ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ, ho ōn en tō ouranō). A few others have variations on this phrase, such as “who was in heaven” (e syc), or “the one who is from heaven” (0141 pc sys). The witnesses normally considered the best, along with several others, lack the phrase in its entirety (P66,75 א B L T Ws 083 086 33 1241 pc co). ...."

Journals

ABR	Australian Biblical Review
ADAJ	Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan
AION	Annali dell’Istituto Orientale di Napoli
AJBA	Australian Journal of Biblical Archaeology
AJSL	American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature
ArOr	Archiv Orientální
ASTI	Annual of the Swedish Thelogical Institute
AUSS	Andrews University Seminary Studies
BA	Biblical Archaeologist
BAR	Biblical Archaeology Review
BASOR	Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BBR	Bulletin for Biblical Research
BETS	Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society
Bib	Biblica
BiBh	Bible Bhashyam
Bijdr	Bijdragen: Tijdschrift voor filosofie en theologie
BJRL	Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BN	Biblische Notizen
BRev	Bible Review
BSac	Bibliotheca Sacra
BT	The Bible Translator
BTB	Biblical Theology Bulletin
BV	Biblical Viewpoint
BZ	Biblische Zeitschrift
CBQ	Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CentBib	Central Bible Quarterly
CTJ	Calvin Theological Journal
CTM	Concordia Theological Monthly
CTR	Criswell Theological Review
ErIsr	Eretz-Israel
EvQ	Evangelical Quarterly
ExpTim	Expository Times
FO	Folia orientalia
GOT	Glasgow Oriental Transactions
GTJ	Grace Theological Journal
HAR	Hebrew Annual Review
HBT	Horizons in Biblical Theology
HS	Hebrew Studies
HTR	Harvard Theological Review
HUCA	Hebrew Union College Annual
IEJ	Israel Exploration Journal
Int	Interpretation

JANESCU	Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University
JAOS	Journal of the American Oriental Society
JBL	Journal of Biblical Literature
JCS	Journal of Cuneiform Studies
JETS	Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society
JJP	Journal of Juristic Papyrology
JJS	Journal of Jewish Studies
JNES	Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JNSL	Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages
JPOS	Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society
JQR	Jewish Quarterly Review
JRAS	Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
JSNT	Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JSOT	Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSS	Journal of Semitic Studies
JTS	Journal of Theological Studies
JTVI	Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute
Jud	Judaica
LesŒ	LesŒoneÃnu
LTQ	Lexington Theological Quarterly
MAOG	Mitteilungen der Altorientalischen Gesellschaft
Mus	Muséon: Revue d’études orientales
NovT	Novum Testamentum
NTS	New Testament Studies
Or	Orientalia
OTS	Old Testament Studies
PEQ	Palestinian Exploration Quarterly
RA	Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale
RB	Revue biblique
RevExp	Review and Expositor
RHPR	Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses
RHR	Revue de l’histoire des religions
RQ	Römische Quartalschrift für christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte
RSR	Recherches de science religieuse
Sem	Semitica
SJT	Scottish Journal of Theology
ST	Studia theologica
SwJT	Southwestern Journal of Theology
TA	Tel Aviv
TB	Theologische Bücherei: Neudrucke und Berichte aus dem 20. Jahrhundert
TGUOS	Transactions of the Glasgow University Oriental Society
TJ	Trinity Journal
TLZ	Theologische Literaturzeitung
TRu	Theologische Rundschau
TynBul	Tyndale Bulletin
TZ	Theologische Zeitschrift
UF	Ugarit-Forschungen
VT	Vetus Testamentum
WTJ	Westminster Theological Journal
WW	Word and World
ZÄS	Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde
ZAW	Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZDMG	Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft
ZNW	Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

Commentary and Monograph Series

AB	Anchor Bible
AfO	Archiv für Orientforschung
AGJU	Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums
AnBib	Analecta biblica
AnOr	Analecta orientalia
AOAT	Alter Orient und Altes Testament
ArBib	The Aramaic Bible
ATD	Das Alte Testament Deutsch
BASORSup	Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research: Supplement Series
BECNT	Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament
BibOr	Biblica et orientalia
BKAT	Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament
BSC	Bible Student’s Commentary
CBC	Cambridge Bible Commentary
CBQMS	Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series
CC	Continental Commentaries
CNT	Commentaire du Nouveau Testament
ConBOT	Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series
DissAb	Dissertation Abstracts
DJD	Discoveries in the Judaean Desert
DJDJ	Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan
DSBS	Daily Study Bible Series
EGGNT	Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament
FCI	Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation
FOTL	Forms of the Old Testament Literature
FRLANT	Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
GBS	Guides to Biblical Scholarship
HNTC	Harper’s New Testament Commentaries
HSM	Harvard Semitic Monographs
IBC	Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching
ICC	International Critical Commentary
JAARSup	Journal of the American Academy of Religion: Supplement Series
JBLMS	Journal of Biblical Literature Monograph Series
JPSTC	Jerusalem Publication Society Torah Commentary
JSNTSup	Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series
JSOTSup	Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series
KAT	Kommentar zum Alten Testament
LHD	The Library of History and Doctrine
MNTC	Moffatt New Testament Commentary
NAC	New American Commentary
NCBC	New Century Bible Commentary
NICNT	New International Commentary on the New Testament
NICOT	New International Commentary on the Old Testament
NIGTC	New International Greek Testament Commentary
NovTSup	Supplements to Novum Testamentum
NTL	New Testament Library
OBO	Orbis biblicus et orientalis
OBT	Overtures to Biblical Theology
OTL	Old Testament Library
OTM	Oxford Theological Monographs
PTMS	Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series
SB	Sources bibliques
SBA	Studies in Biblical Archaeology
SBG	Studies in Biblical Greek
SBLDS	Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBT	Studies in Biblical Theology
ScrHier	Scripta hierosolymitana
SD	Studies and Documents
SHR	Studies in the History of Religions
SJLA	Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
SNTSMS	Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series
SoBB	Soncino Books of the Bible
SOTBT	Studies in Old Testament Biblical Theology
SOTSMS	Society for Old Testament Studies Monograph Series
SPCKTC	Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge Theological Collections
SSN	Studia semitica neerlandica
StPB	Studia post-biblica
SUNT	Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments
TBC	Torch Bible Commentaries
TCS	Texts from Cuneiform Sources
TOTC	Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries
TU	Texte und Untersuchungen
VAB	Vorderasiatische Bibliothek
VTSup	Supplements to Vetus Testamentum
WBC	Word Biblical Commentary
WEC	Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary
WUNT	Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

Text-critical Terms

al	Abbreviation for alii, a Latin phrase meaning “others,” referring to manuscripts
ms (mss)	manuscript (manuscripts)
pc	Abbreviation for pauci, “a few (others),” referring to manuscripts
pm	Abbreviation for permulti, “a great many (others),” referring to manuscripts
vid	Abbreviation for videtur, a Latin word meaning “apparently” or “so it appears,” referring to an uncertain reading in a manuscript

Miscellaneous Abbreviations

abs.	absolute
acc.	accusative
ANE	Ancient Near East (noun), Ancient Near Eastern (adjective)
ca.	approximately (from Latin circa)
cf.	compare (from Latin confer)
chap.	chapter
dat.	dative
ed.	editor; edited by; edition
e.g.	for example (from Latin exempli gratia)
ET	English text (when versification in the English Bible differs from the Greek or Hebrew text)
expr.	expression
ff.	following
fig.	figurative; figuratively
gen.	genitive
GT	Greek text (when versification differs from the English Bible)
HT	Hebrew text (when versification differs from the English Bible)
i.e.	that is (from Latin id est)
loc. cit.	in the place cited (from Latin loco citato), usually referring to a Bible verse or passage cited in a commentary or other work
ms (mss)	manuscript (manuscripts)
nom.	nominative
NT	New Testament
pl.	plural
q.v.	which see (from Latin quod vide)
sc.	supply (from Latin scilicet)
sing.	singular
suppl.	supplement
s.v.	under the word (from Latin sub verbo or sub voce)
trans.	translated; translator
v.	verse
viz.	namely (from Latin videlicet)
w.	with

List of Cited Works

Works Cited by Abbreviation

AHw	Soden, Wolfram von. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. 3 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1965–1981.
ANEP	Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954.
ANET	Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3d ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.
BDAG	Bauer, W. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3d ed. Revised and edited by F. W. Danker. Translated by W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F. W. Danker. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2000.⁴
BDB	Brown, Francis, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs.The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1979.
BDF	Blass, F. and A. Debrunner. A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Translated and edited by Robert W. Funk. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.
BHK	Kittel, R., ed. Biblia Hebraica. Stuttgart: Würtemburgische Bibelanstalt, 1905-1906, 1925, 1937, 1951, 1973.
BHS	Elliger, K. and W. Rudolph, eds. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1983.
BKCNT	Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. The Bible Knowledge Commentary. New Testament Edition. Wheaton: Victor Books, 1983.
BKCOT	Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, eds. The Bible Knowledge Commentary. Old Testament Edition. Wheaton: Victor Books, 1985.
BRL2	Galling, Kurt, ed. Biblisches Reallexikon. 2d ed. Handbuch Zum Alten Testament 1/1. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1977.
CAD	Gelb, Ignace J., ed. The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1956-.
CTA	Herdner, A., ed. Corpus des tablettes en cunéiformes alphabétiques découvertes à Ras Shamra-Ugarit de 1929 à 1939. Mission de Ras Shamra 10. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1963.
DCH	Clines, D. J. A., ed. Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993-.
DISO	Jean, Charles-François, and Jacob Hoftijzer, eds.Dictionnaire des inscriptions sémitiques de l’ouest. Leiden: Brill, 1965.
DJG	Green, J. B., and S. McKnight, eds. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1992.
DNWSI	Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling, eds. Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
DPL	Hawthorne, Gerald F., and Ralph P. Martin, eds.Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1993.
EA	Knudtzon, J. A. Die el-Amarna-Tafeln. Vorderasiatische Bibliothek. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1915. Reprint, Aalen: Otto Zeller, 1964. Continued in Rainey, A. F. El-Amarna Tablets, 359-379. 2d rev. ed. Alter Orient Und Altes Testament 8. Kevelaer: Butzon und Bercker, 1978.
EAEHL	M. Avi-Yonah, ed. Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. 4 vols. Jerusalem: Massada 1975.
EBC	Gaebelein, Frank E., ed. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976-1992.
ExSyn	Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
GKC	Kautzsch, E., ed. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Translated by A. E. Cowley. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910.
HALOT	Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Translated and edited under the supervision of M. E. J. Richardson. 5 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994-2000.
IBHS	Waltke, B. K., and M. O’Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1990.
IDB	Buttrick, George A., ed. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. 4 vols. New York: Abingdon, 1962.
IDBSup	Crim, Keith R, ed. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976
ISBE	Bromiley, G. W., ed. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979-1988.
Jastrow	Jastrow, Marcus. A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature. 2d ed. New York: G. P. Putnam, 1903.
Joüon	Joüon, Paul. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Translated and revised by T. Muraoka. 1st edition with corrections. 2 vols. Subsidia biblica 14/1-2. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1993.
K&D	Keil, C. F., and F. Delitzsch. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Translated by J. Martin et al. 27 vols. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1857-1878.
KBL	Koehler, L., and W. Baumgartner. Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti libros. 2d ed. Leiden: Brill, 1958.
L&N	Louw, Johannes P., and Eugene Nida, eds. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. New York, NY: United Bible Societies, 1988.
LSJ	Liddell, H. G., and R. Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9^th ed. Revised and augmented by H. S. Jones, with the assistance of R. McKenzie. With a revised Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
MHT	Moulton, J. H. A Grammar of New Testament Greek.4 vols. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1908-1976: Vol. 1 (1908) Prolegomena, by J. H. Moulton. 1^st ed. (1906); 3d ed. (1908); Vol. 2 (1929): Accidence and Word Formation, by W. F. Howard; Vol. 3 (1963):Syntax, by N. Turner; Vol. 4 (1976): Style, by N. Turner.
MM	Moulton, J. H., and G. Milligan. Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1930. Repr., Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1997.
NA²⁵	Nestle, E., and K. Aland, eds. Novum Testamentum Graece. 25^th ed. Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1963.
NA²⁶	Aland, K., M. Black, C. M. Martini, B. M. Metzger, and A. Wikgren, eds. Novum Testamentum Graece.26^th ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1979.
NA²⁷	Aland, B., K. Aland, J. Karavidopoulos, C. M. Martini, and B. M. Metzger, eds. Novum Testamentum Graece. 27^th ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1993.
NBD³	Wood, D. R. W., ed. New Bible Dictionary. 3d ed. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1996.
NIDOTTE	VanGemeren, W. A., ed. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997.
PGL	Lampe, G. W. H., ed. Patristic Greek Lexicon. Oxford; New York: Clarendon, 1968.
TCGNT	Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. 2d ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: 1994.
TDNT	Kittel, G. and G. Friedrich. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-1976.
TDOT	Botterweck, G. Johannes and Helmer Ringgren, eds.Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Translated by J. T. Willis, G. W. Bromiley, and D. E. Green. 8 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974-.
THAT	Jenni, Ernst, ed., with assistance from Claus Westermann. Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. 2 vols. Stuttgart: C. Kaiser, 1971-1976.
ThWAT	Botterweck, G. Johannes, and Helmer Ringgren, eds. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1970.
TLG	Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a computerized database of all ancient Greek literature from Homer (8^th century b.c.) to the 6^th century AD.
TWOT	Harris, R. Laird, Gleason L. Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, eds. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Chicago: Moody, 1980.
UBS³	Aland, K., M. Black, C. M. Martini, B. M. Metzger, and A. Wikgren, eds. The Greek New Testament. 3d ed., corrected. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1983.
UBS⁴	Aland, B., K. Aland, J. Karavidopoulos, C. M. Martini, and B. M. Metzger, eds. The Greek New Testament. 4^th ed., corrected. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1994.
UT	Gordon, Cyrus H. Ugaritic Textbook. Revised reprint. Analecta orientalia 38. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1998.
WUS	Aistleitner, Joseph. Das Wörterbuch der ugaritischen Sprache. Edited by Otto Eissfeldt. 3d ed. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967.
ZPEB	Tenney, Merrill C., ed. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

Works Cited by Name and Short Title

Fauna and Flora of the Bible. 2d ed. Helps for Translators. New York: United Bible Societies, 1980.

The Illustrated Family Encyclopedia of the Living Bible. Chicago: San Francisco Productions, 1967.

Aharoni, Yohanan. The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography. Translated and edited by A. F. Rainey. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979.

Aharoni, Yohanan and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Edited by Anson F. Rainey and Ze’ev Safrai. 3d ed. New York: Macmillan, 1976.

Albright, W. F. Archaeology and the Religion of Israel. 3d ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1953.

________. From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process. 2d ed. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957.

________. “Archaic Survivals in the Text of Canticles.” Pages 1-7 in Hebrew and Semitic Studies. Edited by D. Winton Thomas and W. D. McHardy. Oxford: Claredon, 1963.

________. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968.

Aldred, Cyril. The Egyptians. Ancient Peoples and Places 18. New York: Praeger, 1961.

Allen, Leslie C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976.

________. Psalms 101-150. Word Biblical Commentary 21. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1983.

________. Ezekiel. 2 vols. Word Biblical Commentary 28-29. Dallas: Word, 1990-1994.

Alter, R. The Art of Biblical Narrative. New York: Basic Books, 1981.

Andersen, Francis I. Job. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1976.

Andersen, Francis I., and David Noel Freedman. Hosea. Anchor Bible 24. New York: Doubleday, 1980.

________. Amos. Anchor Bible 24A. New York: Doubleday, 1989.

André, Gunnel. Determining the Destiny: PQD in the Old Testament. Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series 16. Lund: Gleerup, 1980.

Archer, G. L. The Book of Job: God’s Answer to the Problem of Understanding Suffering. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982.

Arnold, Bill T., and John H. Choi. A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Aune, David E. Revelation. 3 vols. Word Biblical Commentary 52ABC. Dallas: Word, 1997-1998.

Baker, J. A. The Book of Job: Unity and Suffering. Sheffield: JSOT, 1978.

Baldwin, Joyce. “Jonah.” Pages 543-90 in The Minor Prophets. Edited by Thomas E. McComiskey. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

Barclay, William. The Gospel of John. 2 vols. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1956.

Barr, James. Biblical Words for Time. 2d ed. Studies in Biblical Theology: First Series 33. London: S.C.M., 1969.

________. Comparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament. Rev. ed. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1987.

Barre, M. L., and J. S. Kselman. “New Exodus, Covenant, and Restoration in Psalm 23.” Pages 97-127 in The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman. Edited by C. F. Meyers and M. O’Connor. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983.

Barrett, C. K. The Gospel According to St. John. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978.

________. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. Edited by Henry Chadwick. Harper’s New Testament Commentaries. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1957. Repr., Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1987.

________. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. 2 vols. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994-1998.

Barstad, H. The Religious Polemics of Amos. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 34. Leiden: Brill, 1984.

Barth, Markus. Ephesians: Translation and Commentary on Chapters 1-3 and 4-6. 2 vols. Anchor Bible 34, 34A. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974.

________. The People of God. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 5. Sheffield: JSOT, 1983.

Barthélemy, Dominique, D. W. Gooding, J. Lust, and E. Tov. The Story of David and Goliath: Textual and Literary Criticism. Orbis biblicus et orientalis 73. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986.

Barthélemy, Dominique, Adrian Schenker, and John Alexander Thompson. Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project. 5 vols. 2d ed. New York: United Bible Societies, 1979-1980.

Barthes, Roland. “The Struggle with the Angel: Textual Analysis of Genesis 32:23-33.” Pages 21-33 in Structural Analysis and Biblical Exegesis: Interpretational Essays. Edited by Roland Barthes. Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series 3. Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1974.

Bartlett, J. R. “The Moabites and the Edomites.” Pages 229-58 in Peoples of Old Testament Times. Edited by D. J. Wiseman. Oxford: Clarendon, 1973.

Barton, J. Amos’s Oracles Against the Nations. Society for Old Testament Studies: Monograph Series 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Bauckham, Richard. Jude, 2 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary 50. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1983.

Bauer, Hans, and Pontus Leander. Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen. Halle/Saale: Max Niemeyer, 1927.

Beale, G. K. The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

Berlin, Adele. Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994.

________. Zephaniah. Anchor Bible 25A. New York: Doubleday, 1994.

Bernard, J. H. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to St. John. 2 vols. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1928.

Best, Ernest. Mark: The Gospel As Story. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1983.

Beyer, Klaus. Semitische Syntax im Neuen Testament. Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962.

Biggs, Robert D. Sà.zi.ga: Ancient Mesopotamian Potency Incantations. Texts From Cuneiform Sources 2. Locust Valley, N.Y.: J. J. Augustin, 1967.

Blank, S. H. “‘Perish the Day!’ A Misdirected Curse (Job 3:3).” Pages 61-63 in Prophetic Thought: Essays and Addresses. Edited by Sheldon H. Blank. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1977.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Ezra-Nehemiah. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1988.

Block, Daniel I. The Book of Ezekiel. 2 vols. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.

Bock, Darrell L. Luke. 2 vols. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament 3AB. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994-1996.

Boling, Robert G. Judges. Anchor Bible 6A. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975.

Bonsirven, Joseph. Épîtres de Saint Jean: Introduction, traduction et commentaire. New ed. Commentaire du Nouveau Testament 9. Paris: Beauchesne, 1954.

Borger, Riekele. Die Inschriften Asarhaddons, Königs von Assyrien. Archiv für Orientforschung 9. Graz: Im Selbstverlage des Herausgebers, 1956.

Borowski, Oded. Agriculture in Iron Age Israel. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1986.

Boström, Gustav. Proverbiastudien: die Weisheit und das fremde Weib in Spr. 1-9. Lunds universitets årsskrift. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1935.

Brichto, H. C. The Problem of “Curse” in the Hebrew Bible. Journal of Biblical Literature Monograph Series 13. Philadelphia: Society of Biblical Literature, 1963.

Briggs, Charles A., and Emilie Grace Briggs. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. 2 vols. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1906-1907.

Bright, John. Jeremiah. Anchor Bible. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965.

________. A History of Israel. 4th ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 2000.

Brown, Raymond E. The Gospel According to John. 2 vols. Anchor Bible 29, 29A. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1966-1970.

________. The Epistles of John. Anchor Bible 30. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1982.

Brownlee, William Hugh. Ezekiel 1-19. Word Biblical Commentary 28. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1986.

Bruce, F. F. The Acts of the Apostles. London: Tyndale, 1951.

________. The Book of the Acts. Rev. ed. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988.

Buchanan, George Wesley. The Consequences of the Covenant. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 20. Leiden: Brill, 1970.

Budd, Philip J. Numbers. Word Biblical Commentary 5. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1984.

________. Leviticus. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

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________. Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions: Corpus and Concordance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Edited by F. F. Bruce. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

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Freedman, David Noel, and K. A. Mathews. The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (11QpaleoLev). Philadelphia: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1985.

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Freedman, H. Jeremiah. Soncino Books of the Bible. London: Soncino, 1949.

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________. The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250-1050 B.C.E. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1979.

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________. Sacrifice in the Old Testament: Its Theory and Practice. New York: Ktav, 1971.

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Longman, Tremper III. “Nahum.” In The Minor Prophets. Edited by Thomas E. McComiskey. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.

________. The Book of Ecclesiastes. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

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Luckenbill, Daniel David. Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926.

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Maier, Walter Arthur. The Book of Nahum. Saint Louis: Concordia, 1959.

Malina, Bruce J. The Palestinian Manna Tradition: The Manna Tradition in the Palestinian Targums and Its Relationship to the New Testament Writings. Leiden: Brill, 1968.

Mann, Thomas W. Divine Presence and Guidance in Israelite Traditions: The Typology of Exaltation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.

________. The Book of the Torah: The Narrative Integrity of the Pentateuch. Atlanta: John Knox, 1988.

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Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Doctrine of Sacrifice, Deduced From the Scriptures: A Series of Sermons. London: Macmillan, 1893.

McCaffrey, James. The House With Many Rooms: The Temple Theme of Jn. 14, 2-3. Analecta biblica 114. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1988.

McCarter, P. Kyle, Jr. I Samuel. Anchor Bible 8. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980.

________. II Samuel. Anchor Bible 9. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984.

________. Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986.

McKane, William. Proverbs: A New Approach. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970.

________. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Jeremiah. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986-1996.

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Meeks, Wayne A. The Prophet-King: Moses Traditions and the Johannine Christology. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 14. Leiden: Brill, 1967.

Mendenhall, George E. The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.

Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

________. Deuteronomy. New American Commentary 4. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

Merwe, C. H. J. van der, J. A. Naudé, and Jan H. Kroeze. Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Biblical Languages – Hebrew 3. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999.

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Metzger, Bruce M. “The Punctuation of Rom. 9:5.” Pages 95-112 in Christ and the Spirit in the New Testament: In Honour of Charles Francis Digby Moule. Edited by B. Lindars and S. Smalley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.

Meyers, Carol L. The Tabernacle Menorah: A Synthetic Study of a Symbol From the Biblical Cult. American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series 2. Missoula, Mont.: Scholars, 1976.

Milgrom, Jacob. Studies in Levitical Terminology. Near Eastern Studies 14. Berkeley: University of California, 1970.

________. Studies in Cultic Theology and Terminology. Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity 36. Leiden: Brill, 1983.

________. Numbers. Jerusalem Publication Society Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.

________. Leviticus. 3 vols. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991-2001.

Miller, Cynthia L. The Representation of Speech in Biblical Hebrew Narrative: A Linguistic Analysis. Harvard Semitic Monographs 55. Atlanta: Scholars, 1996.

Miller, Patrick D. Sin and Judgment in the Prophets: A Stylistic and Theological Analysis. Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series 27. Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1982.

Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. New ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1899.

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Moo, Douglas J. Romans 1-8. Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1991.

________. The Epistle to the Romans. Edited by Gordon D. Fee. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible 7B. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1971.

Moore, George Foot. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Judges. 2d ed. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1908.

Moran, William L. “A Kingdom of Priests.” Pages 7-20 in The Bible in Current Catholic Thought. Edited by John L. McKenzie. Saint Mary’s Theology Studies 1. New York: Herder and Herder, 1962.

Morris, H. M. The Remarkable Record of Job. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.

Morris, Leon. The Gospel According to John. Rev. ed. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.

________. The Gospel According to John. Rev. ed. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.

Moscati, Sabatino. An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages: Phonology and Morphology. Porta linguarum orientalium: Neue Serie 6. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1980.

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Moule, C. F. D. The Phenomenon of the New Testament. Studies in Biblical Theology: Second Series 1. London: S.C.M., 1967.

Mounce, Robert H. The Book of Revelation. Edited by F. F. Bruce. New International Commentary on the New Testament 17. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.

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________. Numbers. Translated by James D. Martin. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968.

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________. The Epistle to the Philippians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Edited by I. Howard Marshall and W. Ward Gasque. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991.

________. The Letter to the Ephesians. Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

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Pitard, Wayne Thomas. Ancient Damascus: A Historical Study of the Syrian City-State From Earliest Times Until Its Fall to the Assyrians in 732 B.C.E. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1986.

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Plummer, Alfred. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1915.

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Post, George Edward. Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai: A Handbook of the Flowering Plants and Ferns, Native and Naturalized From the Taurus to Ras Muhammad and From the Mediterranean Sea to the Syrian Desert. Edited by John Edward Dinsmore. 2d ed. Beirut: American, 1932.

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Propp, William H. C. Exodus 1-18. Anchor Bible 2. New York: Doubleday, 1999.

Räisänen, Heikki. Paul and the Law. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 29. Tübingen: Mohr, 1983.

Redford, Donald B. A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph (Genesis 37-50). Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 20. Leiden: Brill, 1970.

Reymond, Philippe. L’eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans l’Ancien Testament. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 6. Leiden: Brill, 1958.

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Ringgren, Helmer, and Walther Zimmerli. Sprüche/Prediger. 3d ed. Das Alte Testament Deutsch. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980.

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Robertson, Archibald, and Alfred Plummer. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. 2d ed. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1914.

Robinson, H. Wheeler. Inspiration and Revelation in the Old Testament. Oxford: Clarendon, 1946.

Rodriguez, Angel M. Substitution in the Hebrew Cultus. Andrews University Seminary Doctoral Dissertations Series 3. Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews University Press, 1979.

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Ross, Allen P. Creation and Blessing: A Guide to the Study and Exposition of Genesis. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.

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Rudolph, Wilhelm. Des Buch Ruth, das Hohe Lied, die Klagelieder. Kommentar zum Alten Testament 17. Gütersloh: G. Mohn, 1962.

Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. New York: W. W. Norton, 1940.

Saggs, H. W. F. The Greatness That Was Babylon: A Survey of the Ancient Civilization of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. 2d ed. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1988.

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Sasson, Jack M. Ruth. 2d ed. The Biblical Seminar 10. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995.

Schaberg, Jane. The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit: The Triadic Phrase in Matthew 28:19b. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series 61. Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1982.

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Sherwin-White, A. N. Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament. The Sarum Lectures, 1960-1961. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963.

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Smith, Ralph L. Micah-Malachi. Word Biblical Commentary 32. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1984.

Snaith, Norman Henry. The Jewish New Year Festival: Its Origins and Development. London: SPCK, 1947.

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Soggin, J. Alberto. Judges. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981.

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Theissen, Gerd. Psychologische Aspekte paulinischer Theologie. Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments 131. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983.

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Abbreviations and Introduction
to Principal Manuscript Evidence
for the Greek New Testament

No ancient literature has survived in its original form; everything we have is derived from copies of the originals. The NT is no exception. However, in comparison with any other ancient literature, the NT is without a peer—both in terms of the chronological proximity and the surviving number. Several ancient authorities are preserved in only a handful of manuscripts. Not so with the NT. There are approximately 5,500 Greek witnesses, ranging in date from the second century AD into the middle ages. Besides the Greek evidence, there are nearly 30,000 versional copies (e.g., Latin, Coptic, and Syriac), and over 1,000,000 quotations from the NT in the church Fathers. NT textual criticism has always had an embarrassment of riches unparalleled in any other field.

The Greek Witnesses

The Greek witnesses are by far the most important, since in large measure they represent some of our earliest witnesses and since they involve direct reproduction from Greek to Greek. There are four kinds of Greek witnesses: papyri, uncials (or majuscules), minuscules (or cursives), and lectionaries. The first three are important enough to warrant some discussion here.

Papyri

These documents are written on the cheap writing materials of the ancient world that were roughly equivalent to modern paper. Literally thousands of papyrus fragments have been found of which approximately 100 contain portions of the New Testament. Actually, taken together, these 100 fragments constitute over half of the New Testament and all but four are in the form of codices (i.e., four are scrolls rather than the book-form [codex]). All NT papyri were written with uncial or capital letters. They range in date from the early second century through the eighth century. About 50 of them are to be dated before the fourth century. Though many of them are somewhat fragmentary, and at times the copying was looser than one would like (i.e., they were done before the canon was officially recognized), they are nevertheless extremely important for establishing the text of the New Testament—if for no other reason than the fact that they represent some of the most ancient witnesses we possess. Five important papyri are illustrated in the chart below. The symbol for each papyrus is Ì followed by a number (e.g., Ì⁴⁵). The most important papyri cited in the NET NT footnotes are as follows:

Papyri	Name	Date	NT Books Covered	General Characteristics
Ì⁴⁵	Chester Beatty papyrus	3^rdcentury AD	Gospels, Acts 4-17	Mark (Caesarean); Matt, Luke, John (intermediate between Alexandrian and Western texttypes)
Ì⁴⁶	Chester Beatty papyrus	ca. AD 200	10 Pauline Epistles (all but Pastorals) and Hebrews	Overall closer to Alexandrian than Western
Ì⁴⁷	Chester Beatty papyrus	3^rdcentury AD	Revelation 9:10-17:2	Alexandrian; often agrees with Sinaiticus (Í)
Ì⁶⁶	Bodmer Papyrus	ca. AD 200	John	Mixed text between Western and Alexandrian
Ì⁷⁵	Bodmer papyrus	early 3^rd century	Luke and John	Alexandrian, often agrees with B

Uncials

There are approximately 300 uncials known to exist today that contain portions of the New Testament and one uncial that contains the entire NT. Like the papyri, these manuscripts were written with uncial or capital letters, but unlike the papyri they were written on animal skins or vellum. For the most part they are beautiful manuscripts, elegantly written and routinely done in scriptoria and often for special purposes. Generally speaking, they range in date from the fourth through the ninth centuries. Our oldest complete copy of the NT is an uncial manuscript, Í (see chart below). The symbol for each uncial is either a capital letter (in Latin or Greek letters [though one ms has a Hebrew letter, Í]) or a number beginning with 0 (e.g., 01, 0220, etc.). The most important uncials cited in the NET NT footnotes are as follows:

Uncial	Name	Date (approx.)	NT Books Covered	General Characteristics
Í (01)	Aleph or Sinaiticus	4^thcentury	The entire NT	Alexandrian; best in epistles
A (02)	Alexandrinus	5^thcentury	Most of the NT	Important in the Epistles and Revelation
B (03)	Vaticanus	4^thcentury	Most of NT except Hebrews 9:14ff, the Pastorals, Phlm, Rev	Alexandrian; best in Gospels
C (04)	Ephraemi Rescriptus	5^thcentury	Portions of every book except 2 Thess and 2 John	mixed
D (05)	Bezae/ Cantabrigiensis	5^thcentury	Gospels and Acts	Western
D (06)	Claromontanus	6^thcentury	Pauline Epistles and Hebrews	Western
F (010)	Augiensis	9^thcentury	Pauline Epistles	Western
G (012)	Boernerianus	9^thcentury	Pauline Epistles	Western
L (019)	Regius	8^thcentury	Gospels	Often agrees with Vaticanus
W (032)	Washingtonianus	early 5^th century	Gospels	mixed; earliest representation of Byzantine texttype. Alexandrian in John 5:12-21:25.
T(038)	Koridethi	9^thcentury	Gospels	The text of Mark is similar to that used by Origen and Eusebius in the third and fourth centuries at Caesarea
?(044)	Athous Laurae	8^th/ 9^th century	Gospels/Acts/ Paul/General Epistles	Contains Alexandrian, Western, and Byzantine influences

Minuscules

There are approximately 2,813 NT Greek minuscule manuscripts known to us today. These copies range in date from the ninth to sixteenth centuries, were produced on vellum or paper, and were written in cursive or a lower-case, flowing hand. They are the best representatives of the medieval ecclesiastical text, that is, the Byzantine text. There are approximately 150-200 that deviate from the Byzantine standard, almost always representing an earlier transmissional stream and hence quite important for NT textual criticism. The symbols for the minuscules are of three kinds: (a) Arabic numbers (e.g., 1, 565, 1739), each of which represents one manuscript; (b) “family 1,” [Ë¹] “family 13” [Ë¹³] (involving a group of closely associated manuscripts); (c) Byz(involving the majority of Byzantine minuscules). The following are among the more important witnesses cited in the NET NT notes:

Minuscule	Date (approx.)	NT Books Covered	General Characteristics
33	9^thcentury	Gospels, Acts, Paul, Catholic Epistles	Alexandrian
81	AD 1044	Acts, Paul, Catholic Epistles	Very important for establishing the text of Acts. Agrees substantially with the Alexandrian texttype.
1739	10^thcentury, but probably goes back to a late 4^th century ms	Acts, Paul, Catholic Epistles	Alexandrian
Family 1 (Ë¹)	12^th-14^thcenturies	Gospels	Caesarean (of the 3^rd or 4^th centuries)
Family 13 (Ë¹³)	11^th-15^thcenturies	Gospels	Important in the discussion of the authenticity of thepericope adulterae (i.e., John 7:53-8:11)

Versional Evidence

Versions were initially prepared for missionary purposes. The history and transmission of versions are often quite complex, and scholars often do not agree on or do not know the particular dates or characteristics of the versions. The chart below contains the major versions cited in the notes; the most important abbreviations are listed, but not all abbreviations are indicated. For more information on the versional evidence for the NT, consult B. M. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament (3d ed.; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 67-86; B. M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977); and B. D. Ehrman and M. W. Holmes, eds., The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research: Essays on the Status Quaestionis (Studies and Documents 46; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 75-187.

Version	Abbreviations	Date (approx.)	General Characteristics
Vulgate and part of the Itala witnesses	lat	2^nd to 3^rd century	Western, Alexandrian, and others
Itala	it	3^rdcentury	Western
Vulgate	vg	4^thcentury and later	extensive cross-contamination of texttypes
Syriac	syr	2^nd to 6^th centuries	Old Syriac (syr^cand syr^s) is generally Western. The Peshitta (syr^p) has a mixed text in Gospels and Epistles, Western in Acts. The Harclean version (syr^h) of Acts is Western. The Palestinian Syriac (syr^pal) is generally Caesarean.
Coptic	cop	3^rd and 4^th centuries (Sahidic dialect is 4^thto 5^thcenturies; Bohairic dialect is 9^thcentury)	generally Alexandrian in the entire tradition; Sahidic (sa) and Bohairic (bo) are Alexandrian with numerous Western readings
Armenian	arm	5^thcentury	generally Caesarean but sections are Byzantine, and the mss of Paul show strong Alexandrian affinities
Georgian	geo	5^thcentury	mixed texttypes; generally Caesarean, but becoming strongly Byzantine in later mss
Ethiopic	eth	exact date unknown, but most likely within the 4^th to 5^thcenturies	mixed text, but generally early Byzantine
Slavonic	slav	9^thcentury	Byzantine

Patristic Evidence

A tremendous source for evidence of the Greek NT are citations found in early Church Fathers. They help to locate and date various readings and texttypes found in the manuscripts and versions. This field is quite complex for two broad reasons: (1) It is often difficult to determine if what the Father actually wrote has been preserved in the extant manuscripts or if corruption has occurred. (2) It is often difficult to determine if a Father is citing a text verbatim, paraphrasing it, or alluding to it. All of the Fathers cited in the notes are listed below. For more information on the patristic evidence for the NT, consult B. M. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament (3d ed.; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 86-92; and B. D. Ehrman and M. W. Holmes, eds.,The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research: Essays on the Status Quaestionis (Studies and Documents 46; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 189-236.

Ambrose of Milan, d. 397

Ambrosiaster of Rome, active 366-384

Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, d. 373

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, d. 430

Chromatius, d. 407

Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, d. 407

Clement of Alexandria, d. before 215

Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, d. 258

Cyril of Alexandria, d. 444

Cyril-Jerusalem, d. 386

Didymus of Alexandria, d. 398

Ephraem the Syrian, d. 373

Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, d. 403

Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, d. 339 or 340

Hesychius of Jerusalem, d. after 451

Hilary of Poitiers, d. 367

Hippolytus of Rome, d. 235

Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, d. ca. 202

Jerome, d. 420

Justin Martyr, d. ca. 165

Marcion of Rome, 2^nd century

Origen of Alexandria and Caesarea, d. 254

Pseudo-Athanasius, dates unknown

Serapion, d. after 362

Severian, d. after 408

Tertullian of Carthage, d. after 220

Theodore of Mopsuestia in Cilicia, d. 428

Victorinus-Pettau, d. 304

30. Understanding the Writing Prophets

Introduction²⁵⁰

As you know, we are in the midst of what may be called an Old Testament Survey, a series entitled “From Creation to the Cross.” The purpose of this series is to provide us with a better working knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures, a better understanding of God’s progressive revelation, and a fresh look at the unfolding drama of redemption which culminates in Jesus Christ.

The previous two lessons discussed the ministry of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, which has given us some insight into the deteriorating situation in Israel, Judah, and the divided kingdom. Following on the heels of Elijah and Elisha, God raised up new prophets to speak for him. These new prophets continued in the prophetic tradition of Moses. They continued in the spirit of Elijah. I call these new prophets the writing prophets to distinguish them from their predecessors, for they are unique in that their prophecies are written down for us. I am referring of course to the Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel) and the Twelve Minor Prophets (the final twelve books of our Old Testament). In fact, it may be helpful to turn to the Table of Contents in your Bible to see them all listed.

It should be pointed out that the minor prophets are so-called only because these books are relatively short in length; the major prophets are relatively long books. The terms imply nothing about their relative importance.²⁵¹ It would perhaps be more appropriate to refer to them as the longer and shorter prophets.

These two combined lessons will give an introduction to these Writing Prophets. It is appropriate to devote some time to an “introduction” for a couple of reasons. First, there is much in common among them as a type of Old Testament literature which can help us understand them.²⁵² They have similarities not only in literary style, but in context and content which are worth noting. Second, an overview will hopefully prepare us and encourage us to study them on our own, as we look forward to dealing with most, if not all of them, individually as our series continues.

Chronological Overview

Let us first take a look at the chart in Figure 1 on page 2, which will help us see how the writing prophets fit chronologically in the history of Israel and Judah.²⁵³ The bar represents the nation of Israel becoming a divided kingdom after the rule of Solomon. You will remember God told Solomon that upon his death, the Kingdom would become divided (1 Kings 11:9-13), and it did.

As you see, the writing prophets come on the scene immediately after Elijah and Elisha and continue where their ministries left off. We see here an approximate chronological relationship of the writing prophets, which span the period from Elisha to the end of the Old Testament Scriptures.²⁵⁴

The writing prophets may be divided into four groups:

Prophets of Israel – Jonah, Amos, and Hosea

Prophets of Judah – Obadiah, Joel, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, and Habakkuk

Exilic Prophets – Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel

Post-exilic Prophets – Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

The dating of the prophets Jonah, Joel, and Obadiah are more questionable than the other prophets. All three of these have are the subject of fair arguments for much later dates.²⁵⁵ I have shown them here at their earliest suggested dates for convenience.

Studying the Figure above can give us a feel for how the various prophets relate to each other chronologically, which we notice is not how they are presented in the canonical order. Understanding the chronological order along with the corresponding events in Israel’s history is vital to understanding why the prophets say what they say (which will hopefully become evident later). But let’s begin by considering the writings of the prophets in general, as we find them presented to us in the Old Testament.

Why We Have Difficulty Understanding the Prophets

I think most of us would agree at the outset that these prophetic books are among the most difficult parts of the Bible to interpret or to read with understanding. We shouldn’t be embarrassed to admit we have difficulty reading the prophets, for actually we are in good company if we do. In referring to the prophets, Martin Luther once said the following:

“They have a queer way of talking, like people who, instead of proceeding in an orderly manner, ramble off from one thing to the next so that you cannot make heads or tails of them or see what they are getting at.”²⁵⁶

Now that is a comment to which I can relate.

Let’s look at a few reasons for some of the difficulty we have:

The Meaning of Prophecy – The primary difficulty for most modern readers of the prophets stems from an inaccurate understanding of the words “prophet” and “prophecy.” The word prophet refers to one who tells forth (or proclaims), as well as one who foretells.²⁵⁷ But we often limit the meaning of prophecy to foretelling the future, so many Christians refer to the prophets only for predictions about Christ’s first coming, or his second coming, and the end times as though prediction of events far distant to their own day was their main concern.

It should be pointed out that less than 2% of Old Testament prophecy is messianic. Less than 5% specifically concerns the New Covenant age. And less than 1% concern events still future to us.²⁵⁸ The prophets did indeed announce the future. But it was usually the immediate future of Israel, Judah, and the surrounding nations they announced – not our future. One of the keys to understanding the Prophets, therefore, is to recognize that for us to see their prophecies fulfilled, we must often look back on times that were still future to them, but for us are past.²⁵⁹

To see the prophets as primarily predictors of future events is to miss their primary function, which was, in fact, to speak for God to their contemporaries.

Historical Distance – Another matter that complicates our understanding the prophets is the problem of historical distance. By the very nature of things, we will have a harder time understanding the words of the prophets than the Israelites who heard those same words in person. We are far removed from the religious, historical, and cultural life of ancient Israel, and we simply have trouble putting the words of the prophets in their proper context. It is often hard for us to see what they are referring to and why. Things clear to them tend to be opaque to us.

The Spoken Nature of the Prophets – Finally, the spoken nature of their prophecies causes many of our difficulties in understanding.

For example, of the hundreds of prophets in ancient Israel in Old Testament times, only 16 were chosen to speak oracles that would be collected and written down into books. We know that other prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, played a very influential role in delivering God’s Word to His people and to other nations as well. But we know more about these prophets than we do of their actual words. What they did is described in far greater length than what they said -- and when we are told what they said, it is placed very specifically and clearly in the context of the narratives in which they appear. Generally, in the narrative books of the Old Testament, we hear about prophets and very little from prophets. In the prophetic books, however, we hear from the prophets and very little about the prophets themselves. That single difference accounts for most of the problem people have making sense of the prophetic books.

Furthermore the prophetic books, especially the longer ones, are collections of spoken oracles, not always presented in their original chronological sequence, often without hints as to where one oracle ends and another begins, and often without hints as to their historical setting. On top of that, most of the oracles were spoken in poetry. We’ll talk more about oracles later, but I think you get the point.

Now, if these are the reasons we have difficulty with the prophets, then in order to really understand the prophets, we have to get a better handle on: (1) the function of a prophet; (2) the historical context of their writings; and (3) the form of their writings.

Function of the Prophets

Covenant Enforcement Mediators – To understand what God would say to us through these inspired books, we must first have a clear understanding as to the role and function of the prophet in Israel. The prophets spoke for God to His people. They functioned to call Israel back to God,²⁶⁰ which meant a call back to faithfulness to their Covenant relationship with God; i.e., back to the Law of Moses. In accomplishing this primary purpose, they confronted Israel’s sin and demanded repentance. Simply stated, the prophets were “covenant enforcement mediators.”²⁶¹ There was a covenant relationship between God and His people. This covenant contained not only the rules which they were to keep, but it describes the sorts of punishments that God will necessarily apply to His people if they do not keep the Law, as well as the benefits He will impart to them if they are faithful. What is important is that God does not merely give His Law, but He enforces it. Positive enforcement is blessing; negative enforcement is curse. This is where the prophets come in. God announced the enforcement of His Law (both positive and negative) through the prophets.

Moses as a Model – Moses was the mediator of God’s Law when he first announced it, and thus is a paradigm (or model) for the prophets. They are God’s mediators, or spokesmen, for the covenant. Through them, God reminds people in the generations after Moses that if the covenant is kept, blessing will result, but if not, judgment will come.

Blessing and Cursing – The kinds of blessings that come for faithfulness are found in Leviticus 26:1-13, Deuteronomy 4:32-40, and Deuteronomy 28:1-14. Generally, these may be categorized as life, health, prosperity, agricultural abundance, respect, and safety. But these blessings are announced with a warning of curses (punishments) if Israel is not obedient and faithful to the covenant. The curses are found in Leviticus 26:14-39, Deuteronomy 4:15-28, and Deuteronomy 28:15-32:42. Generally, these may be categorized under ten “D’s”: death, disease, drought, dearth, danger, destruction, defeat, deportation, destitution, and disgrace.

These same categories apply in what God communicates through the prophets. One must always bear in mind that the prophets did not invent the blessings and curses they announced. They reproduced God’s Word, not their own. Through them, God announced His intention to enforce the covenant and always in accordance with the categories of blessing and curse already contained in the Law. If we will take the trouble to learn those chapters from the Pentateuch, we will be rewarded with a much better understanding of why the prophets say the things they do.

When God wants to announce blessing for the nation through the prophet Amos, He does so in terms of metaphors of agricultural abundance, life, health, prosperity, respect, and safety (see Amos 9:11-15). When He announces doom for the disobedient nation of Hosea’s day, He does so according to one or more of the ten “D’s.” For example: destruction in Hosea 8:14 or deportation in Hosea 9:3. These curses are often metaphorical, though they can certainly be literal as well. They are always corporate, referring to the nation as a whole. Blessings or curses do not guarantee prosperity or dearth to any specific individual.

Statistically speaking, a majority of the prophets announce curse because in the time of their prophecies (generally 800 - 587 BC), the Israelites (north and south) were heading for punishment. After the destruction of both kingdoms, i.e., after 586 BC, the prophets were moved more often to speak of blessings rather than curses because once the punishment of the nation is complete, God resumes His basic plan, which is to show mercy. Deuteronomy 4:25-31 gives a nutshell description of this sequence:

25 “When you become the father of children and children’s children and have remained long in the land, and act corruptly, and make an idol in the form of anything, and do that which is evil in the sight of the Lord your God so as to provoke Him to anger, 26 I call heaven and earth to witness against you today, that you shall surely perish quickly from the land where you are going over the Jordan to possess it. You shall not live long on it, but shall be utterly destroyed. 27 “And the Lord will scatter you among the peoples, and you shall be left few in number among the nations, where the Lord shall drive you. 28 “And there you will serve gods, the work of man’s hands, wood and stone, which neither see nor hear nor eat nor smell. 29 “But from there you will seek the Lord your God, and you will find Him if you search for Him with all your heart and all your soul. 30 “When you are in distress and all these things have come upon you, in the latter days, you will return to the Lord your God and listen to His voice. 31 “For the Lord your God is a compassionate God; He will not fail you nor destroy you nor forget the covenant with your fathers which He swore to them.

As you read the prophets, look for these simple patterns: either (1) an identification of Israel’s sin followed by a prediction of cursing, or (2) an announcement of God’s faithfulness and love for her followed by a prediction of blessing, depending on the circumstance. Most of the time, that is what the prophets are conveying.

The Context of Their Writings

The prophetic books require time and study. People often approach these books casually, as if a surface reading through the Prophets will yield a high level of understanding. This isn’t done with textbooks in our ordinary schooling, and it doesn’t really work with the Prophets either. Specifically for understanding and interpreting the Prophets, one must be willing to consult outside resources, such as Bible dictionaries and commentaries, which can shed light on the background information so we will be able to catch the point of what a Prophet conveys. God’s Word came through the prophets to people in particular situations. Its value depends partly on our ability to appreciate those situations so we can in turn apply them to our own.

Historical Context – It is interesting to note that the 16 prophetic books of the Old Testament come from a rather narrow band in the whole panorama of Israelite history. Why is there such a concentrated writing down of prophetic word during the time between Amos and Malachi? It is probably because this period in Israel’s history called especially for covenant enforcement mediation, which was the task of the prophets. That is along with the evident desire of God to record for all subsequent history the warnings and blessings that those prophets announced on His behalf during those pivotal years.

Those years were characterized by three things: (1) unprecedented political, military, economic, and social upheaval; (2) an enormous level of religious unfaithfulness and disregard for the original Mosaic covenant; and (3) dramatic shifts in populations and national boundaries. In these circumstances, God’s Word was needed anew. God raised up prophets and announced His Word accordingly.

The Books of 1 and 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles provide the biblical context of the writing prophets leading up to the Babylonian exile. There we see that by the time the writing prophets come on the scene, Israel was a nation permanently divided by a long ongoing civil war. The northern kingdom’s disobedience to the covenant had far outstripped anything yet known in Judah, and Israel was slated for destruction by God because of its sin. Amos, beginning around 760, and Hosea, beginning around 755, announced the impending destruction. God raised up the Assyrians as the new superpower at that time and the instrument of judgment on Israel. In 722 BC, Assyria sacked the capital city of Samaria and thus conquered Israel.²⁶²

The people of Judah witnessed the destruction of the northern kingdom, as did Isaiah and Micah, who warned that they were not immune to God’s wrath and were, in fact, on the same road to destruction. Thereafter, the mounting sinfulness of Judah and the rise of another superpower, Babylon, became the subject of the prophets Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, as well as Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Judah, too, was destroyed for its disobedience and carried off into exile. Perhaps this is where an example of the importance of historical context can be best illustrated.

The Babylonians rose up and defeated the Assyrians (612 BC), and then defeated the Egyptians at the battle of Carchemish in 605 BC to become the number one power in the civilized world. Following the defeat of the Egyptians, Nebuchadnezzar headed south into Judah and entered Jerusalem as conqueror. Then begins the exile. When we think of the exile, however, we need to know that there were actually three deportations. The first occurred in 605 BC when Daniel was taken to Babylon. The second deportation occurred in 597 BC when Nebuchadnezzar returned to quell a resistance movement; this is when Ezekiel was taken to Babylon (during all this, Jeremiah remained in Jerusalem). The final deportation occurred in 586 BC when Jerusalem was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar.

Now take, for example, the writings of Jeremiah and Ezekiel: Both prophesied before and after the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The Book of Jeremiah was written before the destruction. Jeremiah, an eyewitness to the destruction, wrote Lamentations afterward. Ezekiel’s prophecies in chapters 1-32 were given in Babylon before the fall of Jerusalem. Chapters 33-48 were prophecies given after. The focus of the prophet’s ministry changes with respect to that event. Before the destruction of Jerusalem, they spoke mainly of judgment. After the destruction, they begin to talk more of restoration. If you know the historical context, it is easier to understand why they said what they did.

After the exile, when the people were allowed to return to Jerusalem, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi announced God’s will for the rebuilding of the temple, the rebuilding of the nation, and the reinstitution of orthodoxy.

Unless we know these events and others within this era too numerous to mention here, we probably will not be able to follow very well what the prophets are saying. Each prophetic oracle was delivered in a specific historical setting. God spoke through His prophets to people in a given time and place, and under given circumstances. A knowledge of the date, audience, and situation, therefore, when they are known, contributes a great deal to a reader’s ability to comprehend an oracle.

Literary Form

A. They Spoke in Oracles – When we come to the actual study of the prophetic books, the first thing we must learn to do is to think oracles (just as we must learn to think paragraphs in the epistles or narrative sections of the Bible).²⁶³ This is not always an easy task, but to know the difficulty and the need to do this is the beginning of some exciting discovery. For the most part, the longer prophetic books are collections of spoken oracles, not always presented in their original chronological sequence, often without any indication as to where one oracle ends and another begins, and often without hints as to their historical setting. To top it off, most of the oracles were recorded in poetic form.

Most of the time, what the prophets said is presented in their books in run-on fashion. That is, the words they spoke at various times and places over the years of their ministry have been collected and written down together, without divisions to indicate where one oracle ends and another begins. Moreover, even when one can assume by a major change of subject that a new oracle has probably begun, the lack of explanation still leaves one asking, “Was this said on the same day to the same audience, or was it said years later -- or earlier -- to a different group under different circumstances?” The answer can make a big difference as to one’s understanding.

Some parts of prophetic books provide exceptions. In Haggai and the early chapters of Zechariah, for example, each prophecy is dated. With the help of a Bible dictionary, handbook, or commentary, we can follow the progression of those prophecies in their historical context rather easily. And some of the prophecies in other books, notably Jeremiah and Ezekiel, are likewise dated and placed in a setting by the inspired author. But it simply does not work that way most of the time. A good commentary or Bible dictionary is often helpful in explaining such things to us as we read.

Literary Form of the Oracles – Since the isolation of individual oracles is one key to understanding the prophetic books, it is important to know something about the different forms the prophets used to compose their oracles. Just as the Bible as a whole is composed of many different kinds of literature and literary forms, so also the prophets employed a variety of literary forms in their divinely inspired messages. The commentaries can identify and explain these forms. Perhaps the three most common forms are the lawsuit oracle, the woe oracle, and the promise oracle.²⁶⁴ They each have different literary features. Understanding the features of these prophetic literary devices helps one to comprehend the message of God more accurately. I’d like to take the time to look at some examples to show you what I mean.

The Lawsuit Oracle – Let’s turn to Isaiah 3:13-26, which constitutes an allegorical literary form called a “covenant lawsuit.” In this and scores of other lawsuit allegories in the Prophets (e.g., Hosea 3:3-17, 4:1-19, etc.), God is portrayed imaginatively as the plaintiff, prosecuting attorney, and judge in a court case against the defendant, Israel. The full lawsuit form contains a summons, a charge, evidence, and a verdict, though these elements may sometimes be implied rather than being explicit. In Isaiah 3, the elements are incorporated as follows: The court convenes, and the lawsuit is brought against Israel (verses 13-14a). The indictment or accusation is spoken (verses 14b-16). Since the evidence shows that Israel is clearly guilty, the judgment sentence is announced (verses 17-26). Because the covenant has been violated, the sorts of punishments listed in the covenant will come upon the people of Israel: disease, destitution, deprivation, and death. The figurative style of this allegory is a dramatic and effective way of communication to Israel that it is going to be punished because of its disobedience, and that the punishment will be severe. The special literary form helps get the special message across.

The Woe Oracle – Through the prophets, God makes predictions of imminent doom using the device of the “woe,” and no Israelite could miss the significance of the use of that word. Woe oracles contain, either explicitly or implicitly, three elements that uniquely characterize this form: an announcement of distress (the word “Woe,” for example), the reason for the distress, and a prediction of doom. Read Habakkuk 2:6-8 as an example of a woe oracle spoken against Babylon. The oracle announces “woe” in verse 6. The reason is also given in verse 6, where Babylon is personified as a thief and extortionist. Disaster is predicted in verses 7-8, when all those Babylon has oppressed will one day rise up against it. This form is allegorical, though not all woes are; cf. Micah 2:1-5; Zeph. 2:5-7.

The Promise (or Salvation) Oracle – Another common prophetic literary form is the promise or “salvation” oracle. You will recognize this form whenever you see these elements: reference to the future, mention of radical change, and mention of blessing. Amos 9:11-15, a typical promise oracle, contains these elements. The future is mentioned as “In that day” (verse 11). The radical change is described as the restoration and repair of “David's fallen tent” (verse 11), the exaltation of Israel over Edom (verse 12), and the return from the exile (verses 14, 15). Blessing comes via the covenantal categories already mentioned (e.g., life, health, prosperity, agricultural abundance, respect, and safety). All these items are included in Amos 9:11-15, though health is implicit rather than explicit. The central emphasis here is upon agricultural abundance. Crops, for example, will be so enormous that the harvesters will not be finished by the time the sowers are to start planting again (verse 13). For other examples of promise oracles, see Hosea 2:16-20 and 2:21-23, Isaiah 45:1-7, and also Jeremiah 31:1-9.

B. They Were Poets – God spoke through His prophets largely in poetic form. People were used to poetry, and they could remember it much better than prose. The prophets often used what may be called “poetic prose,” a special, formal style employing the same characteristics as poetry, though less consistently. Because it is so much more regular and stylized than colloquial prose, it too was better remembered.

All the prophetic books contain a substantial amount of poetry, and several are exclusively poetic. As a matter of fact, poetry is the second most common literary feature and comprises almost one-third of the Bible.²⁶⁵ Therefore, we must have some understanding of biblical poetry in order to better understand Scripture. The language of poetry is imagery. It is designed to stir the emotions and create vivid mental pictures, not feed the intellect. Consequently, poetry uses devices such as simile, metaphor, personification, and hyperbole to create images that evoke a sensory experience in our imagination. It is therefore important that we be able to identify and interpret the devices of poetic language. Poetry must be read, understood, and interpreted as poetry.

Finally, the structure of poetry is parallelism. Parallelism is the verse form in which virtually all biblical poetry is written.²⁶⁶ Hopefully, you have some knowledge of poetic parallelism in the Bible, but I’ll touch on it just a bit anyway since it is so prevalent in the prophets. When we speak of parallelism, we are referring to the Hebrew technique of presenting a thought using parallel literary members. It is the phenomenon whereby two or more successive poetic lines strengthen, reinforce, and develop each other’s thought. The most common types of parallelism are Synonymous, Antithetical, and Synthetic parallelism as illustrated below:

Synonymous parallelism is where the second or subsequent line repeats or reinforces the sense of the first line, as in Isaiah 44:22:²⁶⁷

“I have swept your offenses like a cloud,

your sins like the morning mist.” Or,

“Then I shall turn your festivals into mourning

And all your songs into lamentation” (Amos 8:10a).

Antithetical parallelism, on the other hand, is where the second or subsequent line contrasts the thought of the first, as in Hosea 7:14:

“They do not cry out to me from their hearts,

but wail upon their beds.”

Synthetic parallelism, perhaps a little harder to discern, is where the second or subsequent line adds to the first line in any manner which provides further information, as in Obadiah 21:

“Deliverers will go up from Mount Zion

to govern the mountains of Esau.

And the kingdom will be the Lord’s.”

It should be noted that the literature discusses other more extensive and sophisticated forms of parallelism found in biblical poetry.It would certainly be worthwhile to become more familiar with this poetic structure.²⁶⁸ As with oracle forms, a general familiarity with Hebrew parallelism can be quite rewarding as we read the prophets. The presentation of ideas in poetic forms such as this need not be confusing, as long as we read carefully and are aware of the unique features. Poetry is just as comprehensible as prose if we know the rules.

Pedagogy in Biography

There is another feature in the prophetic books which I find fascinating. This feature is primarily seen in the narrative portions where we are told something about the prophets themselves. Many of the Old Testament prophets became what may be called a “pedagogy in biography.”²⁶⁹ This means that what they did became a teaching experience for the onlookers.

Very often the prophets of God had to endure unusual hardship so that their lives and experiences could be an instrument of teaching to those around them. It is interesting to look for these “pedagogy’s in biography” in the narrative sections of the prophetic books. You will find the prophets have some hard days to live through and some hard experiences to endure as they provided themselves as visual aids for the prophecies which God would deliver to the people.

Examples of “Pedagogy in Biography” in the life of Ezekiel – A striking example is found in Ezekiel 4:1-13. He was instructed to take a brick, lay it on the ground, and inscribe the word Jerusalem on it. Making believe the brick was “Jerusalem,” he was to build a siege wall, pitch toy camps around it, and place battering rams against it on all sides. The reason for this is given in verse 3. It was to be a sign to the house of Judah. This was prior to the final invasion of Nebuchadnezzar in 588, which lasted until 586 when the city was breached. Ezekiel’s prophecy took place between 592 and 589 BC.

In addition, Ezekiel was commanded to lie on his left side for 390 days (apparently beside his little model of the city under siege) to bear the iniquity of the house of Israel, and when that was completed, he was to lie on his right side and bear the iniquity of the house of Judah for 40 days. For nourishment, he was to eat only peasant’s food cooked over cow dung. All this was to symbolize the pollution with which Israel and Judah had defiled themselves.

A second good example is seen in chapter 12:3-7. God commanded Ezekiel to dig a hole in a wall, to gather the baggage of an exile by day, throw it over his shoulder, and to go out through the wall in the evenings like an exile leaving his city. He was apparently to do this over and over so the people would ask him what he was doing. He was to say,

“I am a sign to you. As I have done, so it will be done to them (in Jerusalem). They will go into exile, into captivity.”

Other Examples of “Pedagogy in Biography”:

Hosea is another example of pedagogy in biography (Hosea 1:2-9). God had Hosea experience the heartbreak of an unfaithful wife as both a picture of Israel’s unfaithfulness to Him and a preparation of Hosea for his prophetic ministry.

Isaiah went about barefoot and naked as a sign for the Lord. “Even as My servant Isaiah has gone naked and barefoot three years as a sign against Egypt and Cush, so the king of Assyria will lead away the captives of Egypt and the exiles of Cush” (Isaiah 20:2-4).

Jeremiah became a participant in the technique of “Pedagogy in Biography” when God commanded him to make a yoke for his neck and then to walk around wearing it (Jeremiah 27:2-3). This was to illustrate God’s prophecy that Judah was to soon come under the yoke of Babylon. And since this was God’s judgment, Jeremiah told them to submit to Babylon rather than resist. The people hated Jeremiah, not only for this message of coming judgment, but for his call to submit and surrender. He was branded a traitor.²⁷⁰

Summary

We have touched on a number of characteristics and features of the writing prophets, which hopefully will encourage us to spend more time reading them. In summary, let’s remember that in order to understand the prophets, we must understand the function of the prophet (which is not merely to tell the future), the historical context (not only in general, but specifically with regard to each prophet and, ideally, each oracle). We must also understand the literary devices used in the prophetic writing (the poetic and oracle forms). And we must be willing to devote a little time and prayer to the endeavor. We must remember that the prophets were primarily covenant enforcement mediators. They spoke for God to His people. They confronted Israel’s sin and called them back to the Law. They called them back to a covenant relationship with God.

There is much more that could be said about the writing prophets. I have only scratched the surface and talked of some of the features they have in common. They each have their own unique features, their own unique structure, and their own unique contribution to the Old Testament, which are well worth our study.

What Does It Mean to Us?

The task of interpretation is to set the Prophets within their own historical contexts and to hear what God was saying to Israel through them. Once we hear what God said to them, even if our circumstances differ considerably, we will often hear it again in our own settings in a rather direct way, which brings us to the area of application. In thinking about application of the prophets to us today, we can make some observations:

(1) The ungodly society in Israel and Judah in the days of the prophets is certainly similar to the ungodly society of our day; i.e., we see the similar self-indulgence, materialism, sexual promiscuity and perversion, pluralism, humanism, rampant ungodliness, etc. Does that in itself not suggest that there is a message in the prophets for us today?

(2) Can it not be argued that the sins of Israel are sins in the New Testament too? After all, they violate the two great commandments that both the Old Covenant and New Covenant share (Matthew 22:36-40).

(3) We see through the prophets that God is serious about His covenant with Israel. Does this not suggest He is just as serious about His New Covenant through Jesus Christ? Does this not imply that there is a message in the prophets for the church today?

There are, no doubt, many varied applications for today which may be derived from the individual prophetic writings, but I want to step back and look at the context for application from the prophets viewed as a whole. There is an overarching theme in the prophets which should serve as the primary thrust of application.

To understand what I am driving at, let me ask a couple of questions: “What was the goal of the prophetic ministry?” Or, perhaps more appropriately, “What was it the prophets were seeking in their ministry?” You might say restoration, i.e., a restored covenant relationship with God. Yes, that may properly be understood as the ultimate goal. But what was it the prophets actually sought? The prophets sought repentance. Restoration was the goal, but repentance is what they hoped to see from the people. In fact, this message of the prophets was so prevalent that Zechariah (one of the last prophets) was able to sum up in one sentence all the prophets that preceded him: “the earlier prophets proclaimed: Thus says the Lord of Hosts, turn from your evil ways and doings,” (Zechariah 1:4). The message of the prophets was a call for repentance.

Is there a place for a call to repentance today? Is there a need for a message of repentance today? Israel, the people of God in the Old Testament, turned away from God and needed a message of repentance. Do we Christians, who are looking so much like the pagan society around us that we are virtually indistinguishable, need the same message?

Walt Kaiser, one of my favorite authors in Old Testament studies, commented on application from the prophets in the following,

“Preaching from the prophets can have a great contemporary application if we recognize repentance as the condition for experiencing God’s favor.” ²⁷¹

How much are we like Israel, who claimed God’s eternal favor based on His promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and then worshipped the things of this world? We claim the eternal favor of God based on the blood of Jesus, we say “once saved always saved,” and we worship the things of this world. How different is that? I say the prophets of the Old Covenant do indeed have a message for us today. As one of our elders related to me last week, “When you read the book of Micah, it’s almost as if he was writing to the church today.”

God preserved a faithful remnant in Israel. But being an Israelite did not guarantee you were part of that remnant: “not all Israel is Israel,” (Romans 9:6). God is preserving a faithful remnant in the church today, but being “in the church” does not guarantee that you are a part of that remnant.

The prophets serve as constant reminders to us of God’s serious regard for His covenant. For those who obey the stipulations of the New Covenant (loving God and loving one's neighbor through Jesus Christ), the final, eternal, result will be blessing, even though the results in this world are not guaranteed to be so encouraging. Dare I suggest that for those who disobey, the result can only be curse, regardless of how well one fares during life on earth?

²⁵⁰This is the edited manuscript of messages delivered by Jim Ellis at Community Bible Chapel, on June 10 and June 17, 2001.

²⁵¹Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (Zondervan, 1993), p. 165.

²⁵²The Old Testament is made up of a number of types of literature (or literary genre). One of those genre is “prophetic” literature which has its own unique features. See William W. Klein, et. al., Introduction to Biblical Interpretation (Word Publishing, 1993), pp. 259-322.

²⁵³Thomas R. Rodgers, The Panorama of the Old Testament (Trinity Press, 1997): chronology of the early prophets, p. 310, and chronology of the later prophets, p. 321.

²⁵⁴The prophets are shown at single points-in-time along the bar to keep the graphic from getting too complicated; however, this does not do justice to the fact that some had long ministries. For example, Isaiah’s ministry covered a period of 40 years. Hence, Isaiah, Micah, and Hosea were contemporaries with overlapping ministries.

²⁵⁵For a chronology showing later dates for Jonah, Obadiah, and Joel, see Willem A. VanGemeren, Interpreting the Prophetic Word (Zondervan, 1990), p. 103.

²⁵⁶Cited by Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, Trans. D.M.G. Stalker, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1962, 1965) 2:33, n. 1.

²⁵⁷The most common term for the person and office is “prophet,” from the Greek prophetes, which basically means “one who speaks for God.” It can mean “to speak for, proclaim” as well as “speak beforehand.” A prophet then is a forthteller as well as a foreteller; both meanings are implicit and both usages are found in the Bible. The corresponding Hebrew word nabi emphasizes “one who is called.” See William S. LaSor, et. al., Old Testament Survey (Eerdmans, 2nd ed, 1996), p. 222.

²⁵⁸William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, & Robert L. Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation (Word Publishing, 1993), p. 303.

²⁵⁹Klein, et. al., pp. 307-310.

²⁶⁰For specific examples of the prophets calling Israel back to God, see Amos 5:6, Hosea 14:1, Joel 2:12-13, Isaiah 55:3, and Zephaniah 2:1-3.

²⁶¹Fee and Stewart, p. 167.

²⁶²As an aside, the Assyrians not only plundered the cities of the northern kingdom, but they removed the wealthy and influential people of Israel to other conquered areas and took people from other nations and moved them into the land (2 Kings 17:24). This was an effective way to prevent organized resistance in conquered lands. It also effectively resulted in a new mixed race of people who became known as Samaritans.

²⁶³Fee and Stuart, p. 176.

²⁶⁴Ibid., pp. 175-178.

²⁶⁵J. B. Gabel and C. B. Wheeler, The Bible as Literature, 2nd. ed. (New York/Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 37 and p. 293.

²⁶⁶Leland Ryken, How to Read the Bible as Literature (Academie Books, Zondervan, 1984), p. 103.

²⁶⁷Jesus used parallelism on numerous occasions. For example, he uses synonymous parallelism in John 6:35.

²⁶⁸See William S. LaSor, David A. Hubbard & Frederic W. Bush, Old Testament Survey (Eerdmans, 2nd edition, 1996), pp. 231-242. Also see Klein, pp. 225-236.

²⁶⁹Rodgers, p. 351.

²⁷⁰For more examples of “Pedagogy in Biography,” see Jeremiah 19:1-11; 43:9; 51:63-64; Ezekiel 5:1-4; 21:6,7; and 24:1-24.

²⁷¹Walter C. Kaiser, Toward an Exegetical Theology (Baker Books, 1981), p. 195.

Related Topics: Bibliology (The Written Word)

9 Responses to the Supreme Court, Same Sex Marriage, and Christians

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Whether we agree with it or not, same sex marriage is now the law of the land in the United States. While the biblical definition of marriage is clear for all who would see it (one man and one woman, for life – Matthew 19:3-12), the legal definition of marriage has just been changed. So far as the law is concerned, continuing the debate which made its way to the Supreme Court will do us little good, for the Court has made its ruling in the United States.

A recent increase in our website traffic indicates that many are seeking to gain biblical insight pertaining to the recent Supreme Court decision. We believe that Christians should be giving thought to the following matters:

Should the church continue to debate the issue of same sex marriage, now that the Court has ruled on this matter?
How should Christians respond to the Supreme Court’s decision on same sex marriage?
In light of the Court’s decision, what does the Bible say about our roles as citizens of this country, as ambassadors of Christ, and as heaven-bound saints?
How do we hold fast to the Bible’s definitions of marriage and of sin, and yet demonstrate genuine love and concern toward those who reject these definitions?
What are the implications of the Court’s decision for Christians and the church, now and in the future?
What actions should Christians and the church take to minimize future opposition and persecution as a result of the legalization of same sex marriages?

Our commitment at Bible.org has always been to point our readers to the best biblical content available on the internet, whether it be something on our site, or something found elsewhere. Consequently, we have purposed to respond in at least two ways. The first is to immediately direct our readers to existing articles that address these matters with grace and truth (John 1:14, 17; Colossians 1:6). These links point to comments by godly and highly respected Christians, who have spoken truth graciously. The second is to commence a series by one or more of our Bible.org authors that gives Christians a biblical outlook on our times and how we should respond to them. This will provide a basis for individual study, as well as material that preachers and teachers might consider as they instruct believers about their role in a fallen world.

Below is a list of the articles and links that we have found thus far, which address the recent Supreme Court ruling and its implications for Christians.

Highlighted individual responses:

John Piper responded by writing a blog entitled: So-Called Same Sex Marriage: Lamenting the New Calamity.
Al Mohler responded by writing an article entitled: Everything Has Changed and Nothing Has Changed -- The Supreme Court Legalizes Same-Sex Marriage.
John MacArthur responded pastorally by writing An Open Letter to The Master’s Seminary Alumni (pastors).

Additional articles relating to the Supreme Court decision:

Christianity Today points to some guidance for responding to same-sex marriage: ‘Outrage and Panic’ Are Off Limits, Say Evangelical Leaders on Same-Sex Marriage.
The Blaze has compiled the responses of 7 well known pastors to the recent Supreme Court decision.
100+ leaders signed a declaration responding to the Supreme Court decision-- Here we Stand: An Evangelical Declaration on Marriage.

Helpful background articles on homosexuality and the Bible from Bible.org:

Bible Teacher's Guide: First Peter

The letter of First Peter was written to persecuted Christians scattered throughout the Roman Empire. It was meant to both encourage and instruct them on how to live as pilgrims in a hostile society. This message is still relevant today.

Christ declared that in the end times believers would be hated by "all nations" because of him (Matthew 24:9). With the continuing culture shift, animosity and persecution towards Christians is increasing at an alarming rate. Over 400 Christians are martyred every day, and more saints have died for the faith in the last century than all the previous combined. The words of First Peter are a message of hope, desperately needed to encourage and prepare the Church for what lies ahead. Let's journey through Peter's letter together with the aid of the Bible Teacher's Guide.

This book is also available for purchase here on Amazon.

Preface

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And the things you have heard me say in the presence of many witnesses entrust to reliable men who will also be qualified to teach others.
2 Timothy 2:15

Paul’s words to Timothy still apply to us today. There is a need to raise up teachers who will correctly handle the Word and fearlessly teach the Word. It is with this hope in mind that the Bible Teachers Guide (BTG) series has been created. The BTG series includes both expositional book studies and topical studies. This guide will be useful for individual study, small groups, and for teachers preparing to share God’s Word.

Building Foundations for a Godly Marriage can be used as an eight-week small group study on marriage, a pre-marital or marital counseling curriculum, or simply to help one have a deeper understanding of marriage. It is good for pre-married couples, married couples, and singles studying the topic in a small group. Every week the members of the small group will read a chapter, complete the homework questions, and be prepared to share in the small group gathering. Because each member will prepare for the small group, this will enrich the discussion and the learning. For further tips on small group format see Appendixes 4 and 5.

I pray that the Lord may richly bless your study and use it to build his kingdom.

The primary Scriptures used are New International Version (1984) unless otherwise noted. Other versions include English Standard Version, New Living Translation, New American Standard Bible, and King James Version. Holy Bible, New International Version ®, NIV® Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Scripture quotations marked (KJV) are from the King James Version of the Bible.

All emphases in Scripture quotations have been added.

1 En.	1 Enoch, a Jewish pseudepigraphic work that includes what are thought to be Christian interpolations in chaps. 37-71 (also called Ethiopic Enoch)
1 Kgdms	1 Kingdoms, the book of the LXX which corresponds to 1 Samuel
1QH	Thanksgiving Hymns, hymns composed for worship within the Qumran community
1QS	Rule of the Community, one of the first Dead Sea Scrolls recovered. This scroll details rules for admission into the Qumran community.
2 Bar.	2 Baruch, a Jewish apocalyptic work written early in the second century
2 En.	2 Enoch, an Jewish pseudepigraphic work that expands upon Gen 5:21-32
4QMMT	Miqsat Maàaseh Torah from Qumran Cave 4, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls
Ag. Ap.	Against Apion, a defense of the Jewish people written by Josephus, a Jewish historian who lived from a.d. 37/38 until the early years of the second century.
Ant.	Jewish Antiquities, a history of the Jewish people written by Josephus (seeAg. Ap. above)
b.	Indicates a tractate from the Babylonian Talmud, which contains the Mishnah and rabbinic interpretive expansions. Collected ca. a.d. 500-550.
CD	A copy of the Damascus Document, which is one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, found in the Cairo genizah
Embassy	On the Embassy to Gaius, a philosophical work by Philo, a Jewish philosopher who lived from 20 b.c. to a.d. 50
Praep. Ev.	Praeparatio evangelica (Preparation for the Gospel), a work by Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, who lived ca. a.d. 260-341
Flaccus	Against Flaccus, a philosophical work by Philo (see Embassy above)
Heir	Who is the Heir?, a philosophical work by Philo (see Embassy above)
Herm.	Shepherd of Hermas, a Christian work written in Rome sometime during the 1st and 2nd centuries a.d.
Ibn Ezra	Rabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra, a medieval Jewish scholar who wrote many works, including a commentary on the Hebrew Bible. Lived a.d. 1092/1093 to a.d.1167.
Ign.	Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who died as a martyr in Rome early in the second century. Following will be the abbreviation for one of his seven letters.
J. W.	Jewish War, a history of the events surrounding the war between Rome and the Jews ca. a.d. 70 written by Josephus (see Ag. Ap. above)
Jub.	Jubilees, a Jewish pseudepigraphic work that expands upon the narratives in Genesis and Exodus
Letter of Aristeas	An ancient letter which purports to explain the origins of the LXX. Posited by most scholars to have been written ca. 170 b.c.
Life	The Life, an autobiography of Josephus (see Ag. Ap. above)
m.	Indicates a tractate from the Mishnah, a codification of Jewish rabbinic oral tradition collected ca. a.d. 200-220

Pirqe Avot	A collection of the sayings from Jewish sages and rabbis
Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer	A collection of Jewish rabbinic tradition compiled ca. a.d. 750-850
Posterity	On the Posterity of Cain, a philosophical work by Philo (see Embassy above)
Rabbah	Jewish rabbinic commentary on books of the Bible, e.g., Genesis Rabbah
Sib. Or.	Sibylline Oracles, a collection of poetic prophecies contained within the Jewish pseudepigrapha
Sifre Deut	Sifre on Deuteronomy, a collection of rabbinic interpretations on the book of Deuteronomy compiled ca. a.d. 350-400
Smr	Samaritan Pentateuch, the version of the first five books of the Old Testament accepted as canonical by the Samaritans
t.	Indicates a tractate from the Tosefta, a codification of Jewish rabbinic oral tradition collected ca. a.d. 220-230
T. Gad	Testament of Gad, one of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, a group of works written between 109 and 106 b.c. and inspired by Jacob’s testament in Gen 49
T. Reu.	Testament of Reuben, one of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (see T. Gad above)
T. Sol.	Testament of Solomon, a story about Solomon building the Temple, written sometime during the 1st to 3rd centuries a.d.
Tg.	Indicates a Targum, an Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible which often included interpretive comments
Tg. Onq.	Targum Onqelos, an Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch, regarded as the official targum of these books
Tg. Ps.-J.	Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, an Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch
y.	Indicates a tractate from the Jerusalem Talmud (which actually took shape in Galilee ca. a.d. 400-425), a work which contains the Mishnah and rabbinic interpretive expansions

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Lesson 13: Confident in His Righteousness (1 John 2:28-3:3)

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Lesson 14: The Practice of Sinning (1 John 3:4-10)

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Lesson 15: What Does It Mean to Hate My Brother? (1 John 3:11-15)

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Lesson 3: Three Wrong Thoughts About Your Sin, Part 1 (1 John 1:5-10)

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From the series: Vivendo em amor: Os Segredos dos Casamentos Bíblicos PREVIOUS PAGE

13. Lado a Lado – A História de Áquila e Priscila

Vamos Conversar Sobre Isso

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List of Abbreviations (for the NET Bible Footnotes)

Old Testament

Books of the Old Testament Apocrypha

New Testament

Other Ancient Documents

Abbreviations for Bible Versions

General Abbreviations

List of Cited Works

Works Cited by Name and Short Title

Abbreviations and Introduction to Principal Manuscript Evidence for the Greek New Testament

The Greek Witnesses

Papyri

Uncials

Minuscules

Versional Evidence

Patristic Evidence

From the series: From Creation to the Cross PREVIOUS PAGE | NEXT PAGE

30. Understanding the Writing Prophets

Introduction250

Chronological Overview

Why We Have Difficulty Understanding the Prophets

Function of the Prophets

The Context of Their Writings

Literary Form

Pedagogy in Biography

Summary

What Does It Mean to Us?

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9 Responses to the Supreme Court, Same Sex Marriage, and Christians

Bible Teacher's Guide: First Peter

From the series: Bible Teacher's Guide: Building Foundations For A Godly Marriage: A Pre-Marriage, Marriage Counseling Study PREVIOUS PAGE | NEXT PAGE

Preface

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Pages

Abbreviations and Introduction
to Principal Manuscript Evidence
for the Greek New Testament

Introduction²⁵⁰