“Misquoting” Jesus?, Answering Bart Ehrman
Article contributed by Stand To Reason
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In Misquoting Jesus, the New York Times bestseller subtitled The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, author Bret Ehrman fires a shot meant to sink the ship of any Christian who thinks the New Testament documents can be trusted. Here it is:
What good is it to say that the autographs (i.e., the originals) were inspired? We don’t have the originals! We have only error-ridden copies, and the vast majority of these are centuries removed from the originals and different from them, evidently, in thousands of ways….There are more variations among our manuscripts than there are words in the New Testament.1 [emphasis in the original]
Ehrman is right on the facts, as far as they go. There are 130,000 words in the New Testament, yet the surviving manuscripts (the handwritten copies) reveal something like 400,000 individual times the wording disagrees between them.2 Indeed, Ehrman points out, the manuscripts “differ from one another in so many places that we don’t even know how many differences there are.”3
Further, Bart Ehrman is an accomplished scholar with impeccable bona fides. He co-authored The Text of the New Testament (4th Edition)—an academic standard in the field—with Bruce Metzger, arguably the greatest New Testament manuscript scholar alive at the time.4
The Washington Post says Misquoting Jesus “casts doubt on any number of New Testament episodes that most Christians take as, well gospel.” Publishers Weekly promises that Ehrman’s arguments “ensure that readers might never read the gospels or Paul’s letters the same way again.”5
Which, of course, is exactly what Ehrman wants. Misquoting is the kind of what-they-don’t-want-you-to-know exposé that has become popular in recent years. Ehrman “exposes” discoveries that sabotaged his own “born-again” faith while a graduate student at Princeton, leaving him with the agnosticism about God he now embraces.6
Has the Bible been changed over 2,000 years of copying and recopying? Ehrman answers, “Yes, significantly.” Worse, the massive number of alterations make it virtually impossible to have any confidence of reconstructing the autographs.
Without the original renderings, there is no inspired text. Without inspired Scripture, there is no orthodox Christianity, only a jumble of spiritual ideas about Jesus expressed in a diverse body of conflicting texts that have tumbled down to us through the corridors of time.
Is this skepticism justified? Simply put, no. In spite of Ehrman’s credentials, his who-knows-what-the-original-text-said view is not the majority opinion of textual scholars. This includes Bruce Metzger, Ehrman’s mentor, to whom he dedicated the book. The reasons for this confidence are based in the nature of the reconstructive task itself.
Reconstructing Aunt Sally’s Recipe
A manuscript is a hand-copied text. For the first 1500 years after Christ, all copies of the Bible were reproduced by scribes who did the best they could—in most cases—to faithfully transmit the text. Inevitably, mistakes happened which were then compounded geometrically when the flaw was copied, spawning multiple copies with the same error in subsequent generations of texts.7 Some changes, it seems clear, were intentional and even theologically motivated.
Given that history, it’s hard to imagine how an original can be restored. The uncertainty, though, is based on two misconceptions by the rank and file about the history of the communication of ancient material like that found in the New Testament.
The first assumption is that the transmission is more or less linear—one person passing the message on to a second who gives it to a third, etc., leaving a single message many generations removed from the original. Second, the objection assumes oral transmission which is more easily distorted and misconstrued than something written.
Neither assumption applies to the text of the New Testament. First, the transmission was done in writing, and written manuscripts can be tested in a way oral communications cannot. Second, the transmission was not linear, but geometric—e.g., one letter birthed 10 copies which generated 100 and so on.
Let me illustrate how such a test can be made. It will help you see how scholars confidently reconstruct an original from conflicting manuscripts that are centuries removed from the autograph.
Pretend your Aunt Sally learns in a dream the recipe for an elixir that preserves her youth. When she awakes, she scribbles the complex directions on a sheet of paper, then runs to the kitchen to mix up her first batch of “Sally’s Secret Sauce.” In a few days, she is transformed into a picture of radiant youth.
Aunt Sally is so excited she sends detailed, handwritten instructions to her three bridge partners (Aunt Sally is still in the technological dark ages—no photocopier or email). They, in turn, make copies for ten of their own friends.
All goes well until one day Aunt Sally’s schnauzer eats the original script. In a panic she contacts her friends who have mysteriously suffered similar mishaps. The alarm goes out to the others who received copies from her card-playing trio in an attempt to recover the original wording.
Sally rounds up all the surviving handwritten copies, 26 in all. When she spreads them out on the kitchen table, she immediately notices differences. Twenty-three of the copies are virtually the same save for misspelled words and abbreviations littering the text. Of the remaining three, however, one lists ingredients in a different order, another has two phrases inverted (“mix then chop” instead of “chop then mix”), and one includes an ingredient not mentioned in any other list.
Do you think Aunt Sally can accurately reconstruct her original recipe from this evidence? Of course she can. The misspellings and abbreviations are inconsequential, as is the order of ingredients in the list (those variations all mean the same thing). The single inverted phrase stands out and can easily be repaired because one can’t mix something that hasn’t been chopped. Sally would then strike the extra ingredient reasoning it’s more plausible one person would mistakenly add an item than 25 people would accidentally omit it.
Even if the variations were more numerous and diverse, the original could still be reconstructed with a high level of confidence with enough copies and a little common sense.
This, in simplified form (very simplified, but you get the point), is how scholars do “textual criticism,” an academic enterprise used to reconstitute all documents of antiquity, not just religious texts. It is not a haphazard effort based on guesses and religious faith. It is a careful analytical process allowing an alert critic to determine the extent of possible corruption of any work and, given certain conditions, reconstruct the original with a high degree of certainty.
This last point raises the key question of this entire discussion: Regardless of the raw number of variants, can we recover the original reading with confidence? The answer to that pivotal question depends on three factors. First, how many copies exist? Second, how old are the manuscripts? Third, what is the exact nature of the differences (the variants)?
How Many And How Old?
If the number of manuscripts available for comparison are few and the time gap between the original and the oldest copy is wide, then the autograph is harder to reconstruct. However, if there are many copies and the oldest ones are closer in time to the original, the scholar can be more certain she has pinpointed the exact wording of the initial text, for all practical purposes.8
To get an idea of the significance of the New Testament manuscript evidence, note for a moment the record for non-biblical texts. These are secular writings historians rely on for all their data from antiquity that have been restored with a high level of confidence based on available textual evidence.9
Josephus’ first century document The Jewish War survives in only nine complete manuscripts dating from the 5th century—four centuries after they were written.10 Tacitus’ Annals of Imperial Rome is one of the chief historical sources for the Roman world of New Testament times, yet, surprisingly, it survives in only two manuscripts dating from the Middle Ages.11 Thucydides’ History survives in eight copies. There are ten copies of Caesar’s Gallic Wars, eight copies of Herodotus’ History, and seven copies of Plato, all dated over a millennium from the original. Homer’s Iliad has the most impressive manuscript evidence for any secular work with 647 existing copies.12
Note that for most ancient documents only a handful of manuscripts exist, some facing a time gap of 800-1500 years or more. Yet scholars are confident they have reconstructed the originals with a high degree of accuracy. In fact, virtually all of our knowledge of ancient history depends on documents like these.
The Biblical Manuscript Evidence
The manuscript evidence for the New Testament is stunning by comparison. A recent count shows 5,500 separate Greek manuscripts.13 These are represented by early fragments, uncial codices (manuscripts in capital Greek letters bound together in book form), and minuscules (small Greek letters in cursive style).
Among the 2,795 minuscule fragments dating from the 9th to the 15th centuries are 34 complete New Testaments.14 Uncial manuscripts providing virtually complete New Testaments date back to the 4th century and earlier. Codex Vaticanus is likely the oldest, dated c. 325-350.15 The magnificent Codex Sinaiticus, dated c. 34016, contains half the Old Testament and virtually all of the New. Codex Alexandrinus contains the whole Old Testament and a nearly complete New Testament and dates from the mid-5th century.17
The most fascinating evidence comes from the fragments. The Chester Beatty Papyri contains most of the New Testament and is dated mid-third century.18 The Bodmer Papyri II collection, whose discovery was announced in 1956, includes most of the first fourteen chapters of the Gospel of John and much of the last seven chapters. It dates from A.D. 200 or earlier.19
The most amazing find of all, however, is a small portion of John 18:31-33, discovered in Egypt. Known as the John Rylands Papyri and barely three inches square, it represents the earliest known copy of any part of the New Testament. The papyri is dated at A.D. 117-138 (though it may even be earlier),20 showing that the Gospel of John was circulated as far away as Egypt within 40 years of its composition.
Keep in mind that most papyri are fragmentary. Only about 50 manuscripts contain the entire New Testament. Even so, the textual evidence is exceedingly rich, especially when compared to other works of antiquity.
Two other cross-checks on the accuracy of the manuscripts remain: ancient versions (translations) and citations by early church Fathers known as “patristic quotations.”
Early in the history of the Church, the Scriptures were translated into Latin (10,000 copies exist21). By the 3rd and 4th centuries the New Testament had been translated and reproduced in Coptic and Syriac, and soon after in Armenian, and Georgian, among others. 22 These texts helped missionaries reach new cultures in their own language as the Gospel spread and the church grew. Translations help modern-day scholars answer questions about the underlying Greek manuscripts.
In addition, there are ancient extra-biblical sources—catechisms, lectionaries, and quotes from the church fathers—that cite Scripture at great length. Indeed, the patristic quotations themselves include virtually every verse in the New Testament.23
I want you to notice something here. The chief concern Bart Ehrman raises regarding the biblical texts—the massive number of variants—can only arise with a massive number of manuscripts. Scholars universally consider this a virtue, not a vice—good news, not bad—because the condition causing the problem is the very condition providing the solution. The more manuscripts available for comparison, the more changes that will likely appear, but also the more raw material to use for comparison to fix the problem the variants pose.
This mountain of manuscripts gives us every reason to believe the originals have been preserved in the aggregate. No missing parts need be replaced. We have 110% of the text, not 90%.24 The real question is this: Do we know how to separate the wheat from the chaff to recover the original reading? That depends entirely on our last question: What is the nature of the variants themselves?
Those Pesky Variants
According to manuscript expert Daniel Wallace, “A textual variant is simply any difference from a standard text (e.g., a printed text, a particular manuscript, etc.) that involves spelling, word order, omission, addition, substitution, or a total rewrite of the text.25 Note that any difference, no matter how slight, is added to the total count.
What exactly are those differences? They can be divided into two categories: significant variants and insignificant ones. An insignificant variant has absolutely no bearing on our ability to reconstruct the original text. The meaning remains the same, regardless of which reading is the original.
For example, well over half the variants (yes, more than 200,000) are spelling errors,26 due either to accident (the ie/ei mistake is as common in Scripture as it is in our own writing), or different choices of phonetic spelling (kreinai vs. krinai). A host of others are immaterial differences in abbreviation or style (a definite article appearing before a name—“the James”—omitted in another because it adds nothing to the meaning).27
Clearly, some insignificant variations are theologically important. The rendering in the KJV of 1 John 5 (the Comma Johanneum) appearing to echo the Trinity is about a significant doctrinal issue, but clearly this variant is not in the original so it creates no textual concern. It appears in only a four manuscripts, the earliest dating from the 10th century (four others have it penciled into the margin by a scribe),28 and is almost universally acknowledged to be a corruption. Further, the doctrine of the Trinity does not rely on this text, but is verified by many other passages not in question.
A similar problem occurs with thousands of other variants that appear in only one manuscript (“singular readings”). These obvious mistakes are easily corrected.
Here’s how Wallace29 sums up the variations:
- Spelling differences or nonsense readings (e.g., a skipped line)
- Inconsequential word order (“Christ Jesus” vs. “Jesus Christ”) and synonyms
- Meaningful, though non-viable variants (e.g., the Comma Johanneum)
- Variants that are both meaningful and viable
Wallace’s last category constitutes “much less than” 1% of all variations.30 In other words, more than 396,000 of the variants have no bearing on our ability to reconstruct the original. Even with the textually viable differences that remain, the vast majority are so theologically insignificant they are “relatively boring.”31 These facts Ehrman himself freely admits:
Most of the changes found in our early Christian manuscripts have nothing to do with theology or ideology. Far and away the most changes are the result of mistakes, pure and simple—slips of the pen, accidental omissions, inadvertent additions, misspelled words, blunders of one sort of another.32
Wallace’s fourth category—those variants both meaningful and viable (in a textual sense)—is the only one of any consequence. “We are talking here,” write Kostenberger and Kruger, “about a situation where there are two (or more) possible readings, and the evidence for each reading…is relatively equal.”33
Here the analytical skills of the professional textual critic are applied to weed out the most unlikely variants. She has at her disposal a specific set of rules—the accepted canons of textual analysis—that enable her to resolve the vast majority of conflicts to recover the original with a high degree of confidence.
Ironically, this is precisely the point Ehrman unwittingly demonstrates as he closes out his case against the New Testament documents.
Ehrman’s “Top Ten”
On the final page of the paperback edition of Misquoting Jesus, Ehrman lists the “Top Ten Verses That Were Not Originally in the New Testament.” It serves as his parting salvo, but in reality proves his entire thesis false.
First, I immediately recognized six of the ten citations, and in every case my own Bible translation (NASB) makes a marginal note that these verses are not in the earliest manuscripts. No surprises here.
Second, one third of Ehrman’s “Top Ten” list actually is in the New Testament, after all. Luke 22:20, 24:12, and 24:51b are, in fact, questionable in Luke. They do appear, however, almost word for word in uncontested passages (respectively, Matthew 26:28 and Mark 14:24; John 20:3-7; Acts 1:9, 11).
Third, nothing of theological consequence is lost by striking any of the variants Ehrman lists, even the long ending in Mark (16:9-20) or the engaging but likely non-canonical account of Jesus and the woman caught in adultery (John 7:53-8:11).
Finally (and most damaging), Ehrman’s list proves just the opposite of what he intends. For all his hand wringing that the original text is lost forever, his list itself demonstrates it’s possible to recognize the most important spurious renderings and eliminate them.
Ehrman’s own works (Misquoting and also The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture) prove that the text-critical methods mentioned above—the very methods he uses to critique the New Testament—are adequate to restore the original reading. It is proof that the massive number of variants do not interfere with our ability to recapture the original, but instead the rich manuscript evidence we possess allows us to weed out the vast percentage of variants. Otherwise Ehrman would not be able to say with confidence his “Top Ten”—or any other verses—are not in the New Testament.
This is a fact he acknowledges (again, ironically) in another work. Compare the pessimism of Misquoting Jesus with the optimism expressed in Metzger and Ehrman’s The Text of the New Testament:34
Besides textual evidence derived from New Testament Greek manuscripts and from early versions, the textual critic compares numerous scriptural quotations used in commentaries, sermons, and other treatises written by early church fathers. Indeed, so extensive are these citations that if all other sources for our knowledge of the text of the New Testament were destroyed, they would be sufficient alone for the reconstruction of practically the entire New Testament. [emphasis added]
Bart Ehrman has two books with his name on them that give the exact opposite impression.35 And both were published the same year (2005).
What can we conclude from the evidence? Virtually all of the 400,000 differences in the New Testament documents—spelling errors, inverted words, non-viable variants and the like—are completely inconsequential to the task of reconstructing the original. Of the remaining differences, virtually all yield to a vigorous application of the accepted canons of textual criticism.
This means that our New Testament is over 99% pure. In the entire text of 20,000 lines, only 40 lines are in doubt (about 400 words),36 and none affects any significant doctrine.
Scholar D.A. Carson sums it up this way: “What is at stake is a purity of text of such a substantial nature that nothing we believe to be doctrinally true, and nothing we are commanded to do, is in any way jeopardized by the variants.”37
Our chief question has been, “Can we reproduce the original New Testament to a high degree of certainty?” Even Bart Ehrman, in spite of himself, demonstrates we can.
1 Bart Ehrman, Misquoting Jesus—The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, first paperback edition (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2007), 7, 90.
2 Daniel Wallace, “The Number of Textual Variants: An Evangelical Miscalculation,” bible.org (http://bible.org/article/number-textual-variants-evangelical-miscalculation).
3 Ehrman, 10.
4 Bruce Metzger passed away in 2007.
5 Both quotes can be found on the back cover of Misquoting Jesus.
6 Ehrman, 7, 257.
7 When a large number of manuscripts exhibit the same “signature” pattern of variations, they are referred to as a text family or a “text type,” e.g., the Alexandrian Text, the Western Text, or the Majority Text (aka the Byzantine Text, the underlying manuscript family of the KJV).
8 Kostenberger and Kruger, The Heresy of Orthodoxy (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2010), 205. Sufficient certainty is the goal, not absolute certainty.
9 Very minor differences in number appear in various catalogs of these documents, but these are accurate enough to make our point.
10 Paul Barnett, Is the New Testament History? (Ann Arbor: Vine Books, 1986), 45.
11 Geisler and Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986), 405.
12 Bruce Metzger, The Text of the New Testament (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), 34.
13 Kostenberger and Kruger, 207. The number of manuscripts is continually increasing as more are discovered.
14 Geisler & Nix, 402.
15 Ibid., 391.
16 Ibid., 392.
17 Ibid., 394.
18 Ibid., 389-390.
19 Metzger, 39-40.
20 Geisler and Nix, 388.
21 Kostenberger and Kruger, 208.
22 Barnett, 44.
23 Metzger, 86.
24 Daniel Wallace, “The Majority Text and the Original Text: Are They Identical?,” Bibliotheca Sacra, April-June, 1991, 169.
25 Daniel Wallace, “The Number of Textual Variants: An Evangelical Miscalculation.”
26 Daniel Wallace, “Is What We Have Now What They Wrote Then?,” http://bible.org/article/what-we-have-now-what-they-wrote-then.
27 Kostenberger and Kruger, 215-217.
28 Ibid., 219.
29 Daniel Wallace, “Is What We Have Now What They Wrote Then?”
30 Ibid.
31 Kostenberger and Kruger, 226.
32 Ehrman, 55.
33 Kostenberger and Kruger, 225.
34 Metzger and Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, 4th Edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 126.
35 To be fair, this portion was undoubtedly authored by Metzger. Nonetheless, the ironic conflict remains.
36Geisler and Nix, 475.
37Carson, D.A., The King James Version Debate (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979), 56.
Related Topics: Apologetics, Bibliology (The Written Word), Canon, Cultural Issues
Jesus, The Recycled Redeemer
Article contributed by Stand To Reason
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There is a reason the ancient historical accounts of the life of Jesus of Nazareth do not start with the phrase, “Once upon a time….” On the face of it, the authors did not appear to be writing fairytales for future generations, but rather detailed accounts of the extraordinary events in the life of a particular Jewish carpenter who actually changed the course of history.
The opening words of Luke’s account of Jesus’ life are especially clear on this point:
Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, it seemed fitting for me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the exact truth about the things you have been taught.
In the days of Herod, king of Judea….
In John’s account we find two striking claims that bookend his record, the first found in Chapter 1 and the last in Chapter 20:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God….And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us, and we saw His glory, glory as of the only begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth.
Many other [miraculous] signs Jesus also performed in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book, but these have been written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name.
Each of these ancient “biographies” of Jesus—along with the only other accounts that give any breadth of detail about the Nazarene (Matthew and Mark)—proceed in the same fashion.
First, the authors are clearly aware they are relating a remarkable story about a remarkable man who did remarkable things. Second, it is just as clear they were convinced the events in their accounts really happened. These were not sacred stories of netherworld gods and ethereal, supernatural heroes, but reports of actual historical events involving flesh and blood people with their feet firmly planted on terra firma.
The Gospel writers intended to report history, not mythology. Their accounts include the vivid detail of an observer who had witnessed the events personally, or a chronicler who had obtained the information from people who were actually there. Yet they are not merely reports, but arguments meant to persuade, citing evidence to prove their claims.
These facts on their own don’t make the accounts true, of course. But they do seem to place these writings in a class of ancient literature that doesn’t allow them to be dismissed for frivolous reasons. Yet this is exactly what has been happening.
“Once Upon A Time…”
The internet is littered with allegations that the historical records of the life of Jesus of Nazareth are examples of a kind of religious plagiarism, a mere rehashing of dying-and-rising-god fictions of ancient mythology, a recycling of common details found in dozens of mystery religions in the ancient world around the time of Christ.
Simply Google Mithras, Dionysus, Osiris, Adonis, or Isis and you will be buried in an avalanche of “evidence” linking the divine teacher from Galilee with a host of characters allegedly manufactured from the same mythic material. The most well-known attempt is a flashy “documentary” called Zeitgeist—The Greatest Story Ever Sold that has gone viral on the web.
According to “Zeitgeist,” ancient hieroglyphics tell us this about the anthropomorphized Egyptian sun God, Horus:
Horus was born on December 25th of the virgin Isis, Mary. His birth was accompanied by a star in the east which, in turn, three kings followed to locate and adore the new-born savior. At the age of 12 he was a prodigal child teacher. At the age of 30 was baptized by a figure known as Adep, and thus began his ministry. Horus had 12 disciples who he traveled about with performing miracles such as healing the sick and walking on water. Horus was known by many gestural names such as “The Truth,” “The Light,” “God’s Anointed Son,” “The Good Shepherd,” “The Lamb of God,” and many others. After being betrayed by Typhon, Horus was crucified, buried for three days, and thus resurrected.
“Many other gods,” “Zeitgeist” claims, “are found to have the same mythological structure”:
Attis (1200 B.C.)—Born of a virgin on December 25th, was crucified, was dead for three days and resurrected
Krishna (900 B.C.)—Born of a virgin with a star in the east to signal his birth, performed miracles, died, and was resurrected
Dionysus (500 B.C.)—Born of a virgin on December 25, performed miracles like turning water into wine, was referred to as “the King of Kings” and “god’s only begotten son,” died, and was resurrected
Mithras (1200 B.C.)—Born of a virgin on December 25, had 12 disciples, performed miracles, was dead for three days and resurrected, was known as “the Truth” and “The Life,” and was worshipped on Sunday
Osiris, the husband of Isis in the Egyptian pantheon, is another popular contender for a dying and resurrected god. The broad claim, simply put in the words of Sir Leigh Teabing in Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code, is, “Nothing in Christianity is original.”
This is a taxing topic because of the sheer volume of alleged comparisons advanced by skeptics. The process is complicated by the many variations of these ancients myths generated in their retelling.
Books like Ronald Nash’s scholarly The Gospel and the Greeks or Lee Strobel’s popular work The Case for the Real Jesus spend time answering the particulars. In the interest of space, I want to advance a general response to this broad challenge to the reliability of the canonical accounts of Jesus’ life.
In general, the dispute entails a factual claim—certain mythical accounts that predate the Gospels contain elements matching the details of Jesus’ life—and a logical/literary claim—the existence of the older accounts proves that the account of Jesus is myth as well, being cobbled together with bits and pieces of these old stories.
There are at least three significant problems with this argument that should be enough to silence it forever. The first two speak to the factual claims. The last—and most decisive—addresses the logical assertion.
Failed “Facts”
First, the fact is that the “facts” listed above are almost all false, nearly to the point of embarrassment. Here are a few examples:
There is no record Osiris rose bodily from the dead. Instead, he became a god of the netherworld. As one put it, Osiris is not a dying god, but a dead god, always depicted as a deceased, mummified king. He may be “alive” in the spirit realm, but this would be true of anyone passing into the next life who’s physical body lies decaying in a tomb. Indeed, Egyptian religion had no concept of resurrection, only of immortality beyond the grave. These are two entirely different concepts.1
Horus was not born of a virgin, but was the son of Osiris and Isis (not Mary). Horus never dies, so he could have no resurrection, though in his union with Rah, the sun God, one could say he “dies” every night and is “resurrected” every morning. Clearly, though, this is no help to the copycat messiah crowd.
Neither the Bible nor Christianity claim Jesus was born on December 25th, so any parallels with ancient myths are completely inconsequential. The date was chosen by emperor Aurelian in the third century.
Mithras was not born of a virgin, but emerged from a rock, and there is no textual evidence of his death, so there could be no resurrection.2 Mithras was a god, not a teacher, so he had no disciples.3
There is no evidence of an account of a bodily resurrection of Attis, the Phrygian god of vegetation.4
There is no evidence for a virgin birth of Dionysus.5
Krishna was his mother’s eighth son, so his virgin birth is unlikely. 6
The dating of many of the dying-and-resurrecting-god myths is the second obstacle. Here’s the problem. It is axiomatic that the recycled version must appear in history after the one it allegedly came from, not before. However, many mythical accounts of dying and rising gods actually postdate the time of Christ:
There is no evidence of the influence of Mithraism in the Roman Empire until the end of the first century A.D.7
The sacrifice of a bull by some Mithraists allegedly mimicking the substitutionary atonement of Christ first shows up in the second century A.D. 8
The four texts that cite the resurrection of Adonis date from the second to fourth centuries A.D.9
The account of the miraculous birth of Zoroaster dates to the ninth century A.D.10
The most academically exhaustive work, a ponderous study entitled The Riddle of Resurrection by Tryggve Mettinger, concludes that even though some myths of dying and rising gods may predate the Christian era, the claims made regarding Jesus of Nazareth are distinct from them in three critical ways.
First, Jesus was a flesh and blood human whose resurrection happened in history at a precise topographical location on earth. Second, the mythical “resurrected” deities were invariably tied to the seasons of the agricultural cycle, “dying” and “rising” repeatedly every calendar year, while Jesus’ resurrection was a one-time event unrelated to seasonal changes. Third, Jesus died as a vicarious sacrifice for sins. There is no evidence of such an atonement in any other accounts.11
Mettinger sums up the evidence this way:
There is, as far as I am aware, no prima facie evidence that the death and resurrection of Jesus is a mythological construct, drawing on the myths and rites of the dying and rising gods of the surrounding world. While studied with profit against the background of Jewish resurrection belief, the faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus retains its unique character in the history of religions.12
A Skunk In The Woodpile
In his work, The Gospel and the Greeks, Ronald Nash offers a handful of suggestions to protect the novice from being misled by dubious factual claims.13
Check the evidence in the primary sources. Don’t settle for a website citing a website that cites a website. Web postings often run in a circle, with each site quoting others without ever citing a primary source document (an original rendering of the ancient myth itself). Try to get as close to the original source as you can to reduce the chance that “facts” got distorted in the retelling. Make sure your evidence comes from an established authority in the field who has access to the original material.
Check the dates. Be sure the original records (not the original myth) predate the accounts that allegedly borrowed from them. Even ancient tales get amended over time.
Determine if the parallels are really parallel and significant. Similarities are frequently overstated or oversimplified. Many are inconsequential, like the claim ancient gods were born on December 25th. Some accounts trade on the kinship of phrases like “birth of the sun” vs. “birth of the son.” This word play only works, though, when rendered in English, a language that developed millennia after these events.
Beware of Christian language and terms being read back into the ancient account. Some refer to the death of Osiris as his “passion,” employing Christian terminology to imply a similarity that doesn’t exist. Any death can be called a passion, even when the passions themselves are wildly dissimilar. Also, no one should be impressed when Egyptian sun gods are called “The Light.”
As it turns out regarding the factual claims, once the primary sources of the ancient myths are consulted, a host of alleged similarities turn out to be fictions. The parallels remaining are usually far too general to be significant. Further, the dating of many of the ancient records completely undermines the argument because the stories appear too late in history to have any influence on the Gospels.
But that’s not the worst of it. Even if the characterizations of the myths were accurate—that Mithras was born of a virgin, and Osiris was resurrected from the dead, and Horus had a dozen disciples, and Dionysus turned water into wine, and Attis was crucified—there is something else fundamentally wrong with the Zeitgeist challenge. Even if the facts were accurate, it proves nothing. Here’s why.
A Titanic Coincidence
In 1898, Morgan Robertson published a novel entitled Futility. The story was a fictional account of a transatlantic voyage of the cruise ship Titan traveling between England and New York. The largest vessel afloat displacing 45,000 tons, the Titan was considered virtually unsinkable. Yet in the middle of the night in April, with three massive propellers driving the ship forward at the excessive speed of 25 knots, it collided with an iceberg and sunk. Since the number of lifeboats was the minimum the law required (though twice that was needed for its 3,000 capacity), more than half of its passengers perished.
Fourteen years later in April, the world’s largest luxury liner with a displacement of 45,000 tons—the indestructible Titanic—departed from England on a transatlantic voyage to New York. In the middle of the night, the Titanic’s triple screws drove the ship at the excessive speed of nearly 25 knots into an iceberg and sunk. Since the Titanic was fitted with less than half the number of lifeboats needed for its 3,000 capacity (the minimum the law required), more than half of its passengers were lost.
This real-life coincidence makes a crucial point. Regardless of the similarity between two accounts of different events, the second cannot be summarily dismissed as an invention simply because the first turns out to be fiction. Whether or not the details of the Titanic’s disaster are accurate is determined by its own body of evidence, unrelated to the fictional story of the ill-fated Titan that came before.
This is a critical procedural point, one best described by C.S. Lewis:
Suppose I think, after doing my accounts, that I have a large balance at the bank. And suppose you want to find out whether this belief of mine is “wishful thinking.”…Your only chance of finding out is to sit down and work through the sum yourself....If you find my arithmetic wrong, then it may be relevant to explain…how I came to be so bad at arithmetic...but only after you have yourself done the sum and discovered me to be wrong on purely mathematical grounds....In other words, you must show that a man is wrong before you start explaining why he is wrong.14 [emphasis in the original]
Lewis’s insight applies to our challenge. Remember the claim in question: Ancient myths explain the origin of the Jesus myth. The second false account was inspired by the first ones. Do you see the misstep? The New Testament account is presumed false; then the ancient accounts are invoked to explain the fiction. The argument of Zeitgeist turns out to be circular, assuming what it intends to prove.
Imagine introducing yourself to a stranger and sharing bits of autobiography only to be labeled a liar and an imposter. His evidence? In the past three months, 12 other phonies tried to pawn off the same story on him. When you offer identification, he ignores it. He’s already assumed you’re a fraud like the rest, no matter what bona fides you produce.
In addition to being offended, you’d probably be mystified. Clearly, he can’t prove you are lying about your identity by citing others who lied about theirs. No imposter of the past could logically foreclose on the possibility that you might be the genuine article. That must be decided on separate grounds. To paraphrase Lewis, one has to show that a person is lying before it makes any sense to speculate on where the lie came from.
In the same way, one first has to show that Jesus is a fiction before he starts explaining how the fiction came to be. Even if someone produced a thousand parallels with Jesus from the writings of antiquity, that alone would not prove He was just another phony. If the similarities were remarkable, it might raise eyebrows (“Not another one”) and invite a closer look. But it would do nothing on its own to disqualify Christ. Only shortcomings with the specific historical evidence for Jesus can do that.
The Zeitgeist approach is an evasion, not an argument. It is not good enough to assume Jesus is a myth and then speculate on the genesis of the error. The primary source historical documents about Him—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—must be dealt with first, not dismissed with misleading talk about alleged literary relationships with ancient dying and resurrecting gods.
Jesus, Man Of History
Professional historians do not believe the New Testament account is merely a retelling of an ancient myth. Though not endorsing every detail of the Gospel records (most academics reject the supernatural elements for philosophic reasons), scholars both liberal and conservative overwhelming agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a man of history.
Will Durant, the Pulitzer Prize winning historian, co-authored with his wife the most successful work of history in history, the 11 volume The Story of Civilization. In “Caesar and Christ,” in spite of the “many suspicious resemblances to the legends of pagan gods,” Durant concludes:
Despite the prejudices and theological preconceptions of the evangelists, they record many incidents that many inventors would have concealed. No one reading these scenes can doubt the reality of the figure behind them. That a few simple men should in one generation have invented so powerful and appealing a personality, so lofty an ethic, and so inspiring a vision of human brotherhood, would be a miracle far more incredible than any recorded in the Gospels. After two centuries of higher criticism, the outlines of the life, character and teachings of Christ remain reasonably clear and constitute the most fascinating feature in the history of Western man.15
The challenge in Zeitgeist is why we should consider the stories of Mithras, Horus, Attis, and the other pagan mystery saviors as fables, yet treat as factual a similar story told of a Jewish carpenter.
The answer is simple: There is no good evidence for the authenticity of any ancient mythological characters and their deeds, but there is an abundance of such evidence for Jesus. And if the historical documentation for the man from Nazareth is compelling, then it doesn’t matter how many ancient myths share similarities.
The Apostle Paul readily acknowledged that if Jesus’ resurrection was a myth and the witnesses were trading in lies, then Christians were a pitiful lot (1 Corinthians 15:19). And fools too, I might add, because it cost many of them their lives.
Nothing in the Zeitgeist recycled redeemer theory, however, suggests Christians have misplaced their confidence. The skeptics’ facts are unreliable and their thinking is unsound, so their challenge is doubly dead.
According to their own testimony, the New Testament writers were not following “cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of His majesty” (2 Peter 1:16). They were testifying not to myths, but to “sober truth” about events that had “not been done in a corner” (Acts 26:25-26):
What we have heard, what we have seen with our eyes, what we have looked at and touched with our hands, concerning the Word of Life—and the life was manifested, and we have seen and testify and proclaim to you the eternal life, which was with the Father and was manifested to us—what we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also (1 John 1:1-3).
1 Lee Strobel, The Case for the Real Jesus (Grand Rapids, Zondervan: 2007), 163, 177-8.
2 Ronald Nash, The Gospel and the Greeks—Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought?, 2nd ed. (Phillipsburg, N.J.: P&R Publishing, 2003), 134, 137.
3 Strobel, 172.
4 Nash, 129.
5 Strobel, 180.
6 Ibid., 182.
7 Nash, 138.
8 Strobel, 172.
9 Ibid., 177.
10 Ibid., 182.
11 Tryggve Mettinger, The Riddle of Resurrection—“Dying and Rising Gods” in the Ancient Near East (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International: 2001), 221.
12 Ibid.
13 Nash, 249-51.
14 C.S. Lewis, God in the Dock (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), 272-3.
15 Will Durant, Caesar and Christ, vol. 3 of The Story of Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972), 557.
Related Topics: Apologetics, Christology, Cults/Magic, Cultural Issues, History, World Religions
Paul, Romans and Homosexuality
Article contributed by Stand To Reason
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The first chapter of Paul’s letter to the Romans contains what most readers consider the Bible’s clearest condemnation of same-sex relations. Recent scholarship reads the same text and finds just the opposite. Who is right?
To most readers, the first chapter of Paul’s letter to the Romans contains the Bible’s clearest condemnation of same-sex relations--both male and female. Recent scholarship, though, reads the same text and finds just the opposite--that homosexuality is innate and therefore normal, moral, and biblical.
Reconstructing Romans
In Romans, Paul seems to use homosexuality as indicative of man’s deep seated rebellion against God and God’s proper condemnation of man. New interpretations cast a different light on the passage.
Paul, the religious Jew, is looking across the Mediterranean at life in the capital of Graeco-Roman culture. Homosexuality in itself is not the focus of condemnation. Rather, Paul’s opprobrium falls upon paganism’s refusal to acknowledge the true God.
It’s also possible Paul did not understand the physiological basis of genuine homosexuality. John Boswell, professor of history at Yale, is among those who differ with the classical interpretation. In Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality he writes:
The persons Paul condemns are manifestly not homosexual: what he derogates are homosexual acts committed by apparently heterosexual persons....It is not clear that Paul distinguished in his thoughts or writings between gay persons (in the sense of permanent sexual preference) and heterosexuals who simply engaged in periodic homosexual behavior. It is in fact unlikely that many Jews of his day recognized such a distinction, but it is quite apparent that--whether or not he was aware of their existence--Paul did not discuss gay persons but only homosexual acts committed by heterosexual persons.1 [emphasis in the original]
Paul is speaking to those who violate their natural sexual orientation, Boswell contends, those who go against their own natural desire: “‘Nature’ in Romans 1:26, then, should be understood as the personal nature of the pagans in question.”2 [emphasis in the original]
Since a homosexual’s natural desire is for the same sex, this verse doesn’t apply to him. He has not chosen to set aside heterosexuality for homosexuality; the orientation he was born with is homosexual. Demanding that he forsake his “sin” and become heterosexual is actually the kind of violation of one’s nature Paul condemns here.
Romans 1:18-27
Both views can’t be correct. Only a close look at the text itself will give us the answer. The details of this passage show why these new interpretations are impossible:3
For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who suppress the truth in unrighteousness, because that which is known about God is evident within them; for God made it evident to them.
For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse. For even though they knew God, they did not honor Him as God, or give thanks; but they became futile in their speculations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing to be wise, they became fools, and exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for an image in the form of corruptible man and of birds and four-footed animals and crawling creatures.
Therefore, God gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, that their bodies might be dishonored among them. For they exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.
For this reason God gave them over to degrading passions; for their women exchanged the natural function for that which is unnatural, and in the same way also the men abandoned the natural function of the woman and burned in their desire toward one another, men with men committing indecent acts and receiving in their own persons the due penalty of their error.
Let me start by making two observations. First, this is about God being mad: “For the wrath of God [orge] is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men....”
Second, there is a specific progression that leads to this “orgy” of anger. Men “suppress the truth in unrighteousness” (v. 18). They exchanged “the truth of God for a lie, and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator” (v. 25). Next, “God gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity...” (v. 24). They “exchanged the natural [sexual] function for that which is unnatural (v. 26). Therefore, the wrath of God rightly falls on them (v. 18); they are without excuse (v. 20).
This text is a crystal clear condemnation of homosexuality by the Apostle Paul in the middle of his most brilliant discourse on general revelation. Paul is not speaking to a localized aberration of pedophilia or temple prostitution that’s part of life in the capital of Graeco-Roman culture. He is talking about a universal condition of man.
Regarding the same-sex behavior itself, here are the specific words Paul uses: a lust of the heart, an impurity and dishonoring to the body (v. 24); a degrading passion that’s unnatural (v. 29); an indecent act and an error (v. 27); not proper and the product of a depraved mind (v. 28).
There’s only one way the clear sense of this passage can be missed: if someone is in total revolt against God. According to Paul, homosexual behavior is evidence of active, persistent rebellion against one’s Creator. Verse 32 shows it’s rooted in direct, willful, aggressive sedition against God--true of all so-called Christians who are defending their own homosexuality. God’s response is explicit: “They are without excuse” (v. 20).
Born Gay?
What if one’s “natural” desire is for the same sex, though. What if his homosexuality is part of his physical constitution? There are four different reasons this is a bad argument. The first three are compelling; the fourth is unassailable.
First, this rejoinder assumes there is such a thing as innate homosexuality. The scientific data is far from conclusive, though. Contrary to the hasty claims of the press, there is no definitive evidence that homosexuality is determined by physiological factors (see “Just Doing What Comes Naturally,” Clear Thinking, Spring, 1997).
There’s a second problem. If all who have a desire for the same sex do so “naturally,” then to whom does this verse apply? If everybody is only following their natural sexual desires, then which particular individuals fall under this ban, those who are not aroused by their own gender, but have sex anyway? Generally, for men at least, if there is no arousal, there is no sex. And if there is arousal, according to Boswell et al, then the passion must be natural.
Third, this interpretation introduces a whole new concept--constitutional homosexuality--that is entirely foreign to the text. Boswell himself admits that it was “in fact unlikely that many Jews of [Paul’s] day recognized such a distinction,” and that possibly even Paul himself was in the dark.
If Paul did not understand genuine homosexuality, though, then how can one say he excepted constitutional homosexuals when he wrote that they “exchanged the natural function for that which is unnatural”? This argument self-destructs.
Further, if Paul spoke only to those violating their personal sexual orientation, then wouldn’t he also warn that some men burned unnaturally towards women, and some women towards men? Wouldn’t Paul warn against both types of violation--heterosexuals committing indecent acts with members of the same sex, and homosexuals committing indecent acts with members of the opposite sex?
What in the text allows us to distinguish between constitutional homosexuals and others? Only one word: “natural.” A close look at this word and what it modifies, though, leads to the most devastating critique of all.
Natural Desire or Natural Function?
Paul was not unclear about what he meant by “natural.” Homosexuals do not abandon natural desires; they abandon natural functions: “For this reason God gave them over to degrading passions; for their women exchanged the natural function for that which is unnatural, and in the same way also the men abandoned the natural function of the woman and burned in their desire toward one another...” (1:26-27)
The Greek word kreesis, translated “function” in this text, is used only these two times in the New Testament, but is found frequently in other literature of the time. According to the standard Greek language reference A Greek/English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature,4 the word means “use, relations, function, especially of sexual intercourse.”
Paul is not talking about natural desires here, but natural functions. He is not talking about what one wants sexually, but how one is built to operate sexually. The body is built to function in a specific way. Men were not built to function sexually with men, but with women.
This conclusion becomes unmistakable when one notes what men abandon in verse 27, according to Paul. The modern argument depends on the text teaching that men abandoned their own natural desire for woman and burned toward one another. Men whose natural desire was for other men would then be exempted from Paul’s condemnation. Paul says nothing of the kind, though.
Paul says men forsake not their own natural desire (their constitutional make-up), but rather the “natural function of the woman..” They abandoned the female, who was built by God to be man’s sexual compliment.
The error has nothing to do with anything in the male’s own constitution that he’s denying. It is in the rejection of the proper sexual companion God has made for him--a woman: “The men abandoned the natural function of the woman and burned in their desire toward one another, men with men committing indecent acts....” (v. 27)
Natural desires go with natural functions. The passion that exchanges the natural function of sex between a man and a woman for the unnatural function of sex between a man and a man is what Paul calls a degrading passion.
Jesus clarified the natural, normal relationship: “Have you not read that He who created them from the beginning made them male and female and said ‘For this cause a man shall leave his father and mother and shall cleave to his wife and the two shall become one flesh [sexual intercourse].’?” (Matthew 19:4-5)
Homosexual desire is unnatural because it causes a man to abandon the natural sexual compliment God has ordained for him: a woman. That was Paul’s view. If it was Paul’s view recorded in the inspired text, then it is God’s view. And if it is God’s view, it should be ours if we call ourselves Christian.
1John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 109.
2Ibid., p. 111.
3Citations are from the New American Standard Bible, copyright 1977, The Lockman Foundation.
4Bauer, Arndt and Gingrich (University of Chicago Press).
Related Topics: Apologetics, Cultural Issues, Homosexuality, Lesbianism, Issues in Church Leadership/Ministry, Man (Anthropology), Worldview
How to Respond to Claims Jesus Is a “Copycat Savior”
Article contributed by Cold Case Christianity
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With the rise in popularity of movies like Zeitgeist: The Movie and The God Who Wasn’t There, skeptical objections to the historicity of Jesus sometimes take the form of comparisons between Jesus and ancient mythologies preceding Him. Skeptics highlight similarities between Jesus and Horus, Mithras, Osiris or other ancient examples of “dying and rising” saviors. How should we, as Christians, respond to such objections?
1. Expose the False Claims:
Close scrutiny of pre-Christian mythologies reveals they are less similar to the story of Jesus Christ than critics claim. The gods of mythology were not born of a virgin as Jesus was born to Mary, they did not live a life that was similar to Jesus in detail, they did not hold the titles attributed to Jesus, and they were not resurrected in a manner remotely similar to the resurrection of Christ. Primitive mythologies simply fail to resemble the Biblical account of Jesus when they are examined closely. Expose the false claims of those who say Jesus was copied from prior mythologies.
2. Expose the Errant Strategy:
Critics typically "cherry pick" from the mythological attributes of a variety of pagan gods and exaggerate the alleged similarities to construct a profile vaguely similar to Jesus. They search for singular similarities to the Christ of the Bible and then assemble these similarities from a variety of gods spanning the centuries and originating in geographically diverse regions (as if the 1st Century creators of the Jesus story would have access to these mythologies in the first place). Given this strategy, nearly any person from history can be said to be a recreation of preceding characters, either fictitious or historical. There is no single prior mythology significantly similar to Jesus. Expose the selective strategy of those who say Jesus was copied from prior mythologies.
3. Expose the Common Cultural Expectations:
Many alleged similarities are extremely general in nature and would be expected from any group of humans considering the existence of God. The primitive cultures who were interested in God's nature reasoned He would have the ability to perform miracles, teach humans and form disciples. These are universal expectations failing to invalidate the historicity of Jesus. As Paul recognized on Mars Hill (Acts 17:22-31), men thought deeply about the nature of God prior to His arrival as Jesus. Sometimes they imagined the details correctly, sometimes they didn't. Expose the common cultural expectations of ancient people groups to those who say Jesus was copied from prior mythologies.
4. Expose the Unlikely Approach Being Offered:
It is unreasonable to believe Christian conspirators would create a story designed to convince Jewish believers Jesus was God by inserting pagan mythological elements into the narrative. Judaism is a uniquely monotheistic religion, and the God of Judaism provides strict prohibitions against the worship of pagan gods. It is unreasonable to think the New Testament authors would utilize pagan mythology in an attempt to influence adherents of Judaism. Expose the unlikely nature of this claim by those who say Jesus was copied from prior mythologies.
5. Expose the Reliable Nature of the Gospel Eyewitness Accounts:
There are sufficient reasons to believe the history of Jesus is reliable, even if there are marginal similarities between Jesus and pagan mythologies. The evidence for the early dating of the Gospels, the corroboration of their claims (both internally and externally), the reliable transmission of their content, and the lack of bias on the part of their authors provides sufficient reason to believe they accurately describe the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. Prior mythologies were not written, nor were they intended to be considered, as true history; the Biblical account of Jesus is a reliable historical record. Expose the reliable nature of the Gospels to those who say Jesus was copied from prior mythologies.
Take the time to study the truth about alleged similarities between Jesus and ancient pre-Christian mythologies of “rising and dying” saviors. Claims of similarities are extremely exaggerated and based on the selective promotion of the common expectations of cultures contemplating the nature of God. The ancient Jewish audience of the Gospel authors would never have accepted such claims, and the reliable nature of the Gospels can be established beyond reasonable doubt.
Related Topics: Apologetics, Cultural Issues, World Religions, Worldview
An Introduction to the Book of Psalms
Related MediaI. AN INTRODUCTION TO WISDOM AND POETIC LITERATURE
A. The Place of Wisdom Literature in the Bible
1. Hebrew Wisdom Literature was part of a larger corpus of material with Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Canaanite-Phoenician influences1
2. The Bible contains several different types of literature:
a. Narrative (Genesis, 1 and 2 Samuel, Ruth, Jonah, Nehemiah, etc.)
b. Legal (Deuteronomy, Leviticus, etc.)
c. Historical (1 and 2 Chronicles, etc.)
d. Poetic (Psalms; Song of Songs etc.)
e. Prophetic (Isaiah, Jeremiah etc.)
f. Gospel (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John)
g. Epistles (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, 1 and 2 Peter, etc.)
h. Apocalyptic (Daniel, Zechariah, Revelation)
3. The different kinds of literature serve different didactic functions:
a. The effects of the fall of mankind were pervasive:2
1) The fall effected Mankind’s supernatural relationships (Gen. 3:8,14-15,19)
a) The fall effected conflict with God (Gen. 3:8)
b) The fall effected conflict with the enemy (Gen. 3:14-15,19)
2) The Fall effected mankind’s natural relationships (Gen. 3:16-19)
a) The fall effected conflict with children 3:16a
b) The fall effected conflict between men and women 3:16b
c) The fall effected conflict in work (Gen. 3:17-19)
b. The Scriptures are designed to address Mankind’s need of salvation in all realms of his life (with God, with one another, and with the tasks of life)3
1) Legal Literature is a declaration of god’s will designed to mold the moral, spiritual, and ethical direction of the nation
2) Historical Literature is a revelation (record) of the sovereign work of God in History
3) Prophetic Literature is a declaration of the will of God in History in judgment of the nation’s historical dealings and in promise of God’s future blessings
4) Wisdom/Poetic Literature is practical direction for obtaining substantial wholeness out of the brokenness of natural life:
a) Job addresses Mankind’s wrestling with affliction which defies human explanation
b) Psalms are an expression of Mankind’s heart toward God in the varied nature of life: fears, doubts, tragedies, triumphs, joys, hopes.4
c) Song of Solomon is the outworking of love in marriage
d) Ecclesiastes affirms that meaning for life is not in life, but in the One who gives life
e) Proverbs provides skill at living life from the parameters of the Law and natural order5
4. Biblical literature is designed to appeal to the whole person: his mind and his heart!
B. The Design of Wisdom Literature6
1. Wisdom literature is concerned with the application of truth (from creation and the Law) to daily life and choices
2. The application of truth was to give one skill at life7 or even good common sense8 (Job 32:7; Prov. 1:7)
3. Wisdom literature applies truth through generalizations:
a. The author makes applicational generalizations in a specific area
b. The author’s generalizations are rarely intended to have an unlimited scope
c. The task in interpreting wisdom literature is to recognize the specific scope of the author and thus applying the truth in that specific scope
d. The generalizations are stated in the form of maxims
1) Maxims are statements of truth which are always true, but whose scope is not intended to be an exhaustive or comprehensive statement of truth concerning a subject
2) Maxims state a truth from one perspective without intending to say all that there is to say about that subject
4. Examples of the application of truths through generalizations:9
a. Proverbs consists of pithy maxims to be applied properly to life10. The limits of the author’s scope of application can be discerned through collecting many proverbs on a given subject
b. Job is the application of maxims concerning the nature of evil and punitive suffering. The value of maxims is critiqued as a final guide in suffering. God becomes the only source of meaning in suffering as he brings good for his own out of evil for his own good purposes
c. Ecclesiastes is the search for the ultimate maxim to explain the nature of life. However, life is not found in the storehouse of wisdom, but is a gift from God given to be used in a responsible, yet rewarding fashion11
d. Song of Songs is more poetic literature rather than wisdom in that it celebrates the greatest gift of human life--love! Nevertheless, love is presented in a full expression as that which unifies two into one with purity and honor for each person
e. Psalms are also closer to poetry than to wisdom literature. Nevertheless, they express the one sided expression of the heart of man towards God12 as he expresses fear, sorrow, despair, hope, praise, and skill at life (wisdom psalms, 1, 27, 32, 34, 37, 49, 73, 112, 127--128, 133)
C. The Literary13 Character of Hebrew Poetry/Wisdom
1. Rhythm of Thought
The genius of Hebrew poetry is in the realm of thought rhyme” and the key to thought rhyme is in the technique of parallelism (the correspondence of one thought with another)14
a. Synonymous parallelism exactly balances the thoughts or meanings in two lines of poetry by saying the same thing twice in nearly the same way (Ps. 3:1; 7:16; 2:4)
b. Synthetic and Climatic parallelism further takes up and develops a through begun in the first line by adding a little more to enrich one’s thinking (Ps. 95:3; 1:1). Occasionally they expansion is expressed in a tiered structure in which each line repeats the first with the exception of the last term/phrase where a new one is added (Ps. 29:1)
c. Emblematic parallelism uses images to convey the poetic meaning. While one line conveys the main point in a direct fashion, the second line illuminates it by an image. There is a movement from point to picture (Ps. 23:1,2,4; 103:13; 113:5,6; 57:1)
d. Antithetical parallelism balances the thoughts or ideas within the line pairs by stating truth in the first line in an opposing or negative way by introducing a contrast (Ps. 1:6; 57:6)
e. Chiastic or Inverted parallelism contraposes or alternates the words or phrases in consecutive lines (Ps. 51:3; Isa. 11:13)
2. Rhythm of Sound (in Hebrew)
a. Acrostic Poems are written so that the initial letters of consecutive lines form an alphabet, word, or phrase (Ps. 9; 10; 25; 34; 37; 11; 112; 119; 145; Prov. 31:10-31; Lam. 1; 2; 3; 4; Nahum 1:2-20). This was a mnemonic tool (memory device) conveying ideas of order, progression, and completeness.
b. Alliteration is the consonance of sounds at the beginning of words or syllables (Ps. 122:6)
c. Assonance is correspondence of vowels sounds, often at the end of words in order to emphasize an idea, theme, or tone (Ps. 119:29)
d. Paronomasia is a word play through the repetition of words of similar sound, but not necessarily meaning in order to heighten the impact of the message (Gen. 32:22-24)
e. Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like what they describe (Ruth 1:19)
f. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words that would complete a given parallel construction (Ps. 115:4-7)
g. Inclusio is the repetition of words or phrases by which the poet returns to the point from which he began (Ps. 118:1,29)
3. Wisdom Speech Forms15
a. The Parable is a “warning speech” (Prov. 6:20-35; 2 Sam. 12:1-4)
b. The Precept is an authoritative instruction or regulation for behavior connecting wisdom with the moral codes of the Law (Prov. 3:27)
c. The Riddle is a puzzling question stated as a problem calling for mental acumen to solve it (Judg. 14:14)
d. The Fable is a brief tale embracing a moral truth using people, animals, or inanimate objects as characters (Judg. 9:7-20)
e. The Wise Saying is a generalization about the way of wisdom based on the insight of experience or a folk expression of plain common sense (Prov. 18:18)
f. The Numerical Proverb culminates numerical progression (Prov. 6:16-19; 30:18-31)
g. Rhetorical Questions (Prov. 5:16; 8:1), Allegory Through Personification (Prov. 8--9; Eccl. 12:1-8), Satire and Irony (Prov. 11:22; Eccl. 5:13-17)
D. The Canonical Order of the Wisdom and Poetic Books
1. The Hebrew Scriptures were probably originally canonized into a two-fold division: the Law and the Prophets16
2. By around the second century B.C.17 a three-fold division of the Hebrew Scriptures arose: The Law, The Prophets, and The Writings18
a. The three-fold division included the same books as the two-fold division
b. There are several possible reasons for a three-fold division:19
1) A distinction was made between books which were written by men who held the prophetic office, and men who only had the prophetic gift
2) Some at a later date may have felt that those books which were not written by “prophets” were not fully canonical
3) A more practical purpose was served by the topical and festal20 significance rather than by the two-fold categories
3. Within the category of the Sacred Writings, the books of Psalms, Proverbs and Job were regarded by the Jews as specifically poetical in nature, and were described by the mnemonic title “The Book of Truth”21
4. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (The Septuagint or LXX c. 280-150 B.C.) divided the Old Testament according to subject matter which is the basis of the modern four-fold classification of the: five books of Law, twelve books of History, five books of Poetry, and seventeen books of Prophecy22
II. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF PSALMS
A. The Canonical Order of the Book of Psalms
1. The Book of Psalms is subdivided into five smaller books:23
a. Book I: 1-41
b. Book II: 42-72
c. Book III: 73-89
d. Book IV: 90-106
e. Book V: 107-150
2. The Psalms may well be editorially24 grouped in accordance with the history of the nation Israel around the Davidic Covenant:25
a. INTRODUCTION: The righteous one26 1--2
b. BOOK I: David’s conflict with Saul27 3--41
c. BOOK II: David’s kingship28 42-72
d. BOOK III: The Assyrian crisis29 73--89
e. BOOK IV: Introspection about the destruction of the temple and the Exile30 90--106
f. BOOK V: Praise and Reflection on the Return and the new era31 107--145
g. CONCLUSION: climatic praise to God32 146--150
B. The Theological Principle of Psalms: The Lord, who sovereignly rules the universe, will establish His just rule on the earth in and through his people whereupon the righteous will prosper and the wicked will suffer33
1. Since the OT saint did not have a concrete sense of a “final” judgment in eternity, they often worked out this theology through the events of their earthly world34
2. At times it was difficult to resolve issues of God’s rule since the wicked seemed to prosper (Ps. 73).
3. Nevertheless, the wise person would be upright before God awaiting his blessing
4. Also imprecations were pronounced upon those who continued in rebellion against God’s theocracy35 with a desire that He might deal with them in this life (Pss. 10:15; 28:4; 58:6; 69:22-28; 109; 137:9; 139:19-21 et cetera).
5. Often YHWH is described in polemical terms so as to express his sovereign rule over all of Israel’s neighbor’s gods:
a. It is YHWH who “rides on the clouds” rather then the Canaanite Baal (Ps. 68:4)
b. It is YHWH who brings about a storm in Canaanite territory rather than the storm god Baal (Ps. 29)
c. This was not myth as in their neighboring religions, but a departure from myth through YHWH
C. The Forms36 of the Psalms37
1. Individual Laments38--a prayer for help out of distress (Pss. 51; 57; etc.)
a. Introductory Cry to God
1) Address
2) Cry for Help
b. Lament
1) Foes
2) I
3) Thou
c. Confession of Trust
d. Petition
1) Hear!
2) Save!
3) Punish!
4) Because...
e. Conclusion:
1) Vow of Praise or Expression of Praise39
2) Assurance, Trust/Praise “heard”
2. National Laments--usually shorter than the individual laments; the nation faced some difficulty so they approached God together with their lament (Ps. 44; 58; 60 etc.)
a. Introductory Cry to God
1) Address
2) Cry for Help
3) Report of “former saving deeds”
b. Lament
1) Foes
2) Me
3) Thou
c. Confession of Trust
d. Petition
1) Hear!
2) Save!
3) Punish!
4) Because...
e. Vow of Praise
3. Declaritive Praise (Thanksgiving) Psalms of the Individual--praise or thanksgiving is giving to God because of some kind of personal deliverance (Pss. 30; 32; 121; etc.; cf. also I Sam. 2:1-10; Jonah 2:1-9)
a. Proclamation of Intention to Praise God
b. Introductory Summary of Praise
c. Reflection on Past Distress (= Lament)
1) Foes
2) I
3) Thou
d. Report of Deliverance
1) I cried
2) He heard
3) He delivered
e. Renewed Vow of Praise
f. Conclusion
1) Praise (descriptive)
2) Instruction (etc.)
4. Descriptive Praise Psalms of the People (Hymns)--direct praise of God for his works among men (Pss. 24; 100; 113; etc.)
a. Call to Praise
b. Cause for Praise
1) Summary
2) Reason for praise
a) The greatness of God
b) The grace of God
c) Specific Illustrations
c. Call to Praise
D. Psalms Distinctive in Thought40:
1. Wisdom Psalms (Pss. 1; 37; 112; 127; etc.)
a. These are related in their motifs with wisdom literature in the Hebrew Scriptures (e.g., Proverbs)
b. The emphasize the theme of “Two Roads” through numerous sayings:
1) “Better” sayings (Ps. 119:72)
2) Numerical sayings (Ps. 62:11-12a)
3) Admonitions to “sons” (Ps. 34:11)
4) Blessing formulas (Ps. 1:1)
5) Emphasis upon the Law (Ps. 119)
c. They are also identified with “Torah Psalms” expounding the wisdom of following the Law.
2. Pilgrim Psalms (Pss. 120-134)
a. These all have the heading, “A song of ascents” which probably refer to Israel’s “going up” to Jerusalem for the three festivals (cf. 1 Sam. 1:3; Ps.122:4; Isa. 30:29; also Ex. 23:14-19; Lev. 23:4-44; Ps. 42:4 [Spring-Passover & Unleavened Bread, Summer--Weeks or Pentecost, Fall--Atonement & Tabernacles]41
b. Hill and Walton suggest that the canonical placement of these Psalms is to emphasize the return to Jerusalem after decades of exile42
3. Royal Psalms (Pss.2; 18; 21; 45; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144)43
a. These emphasize the anointed King after the line of David (Ps. 89; 132; cf. 2 Sam. 7)
b. Historically the texts refer to some high point in the monarch such as his coronation (Ps. 2), his wedding (Ps. 45) or his going into battle (Pss. 20; 144); his anticipated coming in conquest (110), and his glorious reign (Ps. 72)
c. Many of these Psalms speak through David (the ideal king, cf, 2 Ki. 25:27-30) of the coming Messiah in a typically Messianic44 or typico-prophetic Messianic45 manner.
4. Enthronement Psalms
a. These are songs of God’s Kingship characterized by the expression “The Lord Reigns” (Pss. 93; 96-97; 99), the Lord is “the great King” (Pss. 47; 95), or the Lord “comes to judge” (Ps. 98)
b. While these Psalms may have expressed aspects of God’s reign at different times, they have their fullest sense in the coming Messianic kingdom (cf. Isa. 52:7)
E. Headings of the Psalms:46
1. The Ascription of the Psalms as to Author
a. Their historical accuracy.
The current, popular, negative opinion concerning the historical reliability of the notations in the headings regarding authorship is reflected in the following comment by Barth: “Unfortunately, in the form in which the psalms have been handed down to us, they give no clue to the identity of their authors”47
More positively the following argument can be advanced in defense of the accuracy of these notations
1) The abundant evidence elsewhere in Scripture that David was a writer of sacred poetry48
2) The abundant internal evidence that Moses composed Psalm 9049
3) The well-established point of Hebrew grammar that lamed ( l) can indicate authorship50
4) The denial of the historical reliability of these notices is closely connected with the older, critical theory that most of the psalms were composed in the Maccabean period. New evidence, particularly from Ras Shamra has conclusively demonstrated the early date of many of these same psalms51
5) Undoubtedly they were considered as part of the Scriptures by Christ and His apostles
b. Classification of the psalms according to authorship:
1) Moses: Ps. 90
2) David: seventy-three psalms mostly in Books I and II
3) Asaph: Pss. 50, 73-83
4) Heman, the Ezrahite: Ps. 88
5) Ethan, the Ezrahite: Ps. 89
6) Solomon: Ps. 72,127
2. Technical names to designate the types of psalms
a. “Psalm” (Heb. mizmor): “a song accompanied by the plucking of the strings of an instrument.” Fifty-seven of the psalms are so labeled
b. “Song” (Heb. shir): “a song.” Twelve of the psalms are so labeled.
c. Maskil: “A contemplative poem.” Thirteen of the psalms are so labeled.52
d. Miktam: root meaning is disputed. Later Hebrew (LXX and Modern Hebrew understand the word to mean “inscription poem,” or “epigram,” “a poem containing pithy sayings, etc.” Term is found in six superscriptions
e. “Prayers” (Heb. tepillah): “Prayer.” Found in five psalms titles and Hab. 3.
f. “Praise” (Heb. Tehillah): “Praise” found in Ps. 145.
3. Musical Terms
a. “To the chief musician” (Heb. lam-menasseah): Disputed term. Most construe the term to mean “To the choir leader.” Found in 50 psalms.53
b. “Sons of Korah” (Pss. 42, 44-49, 84, 87-88): Disputed whether the term refers to authorship or to musical rendition. The evidence-- would involve dual authorship in Ps. 88, the use of the plural, the LXX confusion--suggests that the sons of Korah were the musical performers of these ten psalms54
c. “Jeduthun” (Pss. 39,62,77). Disputed term. Perhaps it refers to a guild of musicians who rendered the psalms
d. “Neginoth” (Pss. 4,6,54,55,67,76,61 [singular]): “with stringed instruments.”
e. “Alamoth” (Ps. 46): “Upon lyres tuned to the voice of maidens.”
f. “Sheminith” (Pss. 6,12). “with an eight stringed lute.”
g. “Nehilloth” (Ps. 5): Obscure term (“wind instrument”?)
h. “Gittith” (Pss. 8,81,84): Disputed term (“wine song”? or “instrument from Gath”?)
i. “Selah” (not in superscriptions). “Lift up”? Probably denotes places in the psalm where the worshipers were to lift up their voices
4. Melody Indicators:
a. “Shushan, ‘el shoshannim” (Pss. 45,60,69,89). “To the lily (lilies).”
b. “Mahalath” (Pss. 53,88). Very obscure. May also be a liturgical term.
c. “cal ayyelth hash-shahar” (Ps. 22): “to the hind of the morning”
d. “cal yonath /elem rehoqim (Ps. 56): “According to a silent dove of the distances”?
e. “cal tashheth (Pss. 57,58,59,75): “Do not Destroy.”
f. “cal mut labben (Ps. 9): disputed.
5. Liturgical Indicators:
a. “Sabbath” (Ps. 92): Psalm to be used on the Sabbath day
b. “Thanksgiving” (Heb. todah) (Ps. 100): Psalm to be used at the time of the offering up of the acknowledgment offering55
c. “To bring to remembrance” (Heb. “Lehazkir) (Pss. 38,70): A psalm intended to bring the lamenter to Yahweh’s remembrance
d. “Prayer of the afflicted when he pines away and pours forth his complaint before Yahweh” (Ps. 102)
e. A song of degrees” (Heb. shir ham-ma aloth) (Pss. 120-34): Disputed term. Lit. “a song of ascending.” Many today prefer to understand the term as “a song for the pilgrimages.”56
f. “For the dedication of the house” (Ps. 30):
g. Shiggaion (Ps. 7). Obscure
6. Historical notices in the life of David (Pss. 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142)57
F. Purposes of the Book of Psalms:
John Calvin describes the Psalter as, “‘An Anatomy of all the Parts of the Soul;’ for there is not an emotion of which any one can be conscious that is not here represented as in a mirror. Or rather, the Holy Spirit has here drawn to the life all the griefs, sorrows, fears, doubts, hopes, cares, perplexities, in short, all the distracting emotions with which the minds of men are wont to be agitated.”58
Another writes, “Like the windows and carvings of medieval cathedrals, the Psalms were pictures of biblical faith for a people who had no copies of the Scriptures in their homes and could not have read them.”59
1. To express the divine word spoken in rather than to man
2. To reveal the character of God through the praise, complaint and exhortation of God’s people so that the reader may be willing to submit himself to the Lord
3. To enable the reader to come into contact with God through the expression of the common, subjective daily experiences of others
4. To encourage one’s confidence in God’s faithfulness by the words of others when one’s own life experiences do not seem to support that faith
5. To affirm the certainty of God’s future rule on earth through the line of David wherein the righteous will be blessed and the wicked will be judged
6. To provide a worship hymnal and a devotional guide for the Temple-centered Jewish faith
7. To encourage believers to enjoy God and his benefits
1 To say that Hebrew Wisdom Literature was similar to some of the writings of its neighbors does not mean that there were not differences--especially in its development with respect to one God. Nevertheless, several factors were similar: (1) it was essentially practical, (2) it was attributed to God alone, (3) it was relevant to all parts of life (see R. K. Harrison, Introduction, pp. 1004-1009; Hill and Walton, Survey, pp. 248-252; La Sor et al, Old, pp. 534-542; Pritchard, ANET, pp. 589-607).
2 Much of what follows is from S. Craig Glickman, class notes of student in 903 Soteriology, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1981.
3 Much of what follows was adapted from Glickman, Ibid., Elliott E. Johnson, class notes of student in 303 Old Testament History II and Poetry, Dallas Theological Seminary, Spring 1981; Expository Hermeneutics: An Introduction, pp. 106-132.
Geisler affirms that Legal literature provided the moral life of the people, Historical literature provided the political life of the people, and Poetical literature provided the spiritual experiences of the people (A Popular Survey of the Old Testament, p. 179). While there is some truth to this, the descriptions do not fully express the development of the different types of literature.
4 The wisdom aspect throughout the Psalms is the concept that the righteous will be vindicated and the wicked will suffer (Ps. 1).
5 See the discussion by La Sor et al, Old, p. 545.
6 Elliott E. Johnson, Principle of Recognition: Chapter IV (unpublished class notes in 315 Advanced Hermeneutics, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1983), pp. 55-56.
7 The Hebrew term hmkh was generically used to describe the skill which one might have with craftsmanship (Ex. 31:1-11), architectural ability (1 Ki. 5:9-18) or, handiwork (1 Ki. 7:14; Isa. 44:9-17).
The skill that the fear of the Lord gives is the ability to make good choices about life (Prov. 1:1-7).
8 R. K. Harrison writes, worldly wisdom, through less elevated in nature, was different only in degree and not in kind from divine wisdom. The whole of life was thus connoted in terms of religious experience, and wisdom was held to be relevant at all points of existence (Introduction, p. 1008).
9 Two broad categories exist to define wisdom literature: (1) Proverbial wisdom--short, pity sayings which state rules for personal happiness and welfare [e.g., Proverbs], and (2) Contemplative or Speculative wisdom--monologues, dialogues, or essays which delve into basic problems of human existence such as meaning in life, or suffering [e.g., Ecclesiastes and Job]; see La Sor et al, Old, pp. 533-542.
10 These are concrete, down-to-earth statements rather than broad, philosophical evaluations (cf. Prov. 12:4; 11:2; 17:10); La Sor et al offer an enjoyable discussion of this characteristic (Old, pp. 537-538).
11 An example of the essential difference between Mesopotamian wisdom literature, and that of Israel may be found in the first millennium Babylonian Dialogue of Pessimism which concludes a similar struggle as Solomon's in Ecclesiastes with absolute despair:
Slave, listen to me, Yes, master, yes. Then what is good? To have my neck and yours broken and to be thrown into the river. Who is so tall that he can reach to the heavens? Who is so broad that he can encompass the underworld? No, servant, I will kill you and let you go first. Then (I swear that) my master will not outlive me by even three days (Pritchard, ANET, p. 601).
How much different is this conclusion than that of the modern existentialist?
12 As Ross writes, The Psalms are the inspired responses of human hearts to God's revelation of Himself in law, history, and prophecy (Psalms BKC, p. 779).
13 The language of the Psalms is concentrated when compared with prose. The concentration occurs through the use of images, symbols, figures, emotive vocabulary, and multiple meanings (Ross, Psalms, BKC, p. 780). The figurative language, is an instrument for conveying densely patterned meanings, and sometimes contradictory meanings, that are not readily conveyable through other kinds of discourse (Alter, The Art of Biblical Poetry, p. 113).
The word pictures enable the reader to feel much of what the poet did when he wrote the lines. This capacity to imagine that which one has not experienced is probably tied to the image of God (Who was able to imagine all possible creations before he made this one). Therefore, one must be sensitive to figurative language in order to capture the emotional meanings of the poetry.
14 Hill and Walton, Survey, pp. 252-253; Kidner, Psalms 1-72, pp. 1-4; R. K. Harrison, Introduction, pp. 965-972; Ryken, Words of Delight, pp. 180-185.
15 Hill and Walton, Survey, pp. 257-258; See also Ryken, Words of Delight, pp. 159-185, 313-340.
16 The two-fold division is argued upon (1) the way in which Moses' Law is referred to as a unit throughout the Scriptures, (2) the way in which the historical books are linked together as a unit, (3) the reference in Daniel to the Law and the books [9:2], and (4) the recognition of the Former prophetic books by the Latter (See Geisler and Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible, pp. 148-161).
17 Prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 132 B.C.), Jesus in Luke 24:44 (A.D. 30) Josephus, Against Apion, I.8 (A.D. 37-100).
18 The Writings include: (1) Poetical Books--Psalms, Proverbs, Job, (2) Five Rolls (Megilloth)--Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Ecclesiastes, (3) Historical Books--Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles
Sometimes Ruth was attached to Judges, and Lamentations was attached to Jeremiah thereby making the Hebrew canon comprised of 22 books rather than the more usual 24 books (see Geisler and Nix, General, pp. 18-19).
19 Critical scholars assume that the three-fold division reflects dates of canonization in accordance with their dates of compositions--Law (400 B.C.), Prophets (c. 200 B.C.), Writings (c. A.D. 100). However, this thesis is untenable in light of early reports of a three-fold division (c. 132 B.C.; see above). See Geisler and Nix, General, p. 151.
This critical approach is suggested by La Sor et al as an explanation for the placement of Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther, Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes when they write, Essentially, the purpose of the Writings as a whole was to collect those sacred books whose purpose, character, or date excluded them form the collections of law and prophecy (Old, p. 508-509).
20 Song of Solomon (eighth day of Passover), Ruth (second day of Weeks, or Pentecost), Lamentations (ninth day of Ab, in mourning for the destruction of Solomon's temple), Ecclesiastes (third day of Tabernacles), Esther (Purim).
21 The word truth (tma) was composed of the initial letters of each book--a (boya, Job), m (ylvm, Proverbs), and t (<ylht, Praises or Psalms) see R. K. Harrison, Introduction, p. 965.
22 Law = Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
History = Joshua, Judges, Ruth, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, II Kings, I Chronicles, II Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther
Poetry = Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon
Prophets/Major = Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel
Prophets/Minor = Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
For a more extensive overview see Geisler and Nix, General, pp. 17-25.
23 This division seems to be older than the oldest extant manuscripts of the Psalms since it exists in all manuscripts. The order of the last two books (IV and V) do differ in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls suggesting that their final order was not canonized until around the time of Christ. But all of the Psalms remain present (The LXX does have one extra Psalm (151) concerning David's battle with Goliath).
Smaller collections exist within the larger books: (1) Davidic group I: 3-41; (2) Sons of Korah group I: 42-49; (3) Davidic group II: 51-65; (4) Asaph group: 73-83; (5) Sons of Korah group II: 84-88 [exc. 86]; (6) Congregational Praise group I: 95-100; (7) Hallelujah group: 111-117; (8) Songs of Ascent to Jerusalem: 120-134; (9) Davidic Group III: 138-145; (10) Congregational Praise Group II: 146-150
24 Psalms range from Moses to the post-exilic period. Therefore, there were probably various stages and revisions in their collection. Evidence of former stages of editing may be found in the colophon-like conclusion of Ps. 72 (the prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended even though other Psalms of David follow) as well as the YHWH (Book I) and Elohistic editing (Book II).
25 Not all would agree with this evaluation (e.g., Ross, Psalms BKC, p. 784; Waltke, Notes on the Psalms, p. 2), but Walton and Hill offer considerable information regarding this thesis (Survey, pp. 275, 278-281).
The logical progression is built upon the function of seam psalms which unite the first four books (42; 72; 89; 106) and form a transition from one book to the next.
While there are still some significant questions to consider in this presentation, the proposition is plausible.
Usually the five-fold division is associated with the five books of the Law. However, in such a correlation, no real striking correspondence can be traced between the Psalms and the Pentateuch (see R. K. Harrison, Introduction, pp. 986-987; La Sor et al, Old, pp. 510-511).
Regardless of the canonical shape of the Psalter, each Psalm must be interpreted individually. The Canonical shape of the Psalter may, however, offer insight into the nation's understanding of a particular psalm theologically. See the discussion on Royal psalms (Introduction, pp. 115-117).
26 Psalm 1 would describe ultimate vindication for the righteous; Psalm 2 would describe God's choice and defense of the Israelite king. David fits into these two themes as the righteous individual whom God vindicates as king.
27 This unit includes many individual laments; most psalms mention enemies.
28 As a whole these psalms can be correlated with David's reign as recorded in 2 Samuel including the crises with Absalom (Pss. 54-64; esp. 55:12-14,21).
29 This may well represent the eighth-century Assyrian crisis. The key psalm is Psalm 78.
30 This unit begins with a Psalm of Moses and ends with a recapitulation of a history of rebellion leading to a hope and a plea for restoration. The collection of praise psalms (95-100) expresses the hope sustained in the Exile.
31 This book emphasizes thanksgiving to God for regathering the nation.
32 Psalms 146-150 offers a finale to the entire cantata.
33 See Allen P. Ross, Psalms in BKC, p. 788; Hill and Walton, Survey, pp. 281-282.
34 See Psalms 6:5; 30:9; 88:4-5,10-12; 115:17 (Ross, Psalms, BKC, p. 788). Later, the Prophets expressed a hope in the resurrection (Isa. 26:19; Ezek. 37:1-14; Dan. 12:2). Perhaps the closest one comes to the Psalmists view of a future with God may be found in Psalms 16--17; 49 and 73, but these may also be understood naturally (Ibid., p. 789; see also Dahood, Psalms [1970]: xli-lii).
35 These imprecatory psalms were not personal vendettas (cf. Ps. 109:4-5). Any foe of Israel's was a foe of God's. Therefore, they were longings for God to vindicate His cause upon the earth--to judge sin!
There is still a place for these curses in Christianity--especially upon Satan and his henchmen.
See La Sor et al, Old, p. 530-531; C.S. Lewis, Reflections, pp. 20-33; Chalmers Martin, The Imprecations in the Psalms, The Princeton Theological Review 1 (1903): 537-553.
36 Hermann Gunkel pioneered a form-critical (formgeschichte) approach in his Einleitung in die Psalmen or Introduction to the Psalms, translated by Thomas Horner (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967). He identified the Psalms with ritual (cultic) acts in Israel's worship (cf. 1 Samuel 1:24--2:10; 1 Chronicles 16:1-37). Even though many of his theories do not have historical evidence, the categories of Psalms by form are extremely helpful to the interpreter.
37 The forms of Psalms are not unique from the ANE neighbors. However, the theology of the Psalms was molded by the Law (see Hill and Walton, Survey, pp. 276-277).
38 Almost all other Psalm forms (except for Wisdom Psalms) may be found as a subsection of the Lament Psalm.
La Sor et al may be right in identifying this type of psalm with the title of complaint rather than lament since the psalms are descriptive of prayers for help and a lament is closer to the dirge-like form of Lamentations 1--2; 4 (Old, p. 516 n. 17; see also Childs, Introduction, p. 510).
39 Even Lament Psalms were prayers of great confidence in the Lord which often turned to praise before the answers actually came (Ps. 57).
40 These Psalms are not understood by their form so much as by the content of their thought. See Alan P. Ross for much of what follows (Psalms, in BKC, pp. 786-787).
41 For a discussion on the feasts see de Vaux, Ancient Israel, pp. 71-110; Kraus, Worship in Israel, pp. 26-69, 131f., 136-141, 179-188. A helpful summary of their work is found in La Sor et al Old, pp. 523-528.
42 Survey, p. 280.
43 See the discussion by La Sor et al, Old, pp. 520-521. Concerning the contribution of the canonization of the Psalms upon royal psalms Childs seems to be right when he writes, although the royal psalms arose originally in a peculiar historical setting of ancient Israel which had received its form from a common mythopoetic milieu, they were treasured in the Psalter for a different reason, namely as a witness to the messianic hope which looked for the consummation of God's kingship through his Anointed One (Introduction, p. 517; cf. pp. 515-517).
44 In these Psalms features of the psalmist's life foreshadow Messiah in that His life and experience are parallel to them (Pss. 41:9; 69:5,9; 118:10-12).
45 In these psalms as David describes his inward and outward experiences, they are beyond the limits of his experience and are thus true only in Messiah (Pss. 16:10; 22). See Ross, Psalms BKC, p. 789.
46 The following list of headings is taken from Bruce Waltke's Notes on the Book of Psalms, pp. 5-8.
Theses headings demonstrate that many of the Psalms were probably connected with ritual and temple worship
47 For a refutation of the arguments on which this evaluation is based see Gleason Archer Jr., A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, pp. 424ff.
48 See Leupold, pp. 6-7, and J.G.S.S. Thompson, Psalms, Book of The New Bible Dictionary (Eerdmans, 1962), p. 1053; also compare 2 Sam. 1:19ff; 1 Sam. 16:18ff; 1 Chron. 6:31-32; 1 Sam. 16:13; 2 Sam. 7; 23:1,2; Acts 4:25; Romans 4:7; Hebrews 4:7; Matthew 22:44.
49 See Delitzsch on Psalm 90.
50 Gesenius notes: the introduction of the author, poet, etc, by this Lamed euctoris is the customary idiom also in the other semitic dialects, especially in Arabic (GKC, p. 129c).
51 See Dahood, pp. xxix, xxx.
52 For further discussion see Ahlstrom, Psalms 89; Eine Liturgie aus dem Ritual des leiden Konigs, (Gleerups 1959), pp. 27-36.
53 See Delitzsch.
54 See Ralph Alexander, pp. 31f.
55 See Leviticus 7.
56 For other views see Delitzsch.
57 Ross presents several possible alignments of Psalms and historical material (Psalms, BKC, p. 783); see also R. K. Harrison, Introduction, p. 978.
For the historical of these notations see Alexander, pp. 51ff.
58 John Calvin, Commentary on the Book of Psalms, p. xxxvii.
59 La Sor et al, Old, p. 530.
Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines
The Book of Josiah's Reform
Related MediaThe Problem Stated
The problem which this study will address is twofold: (1) What was the “book of the law” which was found in the temple in 2 Kings 22--23?, and (2) what implications does the answer to question one have on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy?
The Problem Addressed
Views surveyed. As one examines the literature there seems to be a number of views as to the identity of the “book of the law” found by Hilkiah in the temple during the reign of Josiah (2 Kim. 22; 2 Chron. 34). Many identify the book as Deuteronomy, however, what is meant by Deuteronomy varies greatly from one scholar to another. There are those such as Craige and Robinson who consider it to be the whole Mosaic Deuteronomy in its present form.[1] In a similar vein there are those such as Wood who affirm that the “book of the law” was probably a copy of, not only Deuteronomy, but the five books of the Law.[2] Then those such as Lundbom say that only the song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32 was found.[3] However, probably the most favored view by modern Old Testament scholars is that which was originally presented by W.M.L. de Wette in 1805, to be developed and most classically expressed by Wellhausen, that the “book of the law” found by Hilkiah had been recently written (seventh-century) by prophets (or a prophet) with the purpose of promoting a religious reform which did indeed occur after Josiah had read the book.[4] One last view was that it was not Deuteronomy which was found but the “Holiness Code” of Leviticus 17--26 because Deuteronomy is of post-exilic origin.[5]
Berry’s view is clearly a minority one which has been mentioned for completeness but will not be addressed further in this paper. The others can be generally divided, for the purposes of this study, into two major positions: (1) an early Deuteronomy, be it Mosaic or one written after Moses yet long before Josiah’s time, and (2) a late Deuteronomy as asserted by Wellhausen written just prior to its discovery in the temple for the purpose of and resulting in reform.
The views analyzed. In analyzing the above views the first to be examined will be Wellhausen’s position of a late Deuteronomy written for the purpose of religious reform.
As many have pointed out, a foundational presupposition for this view is that the discovery of the “book of the law” was that which was the impetus for reforms by King Josiah.[6] This is based upon what appears to be the chronological order of events in 2 Kings 22--23. In 2 Kings 22 it is reported that the “lost book” was found during Josiah’s eighteenth year to reign (22:1-13). Then it seems to be after this and in response to this, that Josiah initiates reform in 2 Kings 23:4-20. Driver argues that upon Josiah’s ascension there was a willingness by the young king to bring about reform but because of his youth he was unable to effect such massive change; therefore Deuteronomy was written, be it under Manasseh or just prior to Josiah’s ascension, in order to supply a basis for reform in its “Mosaic” authority.[7]
Aside from the moral question of deception which a late Deuteronomy would seem to imply if it claimed to have Mosaic authority,[8] there seems to be a more basic flaw to this position, namely, that 2 Chronicles 34 places the reforms under Josiah’s rule prior to the finding of the “book of the law” during Josiah’s twelfth year of power (1 Chron. 34:3-7). The significance of such an observation is not only in what may appear to be a contradiction in synoptic Old Testament passages, but in the fact that if the chronology of 2 Chronicles 34 can be demonstrated to be true, then the basis of a late Deuteronomy -- written for the purpose of reform -- will be undermined. The problem lies in explaining the order of events in 2 Kings 22-23.
The affirmation of 2 Chronicles is clear: “in the twelfth year he (Josiah) began to purge Judah and Jerusalem...” (34:3). If this is so, why would the reforms under Josiah be placed in 2 Kings after the “book of the law” was found during Josiah’s eighteenth year (2 Kings 22:3; 23:4-20)? Those proposing a late Deuteronomy say that either the Chronicler was inaccurate in an attempt to enhance Josiah or that the reforms spoken of in Chronicles are different than those given in 2 Kings.[9] However it seems best that the charge of falsification is but a theory and the attempt to explain these reforms as different, though possible, is but an effort to salvage a position. Rather, it is quite possible to explain the reforms listed in 2 Kings 23 as being placed where they are for a thematic purpose rather than a chronological one.
Robinson develops this position stating that Josiah’s response in 2 Kings 22--23 to the “book of the law” was primarily to recognize the doom upon Israel and not to initiate reform as is seen in Huldah’s statement in 2 Kings 22:14ff. He relates 2 Kings 23:4 to the narrative of Josiah’s discovery but explains verses 5-20 as a list of other previous reforms of Josiah’s which are cued off of 23:4.[10] Likewise, even Lundbom recognizes a thematic order in 2 Kings 23 when he states, “It seems clear that DH is using criteria other than chronology in the structuring of his account.”[11] He argues that, “The DH intends to make the purge the center and climax of his narrative.”[12] Such thematic development is quite common in the historical books of 1 Samuel and Ezra as Robinson points out.[13] Also this kind of development is seen in the Joseph stories with the insertion of Judah’s account between Genesis 37 and 39.
Therefore, if 2 Kings 22-23 does not describe a reform in response to the finding of the “book of the law” and 2 Chronicles 34 does affirm that Josiah’s reforms preceded the discovery of the book, then the higher critics’ basis for the late Deuteronomy is washed away. There is no motive for a book of reform. A clear implication of the above conclusion is that if Deuteronomy is the “book of the law” which is found, then it was an early Deuteronomy rather than a late one. This does not decide how early it was nor Mosaic authorship, but it does not negate a Mosaic Deuteronomy.
That Deuteronomy was probably the book which was discovered, at least in part, is affirmed by most Old Testament scholars. Even Driver goes to great extents to demonstrate a relationship which his “late Deuteronomy” had in common with Mosaic principles stating that the matter is not new, only the form.[14]
There is also good support from the text of 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles that Deuteronomy was in view. As Robinson points out, either Exodus or Leviticus could have fit but Deuteronomy seems to fit best.[15] There are phrases in 2 Kings used to describe this book which correlate very closely with those used in Deuteronomy to describe itself (compare 2 Kings 22:8,11,13,16,18: 23:2,3,21,24 with Deuteronomy 17:18,19; 27:3,26; 28:58,61; 29:1,9,21,27 respectively).[16] The taking of the “lost book” to the king as reported in 2 Kings 22:10 and 2 Chronicles 34:18 also fits well with the injunction of Deuteronomy 17:18ff that the king was to have the law. Also the fact that Josiah clearly responded to the book by having the people enter into a covenant (2 Kings 23:1-3; 2 Chronicles 34:31-32) correlates best with the covenantal message of Deuteronomy.
Robinson argues against the possibility that the entire Pentateuch was discovered based upon his observation that the book was read aloud and seemed to have been read 2-4 times in one day.[17] However there is nothing in the text which mandates all of the reading to have occurred at one sitting or in one day. He also argues that only one scroll seems to have been found due to the lack of a definite article with the term “book” (rp!s@). This is possible and needs more study. But against this is the phrase in 2 Kings 23:25 in which Josiah is described as following the Lord according to all the law of Moses. If the other books of the law existed and only Deuteronomy was lacking, then Josiah’s response seems to have been unnatural upon the discovery of what may have been only Deuteronomy. However, it is also possible that all of the law was lost and found again thereby explaining Josiah’s response[18] or that all of the law was lost but only Deuteronomy was found which would still allow for Josiah’s response. No matter what, it is certain that Deuteronomy was the book which was discovered.
If it was an early Deuteronomy which was found by Hilkiah in the temple, then there is also a good deal of evidence to support a Deuteronomy which is as early as Moses. As mentioned above, Driver affirms that the matter of Deuteronomy is Mosaic only the form is not.[19] Yet as Kitchen[20] and Harrison have pointed out, Deuteronomy, as a book, bares much of the form of an ancient Near Eastern Hittite Suzereinty treaty of the late second millennium.[21] Thompson does point out that a seventh-century treaty with a historical prologue has been discovered by A.F. Campbell since Kitchen’s work, but this does not negate that the form of Deuteronomy is at least possible for Mosaic times and in fact more probable in accordance with the present evidence.[22] Likewise, Harrison argues well against higher critical objections to Mosaic authorship due to the phrase “beyond the Jordan” by demonstrating that the phrase is actually indeterminate with respect to location of the writer.[23] There are also several other evidences which point to a Mosaic date or Authorship: (1) There are many references to Moses speaking within the book,[24] (2) Jesus identifies Moses as the author of Deuteronomy in Matthew 19:8 by referring to Moses as the author of Deuteronomy 24:1-4, (3) Deuteronomy describes a simpler state of society than that of Josiah’s time. There is also no reference to Jerusalem as the central sanctuary, and (4) the writer of Kings and Chronicles clearly identifies the book which was found as being Mosaic (2 Kings 23:25, and especially 2 Chronicles 34:14). Therefore, there seems to be good evidence for the early date of Deuteronomy to even be that of the late second millennium with Moses as its author.
Conclusion
In conclusion it seems that the “book of the law” which Hilkiah found in the temple was not a recently written Deuteronomy for the purpose of (and as a basis of) Josiah’s reform, but an early Deuteronomy, if not all of the law, written in the second millennium by Moses. Although there is more work to be done concerning the thematic arguments of 2 Kings 23 and the real significance of the treaty forms, it seems as though the burden of proof lies with the higher critic at this point.
[1] Peter C. Craige, The Book of Deuteronomy, pp. 46,69; Robinson, Joshiah’ Reform and the Book of the Law, pp. 29-34.
[2] Leon Wood, Survey of Israel’s History, p. 367, n., 88.
[3] Lundbom, p.29.
[4] Thompson, Deuteronomy: An Introduction and Commentary, p. 57; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, pp. xxxiv-lxii; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament:,pp. 640-641; ZPEB, vol. 2 p. 112 by Harrison.
[5] George R. Berry, “The Code Found in the Temple.” JBL, pp., 14-15.
[6] Driver, p. xlv.
[7] Ibid.,pp. l-lv.
[8] Driver has a higher critical discussion of this, pp. lvi- lxii.
[9] Robinson, pp., 8-9.
[10] Robinson, pp. 12-15.
[11] Lundbom, p. 302.
[12] Ibid., p. 300.
[13] Robinson, p. 15.
[14] Driver, p. lvi.
[15] Robinson, pp. 27-28.
[16] Robinson, p. 30.
[17] Robinson, pp. 28-29.
[18] Wood, p. 367, n. 88.
[19] Driver, p. lvi.
[20] Kitchen, Ancient Orient and Old Testament, p. 99.
[21] See the above discussion under “Textual Elements”
[22] Thompson, p. 52 n. 1.
[23] Harrison, pp. 637-638.
[24] See above under “author.”
Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines
An Argument Of The Book Of Acts
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Message Statement: |
The Gospel Message Of Salvation Through Faith In Jesus The Messiah-Lord Is Available For All Peoples (Jews And Gentiles) In Spite Of The Rejection Of Those From Israel And The Gentiles |
I. Introduction: Luke introduces his work literarily through a prologue which ties the Gospel of Luke to the book of Acts, and a through a programmatic prelude which sets the scene for the events which are to follow 1:1-14
A. The Prologue: This is the second book to Theophilus following the first which dealt with that which Jesus did and taught His disciples until His ascension 1:1-2
1. Luke writes this second work to Theophilus too (see Luke 1:3) 1:1a
2. The first book (the Gospel of Luke) dealt with that which Jesus did and taught until His ascension (see Luke 24:44-50) 1:1b-2a
3. Jesus ascended after He had instructed His disciples through the Holy Spirit 1:2b
B. The Programmatic Prelude: Through a general and then specific presentation, Luke unfolds Jesus’ teachings to the disciples concerning their role in God’s eschatological plan for Israel and the world, as well as the disciples’ obedient response of returning to Jerusalem and prayerfully waiting as one body 1:2-14
1. General Statement: After Jesus’ passion, He presented Himself as alive to His disciples and taught them concerning the Kingdom of God and to wait in Jerusalem for the coming of the Holy Spirit 1:3-5
a. After His passion, Jesus presented Himself alive to His disciples with many proofs over a period of forty days 1:3a
b. During the forty day period, Jesus taught His disciples concerning the kingdom of God, not to depart from Jerusalem, and to wait for the coming of the Holy Spirit 1:3b-5
2. Specific Development: The disciples inquire of Jesus about the timing of God’s program to Israel, to which He explains that they are not to know the Father’s plan, and that they are to be Spirit empowered witness of Him to all people; whereupon, He ascends into heaven, and they are told by angels that He will return in Glory to consummate the Kingdom as He departed; therefore, the disciples returned to Jerusalem as one and prayerful waited 1:6-14
a. Jesus instructs His disciples about their role as Spirit empowered witnesses in God’s kingdom plan 1:6-8
1) When they have come together, the disciples ask Jesus if He is going to restore the kingdom to Israel at this time 1:6
2) Jesus explains to His disciples that they are not to know when the Father is going to complete His plan, but that they will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and that they will be witness of Him to all people 1:7-8
a) Jesus explained to the disciples that they are not to know when the Father is going to complete His appointed plan 1:7
b) Jesus tells the disciples that they will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and that they will be a witness of Him to all peoples 1:8
b. After Jesus has completed His charge to the disciples, He ascends before them in glory, and the disciples are told by angels that He will return as He ascended in glory to complete His eschatological program; therefore, the disciples return to Jerusalem and prayerfully waited 1:9-11
1) When Jesus had completed His charge to the disciples, He ascended into a cloud before their eyes 1:9
2) As the disciples were gazing into heaven at Jesus’ ascension, two “men” exhorted them to stop looking into the sky since Jesus will return in glory to complete the eschatological program (1:8) as He ascended 1:10-11
3) The eleven disciples obediently returned to Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives where they along with the women, Mary the mother of Jesus, and Jesus’ brothers prayerfully waited for the fulfillment of Jesus’ promises in unity 1:12-14
II. The promise is prepared for, received and presented as forming a people distinct from Israel through whom God is applying and offering the salvific benefits of Jesus’ Messiahship to all people--especially Israel 1:15--2:47
A. The Preparation for the Promise: While the brethren (120 people) are praying, examining their times and examining Scripture, Peter leads the Eleven in deciding to replace Judas with God’s choice (through the lot) of Matthias as the Twelfth apostle 1:15-26
1. During the days when the 120 brethren are praying in the upper room, Peter stands up and makes a proclamation 1:15
2. Peter concludes that a twelfth apostle must be appointed to replace Judas in fulfillment of the Scriptures 1:16-20
a. Peter proclaims that the Scripture by David through the Holy Spirit need to be fulfilled concerning Judas who was the enemy of Jesus and had a part in the twelve 1:16-19
1) Proclamation: It was necessary for the Scripture through David and the Holy Spirit to be fulfilled 1:16a
2) The Scripture spoke concerning the apostle Judas who betrayed Jesus, whose money bought a field, who killed himself upon it and whose land was thus called the “field of blood” in judgment 1:16b-19
b. Peter recalls Messianic Psalms where the enemies of God’s King are to find their land desolate (Ps. 69:25), and their offices are to be replaced by more worthy people (Ps. 109:8) 1:20
c. Peter concludes from the infamous curse on Judas’ land, and from the typico-prophetic Psalms that another apostle must be appointed from among those who accompanied the eleven during the training years from Jesus baptism to His ascension 1:21-22
3. After placing two men forward and praying that God would choose His servant, the lot falls upon Matthias as God’s choice 1:23-26
a. The Eleven place forward two men (Joseph and Matthias), and pray that God would show His choice of the one to replace Judas on the basis of the heart 1:23
b. They cast lots and find Matthias to be numbered with the Eleven to once again make Twelve 1:24-26
B. The Reception of the Promise: When the promised Holy Spirit came upon all of those waiting in commitment to Christ and empowered them to speak in foreign languages to those from the ends of the world about Christ, many questioned, and sought, but some accused them of evil 2:1-13
1. The coming of the Spirit: On the day of Pentecost while the disciples were all waiting for the Holy Spirit, He came filling the house and then those in it with an ability to speak in foreign languages 2:1-4
a. The setting was ten days after Christ’s ascension on the “harvest of wheat” feast day when all were together 2:1
b. The Holy Spirit suddenly manifested Himself by coming upon the house where they were as wind and fire and then coming upon those Apostles and disciples who were waiting in commitment to Him 2:2-4
2. The response of the multitude: The initial response to the working of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus’ disciples was for some (proselyte) Jews to question with interest and other (Hebrew) Jews to discard the event as sin 2:6-13
a. There were Jews (and proselytes [devout men]) from every nation for the feast 2:5
b. The proselytes were amazed as they heard these Galileans speaking about what God was doing in their own languages as well as those of the world 2:6-12
1) The multitude heard the sound of the Holy Spirit working and came together 2:6a
2) The multitude was bewildered because each heard what the disciples were saying in their own language, even though those speaking were all Galileans, and the languages were world-wide 2:6b-11a
3) The content of their words were the mighty works of God 2:11b
4) The multitudes were amazed and with questions about the meaning of the act 2:12
c. Others who were among the multitude (possibly Hebrew-Jews) discounted the work of the Holy Spirit as sinfulness on the part of Jesus’ disciples 2:13
C. The Presentation of the Promise: When Peter defends the actions of the disciples as being the work of the Holy Spirit rather than personal evil which the accusers had done and are doing in their rejection of the work of God, many believe and are added to the separated people of God 2:14-47
1. Addressing all of those present, Peter corrects personal accusations of evil and supports his thesis that just as the Holy Spirit has been rejected, so too did they reject God’s Messiah and must now call upon His name in order to receive the benefits of salvation (the Holy Spirit) which He is bestowing as the ruling Davidite 2:14-36
a. Peter stands and exhorts all of those present to hear and heed his words 2:14
b. Peter defends the personal purity of those who have been speaking in tongues and identifies this occurrence with the initial fulfillment of Joel (2:28-32) 2:15-21
1) Peter asserts that these men are not engaged in drink before the appointed time on a festival day 2:15
2) Peter identifies the work of the Spirit of God with the initial fulfillment of Joel 2:28-32 (Acts 2:16-21)
a) “This is that” is making an identification of fulfillment 2:16
b) Peter sees these events with the Spirit as part of the “last days (cf. 1 Pt. 1:20; 1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 3:1)
c) God is indwelling all believers with His Spirit thereby fulfilling the promise of the New Covenant (Jer. 31; hoped for in Num. 11:39; Joel 2:28-29). This is the “Now” or the “Now/Not Yet”
d) Joel 2:30-31 (Acts 2:19-20) describes what is “Yet” to come--the cosmic signs of the Day of the Lord (cf. Deut. 32). Luke does not deal with this because he wants to get to “whoever believes.”
e) Joel 2:32 (Acts 2:21) is emphasized (cf. Rom. 10:13) for those listening to not reject what God is doing, but to call on the Lord
c. Although the Jews ignored the signs of Jesus as Messiah, and crucified Him as a criminal, Peter affirms that the resurrection and Scripture proclaim Jesus as Messiah to be called upon 2:22-32
1) Describing Jesus as one whose authority was vividly displayed through miracles, Peter accuses those in Israel of having crucified Him as a criminal in accordance with God’s will 2:22-23
2) Peter affirms Jesus as the one to be called upon because of His Messianic deity by recounting the resurrection as a fulfillment of David’s prophetic expectations as expressed in Psalm 16 2:24-31
a) Peter affirms Jesus’ Messianic deity through the resurrection 2:24
b) Peter substantiates Jesus Messianic deity by citing Psalm 16 as David’s unique words about Jesus 2:25-28
c) Peter historically emphasizes that David (as a Spirit filled prophet) knew that he was not writing of himself but of his future descendant whom the resurrection identifies as being Jesus 2:29-32
d. After describing and affirming (through David’s words) Christ’s initial ascension to the throne where Christ rules from heaven (Psalm 110; cf. Ps. 132:11-13; 1 Chron. 28--29; 1 Cor. 15:24-28; Eph. 1:19-23; Col. 1:12-14), Peter again makes his point that the Jesus whom they rejected is to be called upon 2:33-36
1) Jesus has ascended to the place of honor with God and rules in fulfillment of the promises made to David through dispensing the benefits of salvation (the giving of the Holy Spirit) 2:33-35
2) It is this Jesus who is ruling Messiah whom Israel rejected that they must call upon 2:36
2. The Response to Peter’s defense was that many were moved and became part of this separated people of God (the church) who lived in a growing relationship with God and one another as He added to their numbers those who were being saved 2:37-47
a. The response of many was to be moved and to seek direction for rectifying their situation 2:37
b. Peter exhorted the people to repent (turn from their earlier improper response to Jesus) and to publicly demonstrate their confession through baptism and they will receive the Holy Spirit (the promise of the New Covenant) 2:38-39
1) Peter exhorts them to change turn from their former response to Jesus 2:38a
2) Peter exhorts them to visibly demonstrate their private confession through baptism 2:38b
3) Peter promises that they too will receive the Holy Spirit because this promise is for all who will believe (cf. Joel 2:28; Acts 2:21) 2:38c-39
c. Peter continued to exhort the Israelites to identify with Jesus out from those who are his enemies 2:40
d. About 3,000 people believed, were baptized and added to the community of God’s called out ones who devoted themselves to a growing relationship with God and one another 2:41-47a
1) That day three thousand people believed, were baptized and were added to the community 2:41
2) Those who became believers were devoted to a growing relationship with God and one another 2:42
3) There was an awesome awareness that God was working in their presence 2:43
4) There was public involvement in worship and fellowship that demonstrated unity in the community and was pleasing to all the people 2:46-47a
e. Summary Statement: The Lord was adding to their numbers those being saved 2:47b
III. The Twelve witness bare effective testimony of Jesus to Israel in a new community sustained and kept pure by the Holy Spirit 3:1--6:7
A. Sign-Sermon: Through the literary technique of a sign-sermon, Peter testifies to the nation Israel that instead of receiving judgment for their sins, they may experience the benefits of Messianic blessing if they will repent and receive their words about Jesus as God’s Messiah 3:1-26
1. The healing of a lame man at the beautiful gate is an individual sign of the power of Christ’s name to bring about Messianic salvation for other individuals and the nation 3:1-11
a. As Peter and John meet a lame man outside of the temple begging for alms, they, as Jesus’ representatives, physically heal him drawing attention to themselves 3:1-11
1) The setting: Peter, John and a lame man happen to meet at the “beautiful gate” of the temple at 3:00 p.m -- the hour of prayer 3:1-2
2) As the lame man begins to ask for alms, Peter and John turn to him and give to him restored physical strength as representatives of Jesus 3:3-7
a) As the lame man saw Peter and John about to enter the temple, he began asking for alms 3:3
b) Focusing the man’s attention upon them, Peter does not give to the man what he asks for, but the restoration of his physical strength as representatives of Jesus 3:4-7
3) As the man joyously worshiped God in the Temple he drew an awe filled crowed to Peter, John and himself 3:8-11
a) The man leaped (cf. Isa. 35:6), entered the temple with Peter and John and joyously worshiped God 3:8
b) The people in the temple noticed the man, recognized who he was, and ran in wonder and amazement to where Peter, John and he were 3:9-11
2. As the miracle draws attention to Peter and John, Peter refocuses the multitude’s thoughts upon Jesus whom they rejected, but should now trust for an individual and national experience of messianic salvation 3:12-26
a. When Peter and John see the amazed response of the people gathering toward him, Peter quickly identifies the miracle with their faith in Jesus whom Israel rejected, but God, the Father, was affirming 3:12-16
1) Peter questions the response of those approaching in the Temple to the miracle and them as though they had done it in their own power or purity 3:12
2) Peter explains the miracle to have occurred because of Jesus, whom God is showing to be great through those who trust in Him even though Israel rejected Him 3:13-16
a) Peter explains what has occurred as a demonstration by the God of their fathers of how great Jesus is 3:3a
b) Peter identifies Jesus as the One whom Israel rejected and murdered as evil, but the Father raised to their witnesses 3:13b-15
(1) Jesus is the One that the Israelites delivered to Pilate and disowned even when Pilate recognized His innocence 3:13b
(2) Jesus was disowned and substituted for a murderer and put to death by the choice of the Israelites 3:14-15a
(3) Jesus is the One whom the Father raised from the dead as Peter and John are witnesses 3:15b
c) Peter identifies the power for the miracle to have been in the name of Jesus in whom they have faith 3:16
b. Even though Israel ignorantly stood in God’s role as the hand against Jesus, Peter urges them to repent of their sins so that they may experience the benefits of Messianic salvation 3:17-26
1) Although Israel acted in ignorance toward Jesus, they fulfilled God’s pre-announced suffering of His Messiah as God’s enemies (cf. Isa. 53) 3:17-18
2) Israel is exhorted to return to Christ so that they may not be judged but, be forgiven and He may return with the consummated blessing of the kingdom as the prophets foretold 3:19-24
a) Because of Israel’s hand against God, they are exhorted to change their mind about Jesus and return to God’s side 3:19a
b) They reason they should repent is so that their sins may be forgiven 3:19b
c) The reason it is important for their sins to be forgiven is so that the blessing of the Kingdom may come upon all (as they have to this man) 3:20-24
(1) The repentance of the nation will bring about the return of Jesus as Messiah who is presently waiting now in heaven (cf. Ps. 110:1) 3:20-21a
(2) The prophets foretold of the negative consequences to their rejection of Jesus as the second Moses (Deut. 18:15-19; Lk. 9:35) and king of whom Samuel spoke (1 Sam. 2:10; 7:12 3:21b-24) 21:b-24
3) The resurrection of Jesus Christ is designed to first benefit the Jews who hold the word and promises of God by enabling them to become God’s messengers rather than His enemies 3:25-26
B. The new community of believers in Jesus is Spiritually triumphant and effective in proclaiming the message about Jesus in the midst of Satanic conflict 4:1--6:7
1. The assault from without--Peter and John arrested: Although there were severe threats from without upon the lives of those who would speak of Jesus as Messiah, the Holy Spirit enabled them to stand firm and do what was right (testify of Jesus) 4:1-31
a. As Peter and John spoke of the power of Jesus in the temple, they were arrested, tried and released with only threats because there was no incriminating evidence and public opinion was against the rulers 4:1-22
1) As Peter and John were speaking in the temple to the people about Jesus as Messiah whose power had healed the lame man, they were arrested and thrown into jail by the religious leaders of the temple 4:1-3
2) Even though the religious leaders tried to silence Peter and John’s message, many thousands believed in Jesus 4:4
3) The trial of Peter and John before the Sanhedrin concluded with warnings not to speak in Jesus’ name and their release because the leaders had no case and public opinion was against them 4:5-22
a) On the next day all the Sanhedrin with all of the high priests met together in Jerusalem to deal with what had occurred 4:5-6
b) When Peter and John were brought into their midst and questioned, Peter boldly proclaimed, through the Holy Spirit, that the miracle was done through Jesus--Messiah 4:7-12
(1) Bringing Peter and John into their midst, the leaders inquired about the source of power, and the name through which they performed the miracle with the lame man 4:7
(2) By the power of the Holy Spirit Peter proclaimed that the miracle was done in the name of Jesus--Messiah 4:8-12
c) Although the Sanhedrin marveled at the ability of Peter and John and recognized the actuality of the miracle, they forbade them to speak of Jesus 4:13-18
(1) The Sanhedrin marveled at the confidence of these uneducated and untrained men who were with Jesus 4:13
(2) The Sanhedrin was speechless before the healed man 4:14
(3) In the Sanhedrin’s conferral, they were unable to deny the miracle, yet, they were insisted that Peter and John no longer speak in the name of Jesus 4:15-18
d) Peter and John entreated the Sanhedrin to evaluate their predicament because they felt they had to speak the truth of God of which they had been witnesses 4:19-20
e) Although they threatened Peter and John, they released them because there was no basis for punishing them, and because the people were seeing God’s hand in it all 4:21-22
b. After praying, out of fear from Peter and John’s report, with an awareness of God’s hand in all and His enabling power, the believers were filled by the Holy Spirit and spoke boldly about Jesus 5:23-31
1) When Peter and John were released, they returned to the other believers and reported the words of the Sanhedrin 4:23
2) When the believers heard of the threats against them, they prayed to God remembering that He was in control of all and thus asking for the ability to obey now 4:24-30
a) When the believers heard of the threats against them for speaking of Jesus, they all prayed to God 4:24a
b) After recognizing the sovereignty of God in creation, and even in their difficulty, they asked that He would give them the boldness to speak during this time 4:24-30
(1) The praying community recognized the Lord as Creator of all 5:24a
(2) The praying community recognized that God, through David (Ps. 2) , had predicted that their experience of persecution for speaking of Messiah would occur 4:25-28
(3) The praying community asked God to oversee their situation and to grant that they would still speak with confidence about Jesus as He authenticated their words 4:29-30
c. In response to the prayer of His believers, God fills (enables) them to obey Him and they do so by proclaiming Jesus with boldness 4:31
1) God responded to the prayer of the believing community by filling them with the Holy Spirit 4:31a
2) The believers begin to faithfully proclaim God’s word with boldness 4:31b
2. The Assault from Within--Ananias and Sapphria: The harmonious prosperity and effectiveness of the new community was threatened by the deception of Ananias and Sapphira but purified through the work of the Spirit in Peter 4:32--5:16
a. During a time of persecution, the congregation prospered by providing for one another’s needs, and by the Apostles’ clear and powerful proclamation of Jesus 4:32-37
1) There was unity of heat and life in the congregation of believers as they shared their possessions with one another 4:32
2) The Apostles were witnessing to the resurrection of Jesus with great power (miracles) 4:33a
3) During the difficult time, everyone was experiencing the abundant favor of God because they, like Barnabas, were sacrificially providing for each other 4:33b-37
a) Everyone was experiencing the abundant favor of God even during tumultuous times 4:33b
b) The reason the congregation was experiencing grace was because of people like Barnabas who gave physically for the needs of others 4:34-37
(1) The reason the congregation was experiencing grace was because they were using their physical resources as a means to provide for the needs of others 54:34-35
(2) Barnabas is an example of the generous giving which people were providing for the needs of others as an encouragement 4:36-27
b. Ananias and Sapphira threatened the unity of the body when they lied about the work which they were doing for God, therefore, they both were confronted by the Spirit through Peter, died and brought a purifying fear upon all who heard 5:1-11
1) Ananias and Sapphira sold a piece of property, kept back some of the proceeds and gave a portion of it for the Apostles’ distribution to those in need as Barnabas had done 5:1-2
2) When Peter exposes the sin of Ananias as being a personal affront against God, Ananias fell and died immediately 5:3-4
a) Peter Questions Ananias’ intent in falsely representing himself since there was nothing monetarily to gain, but only sin to commit against God 5:3-4
(1) Peter questions Ananias’ intent in falsely representing himself under Satan’s influence 5:3
(2) Since the land and its proceeds were all the possession of Ananias anyway, Peter questions why he felt it necessary within to lie 5:4a
(3) Peter emphasizes that the lie was not to men but to God 5:4b
b) As Ananias was confronted he died 5:5a
3) The result of Ananias’ death was that fear filled all who heard and he remained dead 5:5b-6
4) When Sapphira came and also lied about the price of the land to the Spirit of God as her husband had, she was confronted, died and buried along with Ananias 5:7-10
a) After some time had passed, Ananias’ wife Sapphira, not knowing what had occurred, came in 5:7
b) When Peter asked Sapphira about the price of the land, she confirmed Ananias’ story 5:8
c) Peter, upon questioning her motive against God, proclaimed that she was about to join her husband in death 5:9
d) As with Ananias, Sapphira also died and was buried with her husband
5) Great fear came upon the whole community as well as everyone else who heard 5:11
c. As Satan’s attack within the congregation was defeated, they unified, proclaimed Jesus more strongly and many people were added to the community of believers 5:12-16
1) The Apostles performed many signs and wonders among the Jews 5:12a
2) All were of one will as they stood in the temple where they were warned not to speak of Jesus 5:12b
3) Although many would not associate with them, they were held in high esteem 5:13
4) Many people were added to the believing community as they saw and experienced God’s kingdom healing power upon the sick and afflicted 5:14-16
3. The Assault from without--The Twelve arrested: Even though the Twelve Apostles are arrested, the intervening hand of God overrules the plans of those for evil so that His servants may be encouraged and proclaim even more fervently the truth about Messiah to all 5:17-42
a. The council’s attempt to physically stop the teaching of the Apostles was against the clear movement and desire of God 5:17-26
1) The Apostles, who were experiencing the power of God through them as they dealt with sin within the church, are placed in jail by the jealous Sanhedrin 5:17-18
2) An angel of the Lord miraculously delivered the Apostles commanding them to return and continue speaking about Jesus 5:19-20
3) The Apostles left the prison and entered the temple to teach as they had been told 5:21a
4) Although the council leaders were very concerned when they met together and learned of the Apostles absence, they immediately had them returned from the temple 5:21b-26
a) The council met together and sent for the Apostles 5:21b
b) The officers who looked for the Apostles reported that they were mysteriously missing 5:22-23
c) The leaders of the Sanhedrin were greatly disturbed when they heard of the Apostles’ absence 5:24
d) When the Sanhedrin heard that the Apostles were in the temple teaching, the captain quickly brought them back with fear of the people who were supportive of the Apostles 5:25-26
b. In the trial the Apostles were wrongly accused of evil, defended themselves under God concerning Christ, and were warned, flogged and released under Gamaliel’s intervention 5:27-40
1) When the Apostles were brought before the Sanhedrin, the questions of the high priest led to accusing the Apostles of disobedience and misdirected rumors 5:27-28
a) The Apostles were brought before the council and questioned by the high priest 5:27
b) The point of the questions of the high priest was to accuse the Apostles of breaking their orders not to speak in the name of Jesus by noting the spread of their teaching which accuses the council of Jesus’ death 5:28
2) Peter and the Apostles response to the council is that they must obey God rather than men because He has been involved with Jesus, and they are eyewitnesses along with the Holy Spirit of the things concerning Jesus 5:29-32
a) Peter and the Apostles responded by proclaiming that they must obey God rather than men 5:29
b) The Apostles proclaimed that God of their fathers as the One who resurrected Jesus whom they killed through Rome 5:30
c) The Apostles proclaimed the God of their fathers as the One who exalted Jesus to the position of honor as ruler and savior for Israel in her sin 5:31
d) The Apostles proclaimed themselves as witness of this all along with the Spirit of God who is given to all who obey Him 5:32
3) Although the council desired to murder the Apostles, they restrained their anger to flogging, warning and releasing them under Gamaliel’s council 5:33-40
a) When the council heard the Apostles response, they were cut deeply and wanted to retaliate by taking the Apostles’ lives 5:33
b) Under the wise council of Gamaliel the Apostles were flogged, warned and released 5:34-40
(1) Gamaliel who was a respected teacher of the Law immediately intervened and sent the Apostles out of the room for a short time 5:34
(2) Gamaliel warned the council about their intended murderous response because that which is of men will end of its self while that which is of God cannot be stopped and they will be God’s enemy 5:35-39
(3) The council took Gamaliel’s advice to not murder them, flogged them and released them with the same order not to speak in Jesus’ name 5:40
c. Encouraged to know that God was really with them, the Apostles continually proclaimed Jesus as Messiah 5:41-42
1) The Apostles left the council rejoicing in their usefulness to God 5:41
2) Everywhere, both privately and publicly, the Apostles continued to proclaim Jesus as Messiah 5:42
4. The Assault from within: Grecian widows murmuring: A Satanically motivated division between the Hebraic and Hellenistic Jews in the believing community was resolved by the congregation’s willingness to receive Apostolic advice and to graciously provide for one another which led to greater spiritual vitality 6:1-7
a. During a time when God had delivered the believing community from a persecution and many were becoming disciples, a division within the congregation began 6:1
1) The time was after God had intervened during a persecution of the communities’ leaders so that many more were becoming disciples 6:1a
2) A complaint arose within the congregation of discrimination against Greek speaking Jews by those who spoke Hebrew when food was served to their widows 6:1b-c
a) A complaint arose by the Greek speaking Jews against the Hebrew speaking Jews 6:1b
b) The complaint was that the Greek speaking widows were being discriminated against when food was served daily 1:1c
b. After calling together the congregation, the Twelve encouraged them to choose seven qualified men so that they could focus on their ministry 6:2-4
1) The Twelve called together the congregation of disciples within which the trouble was occurring 6:2a
2) The Twelve did not wish to invest their time to deal thoroughly with this problem themselves since they would be taken away from God’s work--their primary ministry now 6:2
3) The Twelve exhorted the congregation to choose from among themselves seven men who are of good reputation, spiritual and wise to be placed in charge of the task by the Apostles 6:3
4) The Apostles insisted upon devoting themselves to prayer and the ministry of the word 6:4
c. Approving of the Apostles statement, the congregation chose seven, Greek Jews who were spiritually qualified and had the Apostles commission them 6:5-7
1) The whole congregation approved of the Apostles’ statement 6:5a
2) The congregation chose seven, Greek Jews who were full of faith and the Holy Spirit 6:5b
3) When the congregation brought their choices before the Apostles, they were commissioned by the Apostles 6:6
d. Summary Statement: The Word of God Continued to spread so that many disciples continued to increase even among the priests of Jerusalem 6:7
IV. In the wake of Jewish rebellion God’s grace is sovereignly triumphant outside of the capital of Judaism 6:8--9:30
A. The Testimony and Death of Stephen: God’s word through Stephen is vehemently opposed by the Jewish leaders who stone him and lead an attack on the church through Saul, but the message of grace continues 6:8--8:3
1. As Stephen is powerfully serving God, he is attacked, placed on trial before the Sanhedrin and falsely accused of speaking against the Law (Jesus will change the Torah) and the Temple (Jesus will destroy the Temple) 6:8-14
a. While Stephen was performing great signs and wonders for God, he was argued with by a wide section of Hellenistic Jews in Jerusalem 6:8-9
b. When the Jews were unable to refute Stephen’s words, they insighted lies about him which caused the Sanhedrin to arrest him 6:10-12
c. Stephen is falsely accused before the Sanhedrin of speaking concerning Jesus against the Law and the Temple 6:13-14
2. Answering the high priest’s accusation of sin, Stephen uses the reminder of history to teach the Sanhedrin: (1) of the transcendence of God beyond the Temple and (2) that they are bringing their fathers’ rebellion against God to completion 6:15--7:53
a. Standing before the Sanhedrin in the purity of his life as a messenger for God, Stephen is asked if he has spoken against the Law and the Temple by the high priest 6:15--7:1
b. After requesting a hearing, Stephen uses the evidence of history to answer the charges of lawlessness so as to teach the religious leaders that it is they who are in error and rebellious against God as their fathers were 7:2-53
1) Stephen respectfully invites the Sanhedrin to listen to him 7:2a
2) Abraham: God is shown to be transcendent as He speaks to Abraham outside of the land, and Abraham is reflects stubbornness to God’s word 7:2-8
3) Joseph: God is shown to be transcendent as He is with Joseph in Egypt, and Joseph’s brothers are shown to be rebellious in their rejection of Joseph as God’s messenger 7:9-16
4) Moses: God is shown to be transcendent through the Egyptian location, the oracle in Midian, and wonders and signs in Egypt, at the red Sea, in the desert, under the nation under the oppression of Egypt were rebellious when they did not understand that God was giving deliverance through Moses 7:17-43
5) Climax I: God is claimed to be transcendent: Although God had given the Nation a tabernacle through which to approach Him, and David sought to build the Lord a house but Solomon built it, Nevertheless, God is still transcendent (Isa. 66:1-2) 7:44-50
6) Climax II: Stephen turns the accusers accusations against them by affirming (through direct statements and the three witness of Abraham, Joseph and Moses) that they are bringing their fathers’ rebellion to completion 7:51-53
a) Stephen accuses the Sanhedrin of intense rebellion against God just as all of Israel and its leaders have done in times past 7:51
b) Stephen accuses the Sanhedrin of being like murders with the people of old by their slaying of Messiah 7:52-53
3. In an interplay between Stephen’s words and the peoples’ hostile response of murder, grace is again proclaimed 7:54-60
a. Stephen’s use of God’s word cut them deeply upon which they sought to retaliate viciously 7:54
b. In the midst of their attack, Stephen sees and announces that God--Jesus--is there as his vindicating Judge (Ps. 110; Dan. 7:13) 7:55-56
c. The people become enraged and drive Stephen out of town where they stoned him for blasphemy by a man named Saul (cf. Lev. 24:10-23; Sanh. 7:4; 2 Chron. 24:21; Josephus, Antiq. 20.200) 7:57-59a
d. Stephen’s death was willing and with the same words of forgiveness as Jesus used (cf. Lk. 24:34; contrast 2 Chron. 24:22) 7:59b-8:1a
4. The martyrdom of Stephen immediately sparks off a great persecution of the church by Saul 8:1-3
a. Saul led a great persecution against the believing community 8:1
b. Stephen’s body and martyrdom was proclaimed by some devout men 8:2
c. Saul was ravaging the church and placing them in Jail 8:3
B. The Ministry of Philip: The expansion of God’s salvation beyond the parameters of Judaism irrupts to the Samaritans and hints at its extent toward the Gentiles as Philip is obedient to God’s direction 8:4-40
1. The result of the first general persecution of the church was that many went preaching the word as did Philip among the Samaritans 8:4-13
a. A general statement: Those who were scattered during the first persecution in Jerusalem went about preaching the word 8:4
b. A specific example: Philip proclaimed Jesus as Messiah to the receptive Samaritans 8:5-8
1) Philip went to Samaria to proclaim the Messiah 8:5
2) The multitudes gave full attention to Philip’s message which was authenticated by spiritual and physical healing 8:6-8
3) Although the Samaritans were responsive to Simon who performed self-aggrandizing magic, both they and he believed the message of Jesus and identified with Him through baptism 8:9-13a
4) Simon continued to follow Philip about in amazement over the signs and miracles which were taking place 8:13b
2. After witnessing the work of the Holy Spirit in the lives of the Samaritans and especially Simon who was an example of their spiritual degradation, the Apostles were encouraged to proclaim the gospel to other Semaritans 8:14-25
a. When the Apostles learned that the Samaritans had become believers, they sent Peter and John to pray for them that they might receive the Holy Spirit 8:14-16
b. As the Apostles laid hands on the Samaritans, they all began to receive the Holy Spirit 8:17
c. Simon (the magician) connected the work of the Spirit with the ability of the Apostles and tried to purchase it only to be rebuked and later repent 8:18-24
1) When Simon the magician saw the correlation between the Spirit and the Apostles of God, he sought to purchase this perceived ability 8:18-19
2) Peter rebuked Simon for his heart attitude toward God and exhorted him to pray for forgiveness which probably occurred as he asked Peter to pray for him 8:20-24
a) Peter rebuked Simon with a threat of discipline by God for being so evil in his heart toward God 8:20-21
b) Peter urged Simon to repent and pray for forgiveness of his heart’s attitude because at present he is trapped by sin 8:22-23
c) Simon asked Peter to pray for him that he would not experience God’s judgment 8:24
d. After the Apostles finished proclaiming the word of God there, they returned to Jerusalem preaching the good news to many other Samaritans 8:25
3. Under the clear sovereign direction of the Holy Spirit, the gospel touches upon the Gentile world as Philip proclaims Jesus to the Ethiopian eunuch 8:26-40
a. Philip received a message from the Lord to go south to the road that descends into the desert form Jerusalem 8:26
b. When Philip had gone, he came upon the Ethiopian Eunuch who was responsible for the queen’s treasury, was a God-fearer, and believed in the message about Jesus as Messiah 8:27-28
1) The Spirit of God exhorted Philip to go and join the eunuch 8:29
2) Stephen entered into a discussion about the book of Isaiah which the eunuch was reading and explained about Jesus through its teaching 8:30-35
3) Upon belief by the eunuch, Philip baptized him 8:36-38
4. As the Spirit of God took Philip away, the eunuch was encouraged and went to his Gentile people with the message while Philip went back up into Samaria preaching Jesus all of the way 8:39-40
C. The Conversion of Saul: Against Saul’s will, God converts Saul who is doing the work of Satan (like Simon), on a road (like the Eunuch) to become his instrument to reach all peoples with the gospel as a Stephen revived 9:1-31
1. Whereas Saul started to Damascus with power and authority to harm believers, Jesus stopped him, spoke with him, and blinded him so that he entered the city waiting on God 9:1-9
a. In his driven hatred for the disciples Jesus, Saul sought letters which would grant him permission to arrest disciples in Damascus 9:1-2
b. After meeting Jesus on the road to Damascus where it was witnessed that Jesus accused him of fighting God, Saul entered Damascus blind and fasting for God’s next word 9:3-9
1) Just outside of Damascus Saul was blinded by a light, accused of persecuting Jesus and told to wait in Damascus for further direction by Jesus 9:3-6
a) As Saul approached Damascus, he was blinded by a light from heaven and fell to the ground 9:3-4a
b) Saul heard a voice who was Jesus and who accused him of persecuting Him as he attached the church 9:4b-5
(1) Saul heard a voice accusing him of persecuting him 9:4b
(2) Saul questioned the Lord’s identity 9:5a
(3) The voice identified Himself as Jesus whom Saul was persecuting 9:5b
c) Jesus told Saul to arise and enter Damascus where he would be told what he must do 9:6
2) The men with Saul were amazed as they too heard the voice, but saw no one 9:7
3) As Saul stood from the ground blind and needing to be led, he obediently went to Damascus and waited for three days without sight or nourishment as he was dependent upon God 9:8-9
2. Although reluctant, Ananias went to Saul and saw God change him from one who was blind to a strong committed disciple 9:10-19a
a. The Lord spoke to a disciple at Damascus 9:10
b. The Lord told Ananias to go to Saul and lay hands upon him as God’s instrument to restore Saul 9:10-12
c. Ananias informs the Lord of how dangerous Saul is in his hatred of Christ 9:13-14
d. The Lord repeated his command for Ananias to go because He has worked in Saul’s life and will use him to proclaim His message before all people and teach Saul how much he must suffer for the Lord’s name 9:15-16
e. Ananias went to Saul and did as God asked of him 9:17
f. Immediately Saul could see, arose, was baptized, and ate since God had answered his fasting 9:18-19a
3. Paul became a mighty spokesman for God in Damascus and in Jerusalem among the Hellenistic Jews (as was Stephen) and suffered persecution for his message about Jesus 9:19b-30
a. After remaining with the disciples for several days, Saul began to proclaim Jesus to the Jews and had to escape from Damascus 9:19b-25
1) Saul was with the disciples for several days 9:19b
2) Saul began to proclaim Jesus as Messiah in the synagogues of Damascus 9:20
3) As Saul continued to proclaim Jesus to the Jews, the people’s attitude moved from confusion to murderous hostility against Saul 9:21-23
a) The people were at first amazed at the reversal in Saul’s attitude and actions toward Jesus 9:21a
b) As Saul continued to confront the Jews about Jesus, they sought to kill him 9:21b-23
4) As the plots of the Jews became known to Saul, he and the disciples snuck him out of Damascus at night 9:24-25
b. After Saul was considered a part of the Jerusalem disciples, he began proclaiming God to the Greek speaking Jews and had to be delivered out of town from their hand 9:26-30
1) When Saul came to Jerusalem, none of the disciples would associate with him out of fear 9:26
2) It was Barnabas who bridged Saul with the disciples by explaining God’s work in Saul’s life 9:27
3) As Saul began to join the Jerusalem disciples and speak to the Greek-speaking Jews about Jesus, he had to be rushed out of town to preserve his life 9:28-30
a) Saul began to move about freely in Jerusalem with the disciples as he spoke about Jesus 9:28
b) Saul would debate with the Greek-speaking Jews about Jesus 9:29a
c) When the Greek speaking Jews wanted to kill Saul, he was preserved by being taken out of Jerusalem to Tarsus through Samaria 9:29b-30
4. Summary Statement: The Church enjoyed peace in all of the lands where it had spread and increased as they grew in their understanding of fearing God and finding comfort in His Spirit 9:31
V. The Lord lays the groundwork for the Gentile mission while rebellious Israel slips on toward divine judgment 9:32--12:24
A. Peter’s Ministry toward the Household of Cornelius: Although Peter and the church in Judea were at first hesitant about reaching out to the Gentiles, the Lord worked to prepare their hearts so that all could be reached with the Gospel 9:32--11:18
1. First preparation: As Peter was traveling through Samaria, he met a paralyzed man in Lydda, healed him in Christ and saw many turn to the Lord who saw the man 9:32-35
a. As Peter was traveling through Samaria on his way back to Jerusalem, he came to the believers of Lydda 9:32
b. Finding a man named Aeneas who was paralyzed, Peter healed him in the name of Jesus 9:33-34
c. All who saw the healed man in Lydda and Sharon turned to the Lord 9:35
2. Second preparation: When Tabitha who was a good woman of Joppa died, Peter came (upon request), restored her life, and saw many believe in the Lord 9:36-42
a. When Tabitha, who abounded in good work, became ill and died, two men were sent for Peter in Lydda to come and help in Joppa 9:36-38
b. When Peter came and saw all the good of the woman, he sent them away, prayed, brought her to life, and presented her to the saints 9:39-41
c. Many in Joppa believed in the Lord through the raising of Tabitha 9:42
3. The Gospel to the Gentiles: Through the working of God in the lives of Cornelius and Peter, the gospel came to the Gentiles and the Spirit identified them with the new community -- even in their uncircumcised state 9:43--10:48
a. Peter stayed many days in Joppa with a tanner named Simon 9:43
b. Cornelius, being a God-fearing Gentile and being told in a vision of God’s favor and to send for Peter, sent three in his care to Joppa for Peter 10:1-8
1) There was a certain man in Caesarea who was a God-fearing Gentile 10:1-2
2) In a vision an angel of the Lord described God’s favor toward Cornelius and exhorted him to send for Peter in Joppa 10:3-4
3) Cornelius sent three who were in his care for Peter 10:8
c. As Peter is prepared by God through two visions to view what God calls clean as clean, he departs with the Gentile messengers to give Cornelius a message 10:9-23
1) When Peter went to pray and became hungry, he had a vision wherein God proclaimed clean for Peter that which he considered unclean (cf. Gen. 1:24; 6:20; Lev. 11:2-47; cf. Mk. 7:19; Rom. 14:14) 10:9-16
2) While Peter was reflecting on the import of his vision, the three messengers from Cornelius arrived asking for Peter 10:17-18
3) While Peter was reflecting , the Holy Spirit told Peter of the visitors and that he should accompany them 10:19-20
4) Upon dialogue with them, Peter learned that these messengers were from the God-fearing Gentile, Cornelius, who had been told to send for Peter to hear a message, whereupon, Peter received them and went with them 10:21-23
d. As Peter and Cornelius each proclaimed God’s working in their lives, Peter preached for all men the forgiveness of sins if anyone would trust in Jesus 10:24-43
1) As Peter entered Caesarea, Cornelius was waiting with family and friends to hear his message 10:24
2) Although wrestling with expectations and the truth of what God had said, Peter asked what Cornelius had called him for 10:25-29
a) Peter corrected Cornelius’ response of adoration by placing both of them on the same level--mere men 10:25-26
b) Proclaiming the extraordinary circumstances of this meeting of a Gentile and a Jew, Peter proclaimed God as the One who has said they are clean and has told Peter to come, and thus Peter asks for the reason he has been summoned 10:27-29
3) Explaining his vision and thanking Peter for coming, Cornelius asked to hear what God has commanded Peter 10:30-33
4) Understanding that God is not showing partiality among people, Peter proclaimed Jesus and the forgiveness of sins for all who believe in Him 10:34-43
a) Peter claimed to now understand that God does not show partiality among men who fear Him 10:34-35
b) Peter, describing the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus as an eye witness proclaimed forgiveness of sins for everyone who believes in Him 10:36-43
e. Because the Holy Spirit fell upon Cornelius and his household while Peter spoke, they baptized them all in their uncircumcised state, and Peter stayed with them as one community 10:44-48
1) While Peter was speaking, the Holy Spirit fell upon Cornelius and his household to the amazement of all of the circumcised Jews with Peter 10:44-46
2) See that the Spirit of God had come upon these Gentiles, they were identified with the believing community in their uncircumcised state through baptism 10:47-48a
3) Peter stayed on with Cornelius for a few days 10:48b
4. The persuasion of those in Judea: Although the circumcised believers in Judea were at first critical of Peter for followshiping with Gentiles, they heard of God’s hand and glorified God for bringing to the Gentiles salvation 11:1-18
a. When the Jewish Apostles and brethren in Judea heard about Peter’s fellowship with the circumcision, they took issue with him 11:1-3
b. After Peter described the series of events climaxing in the baptism of the Spirit upon the Gentiles, he concluded that he should not interfere with God’s work 11:4-17
1) Peter explained the events which led up to this fellowship 11:4
2) Peter described the vision from God which he had wherein God proclaimed clean that which was considered unclean 11:5-10
3) Peter explained the arrival of Cornelius’ men and the vision which Cornelius had had to invite Peter to come and speak the words of salvation 11:11-14
4) Peter explained how the Holy Spirit came upon Cornelius and his household when he spoke as a symbol of God’s identifying them with the new community of believers 11:15-16
5) Peter concluded from all of this that if God was working in this way among the uncircumcised, he was no one to stand in the way 11:17
c. Upon hearing Peter’s report, those who questioned from the circumcised quieted down and glorified God who was giving salvation now to the Gentiles 11:18
B. The Continuing Hostility of Jerusalem: While the mission to the Greek-speaking Jews begins to flourish in Antioch, Jerusalem continues in its rebellion against the Apostles and slips toward a suggestion of judgment with the death of Herod 11:19--12:24
1. As the work reached the Gentiles of Antioch, their lives became markedly different to the point of character alignment with Christ and providing for Jerusalem in need 11:19-30
a. Although most of those who were scattered as a result of Stephen’s persecution only shared God’s work to the Jews, there were some who came to Antioch and preached Jesus to the Greek-speaking Jews as well 11:19-20
b. God was with those who spoke to the Greek-speaking Jews and many believed in Jesus 11:21
c. When the church in Jerusalem heard about the belief of the Greek-speaking Jews, they sent Barnabas who encouraged their obedience and team taught with Saul for over a year bring about people with Christian character 11:22-26
d. When the Antiochan church heard of the famine which was about to occur, they sent relief through the care of Barnabas and Saul 11:27-30
2. Even though Jerusalem continued in its persecution of the church through the martyrdom of James and the imprisonment of many, including Peter, God sovereignly delivered Peter, who then told the brethren who were praying 12:1-19
a. At the time of the famine relief visit, Herod (Agrippa I) initiated a persecution against the church which included the imprisonment of many, the martyrdom of James, and extended to include the imprisonment of Peter 12:1-4
1) At the time when the famine relief was being sent by Antioch, Herod (Agrippa I) was persecuting the church by imprisoning some and slaying James, the brother of John 12:1-2
2) When Herod saw that his attack against the Church was pleasing to the Jews he extended it during the Passover season to include the imprisonment of Peter 12:3-4
b. While Peter was in prison under heavy guard, he was delivered by an angel of the Lord 12:5-11
1) While Peter was in prison, the church was praying for him 12:5
2) On the very night when Herod was about to bring him forward before the people, while Peter was heavily guarded, an angel of the Lord delivered him, in his confusion, from his imprisonment 12:6-10
3) When Peter was outside of the prison, and the angel had disappeared he realized that the Lord had delivered him from Herod and the Jews 12:11
c. When Peter realized what had happened to him, he went to the house of John-Mark’s mother, Mary, and after a considerable delay because of their amazement, relayed to them what God had done, told them to tell James and the brethren, and then left 12:12-17
1) When Peter realized the deliverance which God had brought, he went to the house of Mary, the mother of John-Mark, where there were those who were praying for him 12:12
2) Peter knocked on the door, but was left outside by the servant Rhoda in her excitement from seeing him 12:13-14
3) Although those who were praying did not at first believe Rhoda’s report of having seen Peter, Peter kept knocking, so they let him in and he relayed to them what had happened exhorting them to report this to James (Jesus’ half brother) and the rest of the brethren; then he left 12:15-18
3. Herod ruthlessly slew the guards responsible for Peter when Peter could not be found, and was then slain by God when in Caesarea he refused to give glory to God from the people of Tyre and Sidon who were attempting to placate his anger by calling him a god 12:19-23
a. Setting: Herod, not being able to find Peter, had the guards responsible for his escape executed, and went to Caesarea 12:19
1) When Herod searched for Peter and was not able to find him, he examined the guards and had those who were “responsible” executed 12:19a
2) Herod then went from Judah to Caesarea (the place from where God’s work has been progressing) where he spent some time 12:19b
b. While Herod was in Caesarea and the people from Tyre and Sidon placated him in an attempt to take away his anger but calling his address to them the words of a God rather than a man, God stuck him dead because he did not defer glory to God 12:20-23
1) While Herod was in Caesarea the people from Tyre and Sidon came to him seeking reconciliation of their differences for the sake of food which Herod had control over 12:20
2) On an appointed day, Herod began addressing them (perhaps at some Roman games) 12:21
3) The people responded by crying out that he had the voice of a god and not a man 12:22
4) Because Herod did not rebuke them and give glory to God, the Lord immediately struck him dead 12:23
4. Summary Statement: The word of God grew and multiplied 12:24
VI. Even though most Jews continually reject the gospel message, Paul as a genuine Apostle is demonstrated to spread the true Gospel of God’s grace to all peoples--both Jew and Gentile 12:25--16:5
A. Paul’s first missionary journey: Paul’s missionary work is demonstrated to be truly of God as he and Barnabas proclaim the grace of God to all peoples (Jews and Gentiles) and encourage the church to persevere under persecution 12:25--14:28
1. Prelude to the first missionary journey: When Barnabas and Saul returned from Jerusalem with John Mark to the church in Antioch, they were set apart for a work which the Lord had for them by the command of the Holy Spirit at a worship service of the leaders of the church 12:25--13:3
a. Setting: Barnabas and Saul returned to (textual problem) Jerusalem from having provided relief in Judea (cf. 11:29), picked up John Mark (cf. 12:12) and thus returned to Antioch 12:25
b. Calling: In the church at Antioch there were many spiritual leaders gathered to worship God when the Holy Spirit spoke to them to send off Barnabas and Saul for the work which he has for them, and they commissioned and sent them off 13:1-3
1) In the church at Antioch there were many spiritual leaders: prophets and teachers 13:1
a) Statement 13:1a
b) A listing: Barnabas, Simeon who was called Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen a member of the court of Herod the tetrarch, and Saul 13:1b
2) As with Pentecost in Acts 1--2, a special group is gathered for prayer and the Holy Spirit speaks to them to set Barnabas and Saul apart for the work which He has for them, whereupon, they are commissioned and sent off by the leaders 13:2-3
a) While these leaders are worshiping and fasting, the Holy spirit spoke to them to set Barnabas and Saul apart for the work which He had called them 12:2
b) After fasting and praying, the leaders commissioned and sent Barnabas and Saul off 12:3
2. The First miracle of Paul--a moicrocosom: Paul’s ministry is previewed as offering salvation to all peoples, however, as the Jews reject it they become blinded (cf. Bar-Jesus in Acts 13:11; Roman Jews in Acts 28:25-27), while the Gentiles believe (Sergius Paulus) 13:4-12
a. Setting: Being sent out by the Holy Spirit Barnabas, Saul, and John Mark went down to Seleucia, and then sailed to Cyprus 13:4
b. At Salamis and throughout the island to Paphos they proclaimed the word of God in the synagogues of the Jews 13:5-6a
c. When they encountered a Jewish false prophet named Bar-Jesus and a Gentile proconsul named Sergius Paulus, they proclaimed the word of God leading to blindness in the Jew’s rebellion, and salvation for the Gentile 13:6b-12
1) At Paphos they encountered a Jewish false prophet named Bar-Jesus and the proconsul, Sergius Paulus, who asked to hear the word of God from Barnabas and Saul 13:6b-7
2) Elymas the magician (Bar-Jesus) stood against Barnabas and Paul seeking to prevent the proconsul from the faith 13:8
3) Saul accused Elymas of perverting the straight way of the Lord (cf. John the Baptist Luke 3:4) and brought about blindness upon him so that he had to be led about by the hand (cf. Luke 1; Acts 9; Acts 28) 13:9-1
4) The proconsul believed when he saw what had occurred and heard the teaching of the Lord 13:12
3. The Mission in Pisidian Antioch--the message to the Jews is clarified: Paul and Barnabas proclaim Jesus as the fulfillment of God’s promises through David whereupon some believe, many Jews reject and persecute them, and they leave proclaiming the message now to the Gentiles, judgment upon those Jews who rejected and encouragement to the disciples who remain 13:13-52
a. Setting: Paul’s party left Paphos, had John leave them to return to Jerusalem at Perga, whereupon, they went up to Pisidian Antioch 13:13-14a
1) Paul and his company set sail from Paphos and came to Perga in Pamnphylia 13:13a
2) John left the party and returned to Jerusalem (perhaps due to the movement toward the Gentiles? cf. 15:38) 13:13b
3) The party passed on from Perga and came to Antioch of Pisidia 13:14a
b. Message to the Jews: On the Sabbath day Paul and Barnabas when to the synagogue and after the reading of the Scriptures proclaimed Jesus to be the fulfillment of God’s promises through David bringing forgiveness of sin if they will believe in him and not stumble over this amazing work of God 13:14b-41
1) On the Sabbath day, they went to the synagogue, and were asked to speak a word from God after the customary reading from the Law and the Prophets 13:14b-15
2) As Paul addresses Jews and God fearers, he identifies Jesus as the fulfillment of the Davidic promise made to the fathers through a historical review, present occurrences and fulfilled Scripture to exhort his readers to believe in Him for the forgiveness of there sins, and not to stumble over this amazing work of God 13:16-41
a) Historical review: Tracing God’s goodness to the nation, Paul affirms to Jews and God-fearers that the Lord’s promised savior for the nation through the line of David was testified by John the Baptizer to be Jesus 17-25
(1) Paul stood up and addressed the men of Israel the God fearers present 13:16
(2) Paul traces God’s goodness to the nation by delivering them from their Egyptian captivity through leading them to the land of promise 13:17-19
(3) Paul traces God’s goodness in providing leaders for the nation from the Judges, through Samuel, Saul, and David 13:20-22a
(4) Paul amplifies God’s promise to David to bring about a Savior for the nation Whom he identifies as having been Jesus 13:22b-23
(5) Paul emphasizes that John testified of Jesus as this savior (cf. Lk. 16:16) 13:24-25
b) The proclamation about Jesus: Paul proclaims that Jesus is the fulfillment of the promised Messiah through David whom Israel killed and God raised up in accordance with the Scriptures 26-37
(1) Paul again addresses his audience as Jews and God-fearers 13:26a
(2) Paul claims that his party has been sent this message of the already mentioned salvation through Jesus 13:26b
(3) Paul identifies those who live in Jerusalem as having fulfilled Scripture in their ignorance by having Jesus falsely killed by the Romans 13:27-29
(4) Paul proclaims that God raised Jesus from the dead as was witnessed by those who were with Him from Galilee to Jerusalem and are now His witnesses 13:30-31
(5) Through His resurrection Jesus is the fulfillment of God’s promise to the fathers in accordance with the Scriptures regarding David (Isa. 55:3; Ps. 2:7; 16:10) 13:32-37
c) Conclusion: Paul exhorts his brethren to believe in Jesus for the forgiveness of their sins and not to stumble over this amazing work of God 38-41
(1) Paul exhorts his listeners (brethren) that to believe in Jesus so that they might experience the forgiveness of sins which the Law could never accomplish 13:38-39
(2) Paul warns his listeners from history using Habakkuk 1:5 that they need to beware lest this seems so amazing that they will not believe it 13:40-41
c. While the initial response to Paul’s message was that some believed while many wanted to hear more, the fuller response the next sabbath was that the Jews became jealous over the overwhelming interest in Paul and Barnabas’ message and refuted them, whereupon, Paul and Barnabas proclaimed that they would now go to the Gentiles, many Gentiles believed, the Jews persecuted the team, and Paul and Barnabas left for Iconium with a curse upon the Jews and the converts greatly encouraged 13:42-52
1) When the people went out they begged to hear about this on the next sabbath 13:42
2) When the meeting was over many Jews and devout converts to Judaism followed Paul and Barnabas who encouraged them 13:43
3) The larger response was that many came to hear the Gospel the next sabbath, the Jews, out of jealousy, refuted Paul and Barnabas, who then proclaimed the necessity to go to the Gentiles, whereupon many Gentiles believed, the Jews persecuted Paul and Barnabas, they left for Iconium proclaiming judgment upon them, and the disciples where encouraged who remained 13:44-52
a) The next sabbath almost the whole city came out to hear the Gospel 13:44
b) Out of jealousy over the multitudes, the Jews contradicted and reviled Paul 13:45
c) Paul and Barnabas proclaimed that it was necessary to proclaim the word of God to the Jews first (because it concerns their promises), but since they reject it and the eternal life which they are offering, they will turn to the Gentiles as they fulfill Isaiah 49:6 13:46-47
d) When the Gentiles heard this they rejoiced and many believed 13:48
e) The word spread throughout the region 13:49
f) The Jews stirred up persecution against Paul and Barnabas and drove them out of the district 13:50
g) The disciples symbolically proclaimed judgment upon the Jews in Antioch by shaking off the dust from their feet (cf. Lk. 9:5; 10:11; Acts 18:6; 22:22-23) and moved on to Iconium 13:51
h) The disciples were not discouraged, but filled with joy and the Holy Spirit 13:52
4. The Mission in Iconium-a response repeated: When Paul and Barnabas spoke the gospel again in a Jewish synagogue in Iconium, they divided the city between those who believed their message and those who did not and thus persecuted them so that they fled with the message to Lystra and Derby 14:1-7
a. At Iconium Paul and Barnabas spoke in a Jewish synagogue, and many of both Jews and Greek-speaking Jews believed 14:1
b. When Paul and Barnabas were persecuted by unbelieving Jews and Gentiles, they left a divided city for Lystra and Derby where they preached the gospel 14:2-7
1) The unbelieving Jews turned the Gentiles against the brethren 14:2
2) Paul and Barnabas stayed a long time speaking boldly and bearing witness to their word with signs and wonders 14:3
3) The people were divided between the Jews and the Apostles 14:4
4) When the Jews and Gentiles made an attempt to stone Paul and Barnabas, they fled to Lystra and Derby where they preached the gospel 14:5-7
5. The Mission in Lystra: The message to the Gentiles is clarified: 14:8-23 After Paul demonstrated the saving work of God through the healing of a lame man, and the people began to worship him and Barnabas as pagan gods, He instructed them toward the living God who created and blessed all of creation, whereupon he persevered persecution by the Jews, and returned to the churches in Galatia to encourage them to persevere in their newly established faith 14:8-23
a. Sign: Paul demonstrates the saving work of God through the healing of a crippled man (cf. Acts 3) who was listening to his message 14:8-10
1) Setting: At Lystra there was a crippled man who listened to Paul speak 14:8-9a
2) When Paul saw that the man had faith to be made will he commanded him to, “Stand upright” and the man was healed 14:8b-10
b. Sermon: When the people began to honor Paul and Barnabas as Greek gods, they turned them from their pagan understanding to an examination of the living God who is creator and blesser of all 14:11-18
1) The response of the People: The people identified Paul and Barnabas as Greek gods to be honored through sacrifice 14:11-13
a) When the people saw what Paul had done they identified them with gods 14:11
b) The people called Paul and Barnabas names of Greek gods--Hermes and Zeus--and brought sacrifices to offer to them 14:12-13
2) The response of Paul and Barnabas: When Paul and Barnabas saw what was occurring, they immediate pointed the people away from them to the living God who is creator of all and has provided witness of Himself through blessing to all peoples 14:14-17
a) When they heard what was occurring, Paul and Barnabas rent their clothes and ran out to speak to the people 14:14
b) Paul and Barnabas not only question the activity of the people, but point them from their polytheism to the one living God who is creator of all and who has shown Himself through the blessing he has graciously given to all 14:15-17
(1) Paul and Barnabas questioned the people as to why they were doing this since they were men like the people were 14:15a
(2) Paul and Barnabas urged the people to turn from their empty idols (cf. 1 Ki. 16:2, 13, 26; 2 Ki. 17:15)to a living God who was creator of all 14:15b
(3) Paul and Barnabas explain that in the past the nations have been allowed to go their own way, but not without a witness from the living God who brought about fruitfulness and prosperity for all 14:16-17
3) The response of the people: This speech barely dissuades the crowd from sacrificing to them 14:18
c. Suffering for the gospel: After Paul was stoned in Lystra, he persevered by returning into the city, and then went with Barnabas back to Derby, Iconium and Antioch to proclaim the gospel, encourage the disciples to persevere, and to set up leaders in each church 14:19-23
1) Although Paul was stoned by Jews from Antioch and Iconium, he rose up and re-entered the city 14:19-20a
a) Paul was stoned and drug out of the city for dead by Jews from Antioch and Iconium who stirred up the people 14:19
b) When the disciples gathered around Paul he rose up and entered the city 14:20a
2) Paul returned to Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch to encourage the brethren that they should persevere through trials until the coming of the Kingdom, and he established leadership in the churches 14:20-23
a) The day after Paul was stoned, he and Barnabas went to Derby where they preached the gospel and made many disciples 14:20-21a
b) Paul and Barnabas returned to Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch where they strengthened the disciples to faithfully persevere through trials, and appointed elders in each church 14:21b-23
(1) Paul and Barnabas returned to Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch 14:21b
(2) Paul and Barnabas strengthened the disciples to continue in the faith during the many tribulations which will come before the Kingdom 14:22
(3) Appointing elders in every church, they committed the disciples to the Lord in whom they believed 14:23
6. Postlude to the first missionary journey: Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch speaking the word of God in Perga, and reported all that God had done on the journey, remaining with the church a long time 14:24-28
a. Paul and Barnabas passed through Pisidia and came to Pamphylia, spoke the word in Perga, and went down to Attalia 14:24-25
b. Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, reported all that God had done even for the Gentiles on the missionary journey, and remained with the church for a long time 14:26-28
1) They sailed to Antioch where they had been commissioned for the missionary journey 14:26
2) They told the church in Antioch all that God had done including opening for them a door of faith to the Gentiles 14:27
3) They remained for a long time with the disciples in Antioch 14:28
B. The Jerusalem Council: When Paul and Barnabas’ gospel message to the Gentiles came under criticism by Jews who desired for the Gentiles to keep all of the Mosaic law (including the ceremonial--circumcision), it was vindicated by a council of Apostles and elders in Jerusalem, and they were restored to active ministry in Antioch, whereupon Paul returned to the field to strengthen the churches with Silas (a Jerusalem supporter), and Timothy (a physical example of the decree) by sharing the decree with the growing churches 15:1--16:5
1. Prelude to the Council--Controversy over the Law : Because the ministry of Paul and Barnabas toward the Gentiles is threatened by those from the Jews in Judea who insist that the Gentiles must keep all of the Law including the ceremonial aspects of circumcision Paul and Barnabas go to Jerusalem to deal with the question 15:1-5
a. When some men came down from Judea insisting that Gentile converts be circumcised and keep the Law of Moses, Paul and Barnabas strongly refuted them, and were sent to deal with the question in Jerusalem 15:1-2
1) Some men came down to Antioch from Judea teaching that one needed to follow the law of Moses with respect to circumcision in order to be saved 15:1
2) Paul and Barnabas argued greatly with those from Judea and were sent along with others by the church in Antioch to the apostles and elders in Jerusalem to deal with this problem 15:2
b. As Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem, they were well received and proclaimed to all the work that God had done through them, especially towards the Gentiles 15:3-4
1) The party including Paul and Barnabas passed south through Phoenicia and Samaria encouraging all of the brethren as they reported the conversion of the Gentiles from their mission 15:3
2) When the party came to Jerusalem, they were welcomed by the church and the Apostles and reported all that God had done with them on their journey 15:4
c. Some believers who were part of the Pharisees objected to Paul and Barnabas’ work on the basis that it was necessary to exhort the Gentiles to keep the law of Moses including circumcision 15:5
2. The Council’s deliberations: Peter, Paul & Barnabas, and James all confirm God’s work among the Gentiles, concluding that the Law should not be imposed upon them, but that they should temper their actions for the sake of unity among Jewish believers in their midst 15:6-21
a. Setting: Two groups, the Apostles and the elders, are gathered together to consider the question 15:6
b. Peter speaks for the Apostles: After there had been much debate, Peter, as the first apostle to the Gentiles, called the addition of the Law a test of God because He had identified all people as saved when they believed in the grace of the Lord Jesus 15:7-11
1) Peter spoke after there had been much debate 15:7a
2) When Peter addresses the brethren, he does so as the “Apostle to the Gentiles” and identifies the addition of the Mosaic Law with a test against God who has confirmed salvation for all peoples through the grace of the Lord Jesus 15:7b-11
a) Peter addressed the audience as Brethren 15:7b
b) As the Apostle whom God chose to first proclaim the gospel to the Gentiles, Peter affirms that the addition of the Law is an offense against God because He has not distinguished between peoples, but has made salvation available for all by the grace of the Lord Jesus 15:7c-11
(1) Peter presents himself as the “Apostle for the breaking of the news to the Gentiles” because God chose him from among them all to first proclaim the gospel which they believed 15:7c
(2) Peter asserts that God Himself confirmed the genuiness of the Gentiles’ heart by bestowing the Holy Spirit upon them just as he had upon the new community at Pentecost, thus making no distinction between the groups 15:8-9
(3) Therefore, Peter concludes that the addition of the Law is a test of God’s judgment since no one has been able to obey it 15:10
(4) Therefore, Peter affirms that Salvation comes the same for both Jews and Gentiles--through the grace of the Lord Jesus 15:11
c. Barnabas and Paul speak: While all of the people were quiet after Peter’s address, Paul and Barnabas also attested to the signs and wonders which God had done through them among the Gentiles 15:12
d. James speaks for the elders: Agreeing with Simeon, James cites the prophets as support for his conclusion that the Gentiles should not be bothered with the Law, but should be urged to act appropriately for the sake of their unity with Jewish believers among them 15:13-21
1) After Paul and Barnabas finished speaking, James spoke to the question urging the brethren to listen to him 15:13
2) James agreed with Simeon, cited the prophets as support for a time when Gentiles would stand along side of Jews as Gentiles in the people of God, and urged that they not be bothered with the Law, but that they might be careful to keep unity among Jewish believers through personal restraint 15:14-21
a) James affirmed that the prophets as a whole agree with the words of Simeon (Peter’s Hebrew name) about how God has visited the Gentiles to take them into his people 15:14-15
b) James proclaims from the example of Amos 9 that a time was foreseen when Gentiles would stand as Gentiles by Jews in the people of God 15:16-18
(1) Option 1: James refers not to Amos 9 so much as an existing testimonia (like an accepted excerpt from a catechism) which affirms the truth that in the future, Gentiles will be along side of Jews as Gentiles in the Kingdom
(2) Option 2: James cites one well known example from the LXX of Amos 9:11-12 where the reference is to “men” and not the “judgment of Edom” (MT). He could have referred to others
(3) “After this” does not refer to “after the church” but is the beginning of the quotation
(4) “Rebuild the tabernacle of David” could be descriptive of a future event on earth, or could refer to the initiated rule and benefits which presently come through Jesus (Acts 2:30-36; 13:32-39)
c) In view of the word from the prophets, James concludes that the Gentiles should not be bothered, but urged to act with appropriate concern for unity among Jews who would be among them 15:19-21
(1) In view of the word from the Scriptures James concludes that the Gentiles who turn to God should not be troubled 15:19
(2) James affirms that Gentile believers should be written to and urged to act with concern for the Jews who are among them by not participating in those things (from their cultic world) which would have offended their unity among Jewish believers (cf. Lev. 17--18): eating meat offered to idols, involvement in sexual immorality, eating meat that had not been properly prepared, and eating meat with blood in it 15:20-21
3. The Council’s letters and its impact: After those in Jerusalem had agreed to send a delegation with a letter proclaiming the position of the council, and affirming Paul and Barnabas, they went to Antioch where they were greatly received, and Paul and Barnabas resumed their leadership roles as teachers in the community 15:22-35
a. The church in Jerusalem including the Apostles and the elders agreed to send men back with Paul and Barnabas to Antioch including leaders named Judas, called Barsabbas, and Silas 15:22
b. The church sent a letter from the Apostles and elders of the church in Jerusalem to the churches in Antioch, Syria and Cilicia 15:23
c. The letter to the churches acknowledged the trouble caused by those who wished to place the Law upon the Gentiles and refuted them by affirming Paul and Barnabas, and only requesting that the Gentiles abstain from those things which would prevent fellowship with Jewish believers 15:24-29
4. When the men reached Antioch and read the letter, the church rejoiced, and was encouraged by Judas and Silas, and then taught for a long while by Paul and Barnabas after the departure of those from Jerusalem 15:30-35
a. The men went off from Jerusalem to Antioch where they gathered the church together, and delivered the letter 15:30
b. When they read the letter, the church rejoiced over the exhortation, and was exhorted and encouraged by Judas and Silas 15:31-32
c. After some time, Judas and Silas were sent off in peace by the church in Antioch to Jerusalem 15:33
d. Paul and Barnabas remained in Antioch teaching and preaching the word of the Lord with many others 15:35
1) The letter acknowledged the troubled caused by those unofficially from them who insisted that Gentiles keep the Law 15:24
2) The letter affirmed that the church had come to one accord about the matter and had sent men along with the letter to confirm it 15:25
3) Paul and Barnabas were honored as beloved, and men who have risked their lives for the Lord 15:26
4) No other restrictions were placed upon the Gentiles than that they abstain from those things which would prevent unity among them with their Jewish brothers 15:27-29
5. Paul’s triumphant return to the field: Paul’s gospel message having been confirmed by the leaders of Jerusalem, Paul set off to strengthen the churches of the first journey without the former Jewish partnership of Barnabas who had taken John Mark (who had been unwilling to continue the first journey) to Cyprus, but with Silas (who had been a strong Jewish support of the decree) and Timothy (who physically bore the sense of the decree) to proclaim the decree to the growing churches of Galatia 15:36--16:5
a. After some time Paul suggested to Barnabas that they return and visit the brethren in every city where they ministered and see how they are 15:36
b. Although Barnabas wanted to take along John Mark, Paul objected because he had deserted the earlier mission in Pamphylia 15:37-38
c. Because of a sharp contention between Paul and Barnabas, they separated and Barnabas took John Mark to Cyprus, while Paul took Silas and departed under the commissioning of the Church in Antioch 15:39-40
d. Paul and Silas went through Syria and Cilicia strengthening the churches 15:41
e. When Paul came to Derbe, Lystra and Iconium he learned of a faithful disciple named Timothy and invited him to join in the journey having him as a half Jew circumcised for the sake of unity with the Jews in the region 16:1-3
1) Paul came to Derbe and Lystra where he met a disciple named Timothy who was the son of a Jewish, believing mother, and a Greek father 16:1
2) Timothy was spoken well of by all of the brethren in Lystra and Iconium, and Paul wanted him to accompany him on his journey 16:2-3a
3) Paul had Timothy circumcised for the sake of unity with the Jews in the area since they knew that his father was Gentile (cf. the prohibitions of Acts 15) 16:3b
f. As the party went through the cities of Galatia, they delivered the letter from the leaders in Jerusalem for them to observe 16:4
6. Summary Statement: The churches were strengthened in the faith and increased numerically daily 16:5
VII. The church’s mission through the Apostle Paul is demonstrated to be the sovereign work of God towards all peoples 16:6--19:20
A. The Mission at Philippi: The mission through Paul and Silas is sovereignly directed by the Holy Spirit to Philippi where God sovereignly arranges for the conversion of several including Lydia (an Asian woman of commerce), and a Philippian jailer (a Greek/Roman man) before sending Paul and Silas out of the city 16:1-40
1. Prologue: the call to Macedonia: As the party, including at least Paul, Silas, Timothy, and Luke traveled, the Holy Spirit sovereignly directed their movement away from Asia to Macedonia 16:6-10
a. Paul, Silas, and Timothy were forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word of God in Asia, so they went through the regions of Phrygia and Galatia 16:6
b. At Mysia the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them to go north to Bithynia, so they went down south to Troas 16:7-8
c. In a vision to Paul a Macedonian man beckoned him to come west and help them 16:9
1) A vision appeared to Paul in the night 16:9a
2) A Macedonian man beckoned Paul to come west and help them 16:9b
d. Those in the party (including Luke--”we”) immediately interpreted this dream as God’s sovereign direction to go to Macedonia to preach the gospel to the people there 16:10
2. The conversion of Lydia When the party arrived in Philippi, they sought the place of prayer by the river on the Sabbath, and the Lord caused a God-worshipping woman named Lydia to hear Paul’s message, whereupon she believe, and showed hospitality to the party 16:11-15
a. Setting: The party set sail from Troas to Macedonia through Samothrace and Neapolis to Philippi, the leading city of Macedonia, where they remained for some time 16:11-12
b. As the party went to a place of prayer by the river on the Sabbath, God caused an Asian woman named Lydia to hear Paul’s message, whereupon she believed, was baptized with her family, and showed hospitality to the party 16:13-15
1) There not being a synagogue, on the Sabbath the party went to a riverside outside of the city where they supposed there to be a place of prayer, and they spoke to women1 who had come together 16:13
2) One woman who heard them named Lydia, an Asian from Thyatira who was a merchant, and a worshiper of God 16:14a
3) The Lord caused her to hear what Paul was saying, she believed, was baptized, with her household, and showed hospitality to the party 16:14b-15
3. The conversion of the Jailer: God sovereignly works to save a jailer and his family through Paul delivering a demonized girl from an evil spirit, which led to his being arrested and placed under a jailer’s care, where the Lord caused an earthquake that provided the opportunity for the jailer and his family to hear and believe in the word of God 16:16-34
a. A demonized girl: When a demonized girl began to follow the party around and announce their mission from God, Paul in the name of Christ cast the evil spirit out of her 16:16-18
1) The party was met by a slave girl who was demonized and used for profit by her master as a soothsayer when they were on their way to the place of prayer 16:16
2) For many days she followed the party around announcing that they were servants of God who are proclaiming the way of salvation 16:17-18a
3) Paul was annoyed by her actions, so he cast the evil spirit out of her 16:18b
b. Imprisonment of Paul and Silas: When the Spirit was cast out of the girl, her owners drug Paul and Silas to the magistrates, and charged them with disrupting the city against Roman law, whereupon, the rulers had them beaten and thrown under custody of a jailer into prison 16:19-24
1) When the spirit was cast out of the girl, her owners saw that they had lost their hope of profit through her 16:19a
2) The girl’s owners brought Paul and Silas before the judges and charged them with being Jews (racial) who were disturbing the city, and whose customs are not Roman 16:19b-21
3) The town joined in with the attack, and the rulers had them severely beaten, thrown into prison, and put under the guardianship of a jailer who fastened there feet in stocks 16:22-24
c. The Deliverance: God sovereignly works through an earthquake to cause a jailer to hear the gospel message from Paul and Silas, whereupon he and his family believe and enter into fellowship with them 16:25-34
1) At midnight, Paul and Silas were being listened to by the prisoners as they were praying and singing hymns 16:25
2) Suddenly there was a great earthquake which shook the foundations of the prison, opened the doors and unfastened everyone’s fetters 16:26
3) When the jailer awoke and saw what had occurred, he was about to kill himself thinking that all of the prisoners had escaped, when Paul told him to not hurt himself since everyone was still present 16:27
4) The jailer ran into the jail, got Paul and Silas and asked them what he must do to be saved 16:29-30
5) Paul and Silas explained the word of the Lord to Him and his household, and urged him to believe in the Lord Jesus to be saved 16:31-32
6) A Picture of Reconciliation: That very night the jailer washed Paul and Silas’ physical wounds and they washed him and his family (through baptism) of their spiritual wounds, whereupon they fellowshipped in his house 16:33-34
4. Epilogue: God’s servants are vindicated: Paul and Silas were vindicated by the rulers of Philippi when they learned that the team were Roman citizens by being escorted out of prison, whereupon, they returned to Lydia’s house, encouraged the brethren, and left Philippi 16:35-40
a. When it was morning, the rulers ordered the jailers to release Paul and Silas 16:35
b. The jailer announced their release to Paul urging them to come out to peace 16:36
c. Paul refused to come out privately, but insisted that the leaders come themselves and lead them out because they were unjustly beaten in a public manner as Roman citizens 16:37
d. When the leaders heard Paul’s words about being Roman citizens, they were afraid, came to them, apologized, took them out and asked them to leave the city 16:38-39
e. Paul and Silas left prison, went to Lydia’s, exhorted the brethren, and departed from Philippi 16:40
B. The mission from Thessalonica to Corinth: Although Paul experienced Jewish opposition and Gentile indifference, he proclaimed the word of God to all peoples, both Jews and Gentiles, under God’s protection, and many came to believe in Jesus 17:1--18:17
1. Ministry toward the Jews: The missionary party went to the Jewish synagogues in Thessalonica and Beroea and proclaimed Jesus as Messiah, whereupon, some Jews, devout Greeks, and women, believed in Thessalonica, and many Jews believed in Beroea, but Paul had to flee under the persecution from the jealous Thessalonican Jews from both cities 17:1-15
a. The mission to the Thessalonica--negative: When Paul and Silas arrived in Thessalonica they proclaimed Jesus as Messiah in the synagogue for three weeks causing some Jews, many devout Greeks, and leading woman to believe, but raising jealousy in the Jews to the point that the new disciples were severely persecuted before the authorities 17:1-9
1) Setting: When Paul and Silas had passed through Amphipolis and Apollonia they came to Thessalonica where there was a Jewish synagogue 17:1
2) When Paul entered the synagogue and argued for Jesus as Messiah, some Jews, many devout Greeks, and leading woman believed and joined Paul and Silas, but the Jews were jealous 17:2-5a
a) Paul went in, as was his custom, and argued with them from the Scriptures for three weeks 17:2
b) Paul explained and proved from the Scriptures the death, resurrection and Messiahship of Jesus 17:3
c) Some Jews, many devout Greeks, and leading women believed and joined Paul and Silas 17:4
d) The Jews were jealous of Paul and Silas 17:5a
3) In an uproar the Jews sought Paul and Silas, but could not find them so they took Jason and some brethren before the authorities and accused them of disturbing the peace and of proclaiming another king against Rome, whereupon the leaders exacted a bond from them before releasing them 17:5b-9
a) Using some wicked men, the Jews gathered a crowd and set the city in an uproar 17:5b
b) The Jews attacked the house of Jason looking for Paul and Silas, but when they could not find them, they brought Jason and some of the brethren before the authorities 17:5c-6a
c) The Jews accused Jason and the brethren of harboring disrupters, and proclaiming Jesus as King against Rome (subversion as with Jesus) 17:6b-7
d) The people and city authorities were disturbed when they heard the accusations, so they took from the hostages a bond and released them 17:8-9
b. The mission to Beroea--positive: When the party came to Beroea from Thessalonica, they also went to the synagogue and proclaimed Jesus as Messiah, and the Jews responded well with eagerness and examination, but the Jews from Thessalonica came and stirred up the city whereupon, Paul was escorted to Athens while Silas and Timothy remained 17:10--15
1) Setting: The brethren from Thessalonica sent Paul and Silas away by night to Beroea were they went to the Jewish synagogue 17:10
2) The Jews in Beroea were more noble than those in Thessalonica because they received the word with eagerness and a hunger to test Paul’s word through the Scriptures 17:11
3) When the Jews from Thessalonica heard that word of God was being proclaimed by Paul in Beroea, they came there also stirring up the crowds 17:12-13
4) In response to the uproar in Beroea the brethren had Silas and Timothy remain with them, but sent Paul off by sea to Athens, whereupon, he sent back message for them to come to him as soon as possible 17:14-15
2. Ministry towards the Gentiles: Although Paul’s ministry had little impact before the philosophers in Athens, he had a long and fruitful ministry in Corinth to all peoples in spite of Jewish opposition because of the Lord’s protection 17:16--18:17
a. The mission to Athens--negative: While Paul was in Athens waiting for Silas and Timothy, he became disturbed over the idolatry in the city and began proclaiming the word of God in synagogues and market places until at last he spoke before the Gentile philosophers at the Areopagus where he urged a resistant people to repent from their idolatry and turn to the true God who is Creator and will one day judge the world through his vindicated servant, whereupon most rejected, but some believed 17:16-34
1) Setting: While Paul was waiting for Silas and Timothy in Athens he was provoked within when he saw the city was full of idols 17:16
2) Paul argued in the synagogues with the Jews and devout Greeks, and in the market place every day with whoever happened to be present 17:17
3) Some of the Epicurean (who liked to enjoy life) and the Stoic (who sought to live consistently with nature) philosophers met Paul and were intrigued by his teaching so they took him to the Aeopagus for him to proclaim his new teaching which they always wanted to hear 17:18-21
4) As Paul stands before the Areopagus he acknowledges their piety, but corrects their error by proclaiming their unknown God as the Creator of all, whom they have dishonored, and who now commands them to repent because they will all be held accountable at a righteous judgment through the one whom He has vindicated through the resurrection 17:22-34
a) Paul standing in the midst of the Areopagus addressed the men of Athens 17:22a
b) Paul affirmed that they were a pious people because of their many idols, one of which was to the unknown God 17:22b-23a
c. Paul proclaims the identity of their unknown God as the Creator who made all, does not need man, but gives all things to man so that they might seek after Him 17:23b-28
(1) Paul exclaims that he wishes to proclaim the identity of their unknown God 17:23b
(2) Paul proclaimed the unknown God as the Creator of heaven and earth who does not live in temples made by men (man is thus accountable to Him) 17:24
(3) God is not dependent upon man, but gives all good things to all men including life, breath, and their existence as nations 17:25-26
(4) God has given to men so that they might seek Him since He is not far away as even their Greek poets (Epimenides and Aratus, Phainomena 5) noted 17:27-28
d) Paul proclaims that man has dishonored this unknown God by making images of Him since we are like him -- His offspring 17:29
e) Paul proclaims that even though God has overlooked the times of ignorance from the past all men should now repent because he will judge all men in righteousness through the one whom He vindicated by raising him from the dead 17:30-31
(1) Paul proclaims that God overlooked the times of ignorance 17:30a
(2) Paul proclaims that now God commands everyone everywhere to repent 17:30b
(3) The reason God commands everyone to repent is because He will one day will one day judge the world in righteousness through a man whom He has vindicated through resurrection from the dead 17:31
5) Although many either mocked Paul or delayed decision for another hearing, some did believe in his message and followed him out from among the people 17:32-34
a) When they heard of the resurrection of the dead some mocked Paul 17:32a
b) Others wanted to hear more about Paul’s teaching some other day 17:32b
c) Paul went out from among these people 17:33
d) Some people joined Paul and believed in Jesus including Dionysius the Areopagite, and a woman named Damaris 17:34
b. The mission to Corinth--positive: From Athens Paul went to Corinth and proclaimed the word of God to all peoples having a long and fruitful ministry under the Lord’s protection in spite of Jewish opposition 18:1-17
1) Introduction: After the event in Athens, Paul went to Corinth where he met a Jewish couple to live and work with, and proclaimed Jesus to the Jews and the Greeks, especially after Silas and Timothy joined him 18:1-5
a) After the event at the Areopagus, Paul left Athens and went to Corinth 18:1
b) Paul found those to stay with and work with in Corinth--a Jew and his wife from the Rome (after Claudias’ decree, A.D. 49-50) named Aquila and Priscilla 18:2-3
c) Paul argued in the synagogue every sabbath persuading Jews and Greeks 18:4
d) When Timothy and Silas joined Paul in Corinth, Paul used all of his time proclaiming Jesus as the Christ to the Jews 18:5
2) Paul had a long and fruitful ministry to all peoples in Corinth in spite of Jewish opposition because the Lord protected him as He had promised 18:6-17
a) When the Jews rejected Paul’s teaching he announced their responsibility for their actions and that he would now go to the Gentiles as he went among those who believed in his message 18:6-8
(1) When the Jews rejected Paul’s teaching, he explains that he went to the Jews first, but now he is not responsible for their death (cf. “Watchman” imagery of Ezk. 33:1-9), and thus that he will go to the Gentiles 18:6
(2) When Paul left the synagogue he went among those who believed his message: to the house of Titus Justus (a worshiper of God), Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue and his household, and many other Corinthians who believed and were baptized 18:7-8
b) In a vision the Lord commissioned Paul not to leave Corinth (as in other cases, cf. Acts 13--14; 17), but to stay and proclaim His word to the many people He had there under His protection, and Paul did for one and a half years 18:9-11
(1) The Lord spoke to Paul one night in a vision 18:9a
(2) The Lord told Paul to not be afraid to speak for Him because He would protect him, and because he had many in Corinth who would believe 18:9b-10
(3) Paul stayed a year and six months in Corinth teaching the word of God to the people 18:11
c) The Lord’s promised protection (18:10) is demonstrated as Paul is acquitted by Gallio from the Jews’ indictment, and the leader of the synagogue is beaten by the crowd 18:12-17
(1) When Gallio was proconsul of Achaia (A.D. 51 [to 55]), the Jews made a united attack upon Paul and brought him before the tribunal 18:12
(2) Paul was accused by the Jews of breaking Roman law by proclaiming worship which is different than that of Judaism 18:13
(3) Before Paul could speak in his defense Gallio dismissed the charge against him by the Jews because it was not a civil matter, but a inner-religious matter (cf. Lk. 23) 18:14-16
(4) Sosthenes, the ruler of the synagogue, was seized, and beaten by the crowd (Jews) in front of the tribunal, but Gallio ignored the event (like Pilate?) 18:17
C. The Mission at Ephesus: Paul’s ministry of the word of God to all peoples reaches its climax in Ephesus where those whom he equipped are left to trained other powerful teachers, where he taught for over two years bringing the word of God to all peoples, where he greatly demonstrated apostolic power through bestowing the Holy Spirit, and through miracles of healing and exorcism, and where all of Ephesus was moved to fear the Lord Jesus and many believers repented of their activity in the occult as false Jewish exorcists were humbled by evil spirits who knew of Jesus and Paul 18:18--19:20
1. Ephesus is bypassed again to leave Priscilla and Aquila: Although Paul did leave Corinth with Priscilla and Aquila and landed in Ephesus where he spoke the word in the synagogue, and was entreated to stay, He declined to stay, left Priscilla and Aquila there and returned to the church in Antioch where he remained for awhile before returning to the mission fields of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen the disciples 18:18-23
a. Setting: After the event before Gallio, Paul stayed longer in Corinth and then left with Priscilla and Aquila for Syria 18:18a
b. At Cenchreae Paul had his hair cut from a personal vow (perhaps for in thanksgiving for God’s preservation, cf. 18:10) 18:18b
c. Although Paul arrived in Ephesus, left Aquila and Priscilla there, spoke in the synagogue and was asked to stay on, he declined (perhaps before the seas closed for winter) agreeing to return if the Lord allowed it, and left Ephesus 18:19-21
d. Paul returned to Caesarea, greeted the church (in Jerusalem), went to Antioch, spending some time there, and then returned to the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen the disciples 18:22-23
2. Priscilla and Aquila instruct Apollos: In Paul’s absence, Priscilla and Aquila meet and instruct a gifted Alexandrian Jew concerning all of the truth about Jesus, whereupon, he is sent to Corinth to help the brethren in their public debates from Scripture with the Jews about the Messiahship of Jesus 18:24-28
a. Setting: A well educated, eloquent, Alexandrian Jew, named Apollos who knew the Scriptures came to Ephesus 18:24
b. Having been taught in the way of the Lord, Apollos accurately spoke and taught the Jesus, but he only knew the baptism of John 18:25
c. Apollos began to speak boldly of Jesus in the synagogue only to have things explained to him even more fully by Priscilla and Aquila 18:26
d. Wishing to go to Achaia, the brethren (Priscilla and Aquila) of Ephesus encouraged him and sent him with a letter so that he would be well received by the brethren 18:27
e. When Apollos arrived in Corinth, he greatly aided the church as he argued well with the Jews in public showing from the Scriptures that Jesus was the Messiah 18:28
3. Paul Apostolically bestows the Holy Spirit on twelve men: While Apollos was at Corinth, Paul returned to Ephesus, and was used to instruct, baptize and bestow the Holy Spirit upon about twelve disciples whom he met 19:1-7
a. While Apollos was at Corinth, Paul returned to Ephesus 19:1
b. While Paul was in Corinth, he met about twelve disciples whom he taught about the baptism of Jesus, laid hands upon, and received the Holy Spirit 19:2-7
1) Paul found some disciples (of Jesus?) who did not know about the Holy Spirit, but had only been baptized into the baptism of John 19:2-3
2) Paul explained that John’s baptism was for repentance to urge people to believe in Jesus, whereupon, the disciples were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus 19:4-5
3) When Paul laid hands upon the nearly twelve disciples, the Holy Spirit came upon them and they spoke with tongues and prophesied 19:6-7
4. Paul speaks the word of God so that all in Asia hear: After Paul had spoken boldly for three months in the synagogue, and was rejected, he moved to the hall of Tyrannus and boldly proclaimed the word for over two years so that all peoples in Asia, both Jews and Gentiles, heard 19:8-10
a. Paul entered the synagogue in Ephesus, and spoke boldly about the kingdom of God for three months 19:8
b. When some in the synagogue spoke evil of the Way before the congregation, he withdrew with his disciples and argued daily in the hall of Tyrannus 19:9
c. Paul continued to daily present the word of God for two years with the result that all of the residents of Asia heard the word--both Jews and Gentiles 19:10
5. Paul demonstrates the uniqueness of God’s power: The Lord affirmed the message of Paul about Jesus through great miracles of healing by the hand of Paul, and the humiliation of some false Jewish exorcists thus causing Jesus’ name to be feared in all of Ephesus, and causing many believers to repent of their activity in the occult 19:11-19
a. Positively: God did many extraordinary miracles by Paul including the healing of the sick and the deliverance of people from evil spirits 19:11-12
1) God did extraordinary miracles by the hands of Paul 19:11
2) Handkerchiefs or aprons were carried away from the body of Paul to people who were sick and they were cured of diseases and evil spirits 19:12
b. Negatively: When some Jewish exorcists tried to cast out spirits in the name of Jesus whom Paul preached, the spirits acknowledged Jesus and Paul, but severely humiliated the exorcists causing all in Ephesus to honor Jesus, and many believers to repent of their evil, satanic practices 19:13-19
1) Some itinerant Jewish exorcists (seven sons of the Jewish high priest named Sceva) tried to cast out spirits in the name of the Jesus whom Paul preaches 19:13-14
2) The evil spirits acknowledged Jesus and Paul, but not these exorcists and worked through the demonized to beat them up and cast them out naked 19:15-16
3) The humiliation of the Jewish exorcists spread to all of the people of Ephesus causing them to become fearful, and extol the name of Jesus 19:17
4) The result of the humiliation of the false exorcists was that many believers came confessing and divulging their evil practices and burning their valuable satanic books 19:18-19
D. Summary Statement: The Word of the Lord grew and prevailed mightily 19:20
VIII. The Church’s mission through the Apostle Paul is demonstrated to not be anti-Gentile or anti-Jewish in spite of their rejection, but a proclamation of the Gospel to all peoples--including the Jews 19:21--28:31
A. As Paul goes to Jerusalem he demonstrates that his message is to all peoples--even those who reject him of the Gentiles and the Jews 19:21--26:32
1. Paul is shown to be a messenger to all peoples--even though they may reject him: Through two parallel scenes regarding an uproar concerning the temple of Artemis in Ephesus followed by a positive speech to the leaders of the Gentile church there, and an uproar concerning the temple of YHWH in Jerusalem followed by a positive speech to the people of Jerusalem, Paul demonstrates himself to be a messenger to all peoples--both Gentiles and Jews--even though many from each people group may reject him 19:21--22:30
a. Paul among the Gentiles some of whom reject his message: Even though some Gentiles rejected the message of the Way in Ephesus because it threatened to disrupt their financial security in the false goddess Artemis, Paul still encouraged those among the Gentiles who believed in Jesus to follow his example by being faithful to their calling even in the face of difficulties 19:21--20:38
1) Negative--Temple riot: While Paul was in Ephesus before his journey west, a riot arouse against the Way because of the threat it brought upon the temple of Artemis, but it was not focused, even overriding the Jews together with those from the Way, and was dismissed as being groundless, and threatening to the city of Ephesus 19:21-41
a) Paul stayed in Ephesus a while having already sent his helpers, Timothy and Erastus, to Macedonia where he intended to follow as he pursued his concluding trip through Macedonia, and Achaia, and then on to Jerusalem and Rome 19:21-22
b) While Paul was staying in Ephesus, Demetrius, a silversmith insighted a riot against the Way because its proclamation threatened the future of Artemis and thus their profession 19:23-31
(1) While Paul was staying in Ephesus, a great stir arose concerning the Way 19:23
(2) A silversmith named Demetrius who made shrines of Artimis stirred up a crowed against Paul because he believed that Paul’s faith threatened his future business and the future of Artemis from her fame in Asia 19:24-27
(3) The crowd became mobilized in their anger and took two Macedonian, companions of Paul, Gius and Aristarchus into the theater 19:28-29
(4) Paul wished to go among the crowed but he was dissuaded by disciples and Asiarchs 19:30-31
c) The crowd was not unified in their concern, and they also shouted down Alexander who tried to make a defense for the Jews to the crowd 19:32-34
(1) Many charges were cried out because the assembly was not unified 19:32
(2) A Jew named Alexander was put forth to make a defense for the Jews to the crowd, but he was also rejected as the crowd cheered for Artemis 19:33-34
d) Quieting the mob down, the town clerk urged the crowd to do nothing rash and to disperse since all of Asia is aware of the place of Artemis in Ephesus, since those taken hostage have done no wrong, and since disputes need to be taken to provided forums for attention lest the city be charged (by Rome) of rioting 19:35-41
(1) The town clerk quieted the crowd down 19:35a
(2) The town clerk urged the crowd to do nothing rash since all of Asia knows of Artemis presence in Ephesus 19:35b-36
(3) The town clerk acquitted Gaius and Aristarchus from illegal activity toward Artemis 19:37
(4) The town clerk urged any disputes to be settled in the legal forums provided because they were about to be charged with rioting by Rome 19:38-40
(5) The town clerk dismissed the assembly 19:41
2) Positive--Testimony to Gentile Christianity: Paul encourages the Gentile churches to be faithful to its calling as he has been faithful to his calling 20:1-38
a) Setting/statement of ministry: After the uproar in Ephesus, Paul went to Macedonia and Greece encouraging the churches, but was threatened by a Jewish plot as he was about to sail for Syria, so he went back through Macedonia and sailed from Philippi to Troas where he met those from his party waiting for him 20:1-5
(1) After the uproar in Ephesus, Paul encouraged the disciples there and left them for Macedonia 20:1
(2) Paul encouraged the believers in Macedonia and went to Greece 20:2
(3) Paul stayed three months in Greece and decided to go back to Jerusalem through Macedonia because of a plot set against him by the Jews as he was about to sail for Syria 20:3
(4) Those accompanying Paul (Sopater of Beroea, Aristarchus and Secundus of Thessalonica, Gaius and Timothy of Derby, and Tychicus and Tromphimus from Asia) went ahead and waited for Paul in Troas of Asia 20:4
(5) After the days of unleavened bread Paul’s party sailed from Philippi and arrived in Troas were they stayed for seven days 20:5
b) Sign of ministry: Although the church was not in agreement with Paul’s words (probably about leaving them not to see them again), God confirmed that he was speaking for God through the revival of Eutychus, thus the church was greatly encouraged at Paul’s departure 20:7-12
(1) On Sunday, the day before his departure, Paul dialogued with those from the church until midnight 20:7
(2) Because of the fumes from the lamps in the upper room a youth named Eutychus fell asleep and out of the third story window to his death thereby disrupting the discussion with Paul 20:8-9
(3) Paul’s words are confirmed to the people as he restores the boy’s life to him as the prophets Elijah (1 Ki. 17:21ff) and Elisha (2 Ki. 4:34) had to other youths 20:10-11
(4) When Paul left the church they were greatly comforted because of the boy in their presence 20:12
c) Sermon of Ministry: Although Paul bypassed Ephesus, he called the Ephesian elders from Miletus and encouraged them as he prepared to take leave of them for the last time in the face of persecution, to follow his example and thus to protect the church from false teachers, and to serve them rather than take from them, thus, with tears they left one another 20:13-38
(1) Setting: Paul went from Troas by land and met the party at Assos where they sailed to Mitylene, then opposite Chios, then Samos, and then to Miletus bypassing Ephesus so that Paul might hurry to Jerusalem by Pentecost 20:13-16
(2) From Meletus Paul called the elders from the church in Ephesus to speak to them 20:17-18
(3) Paul reviews his past devotion to them in teaching repentance and belief in Jesus for salvation to both Jews and Gentiles 20:19-21
(4) Paul proclaims his willingness to leave them and go toward the persecution which the Spirit says awaits him as he returns to Jerusalem continuing to testify to the gospel of grace which he proclaimed to them 20:22-28
(5) Paul urges the Ephesian elders to guard those in the church and the church itself from deceiving false teachers 20:29-31
(6) Paul committed the elders to the Lord and urged them to follow his example of not taking, but giving to the weak 20:32-35
(7) When Paul finished speaking to the elders they prayed, and full of love said goodbye to one another as they brought him to the ship 20:36-38
b. Paul among the Jews who reject his message: Being willing to suffer for the sake of Jesus, Paul attempted to demonstrate that he was not anti-Jewish by participating in temple activities only to be falsely accused of being against the Jews and the temple, whereupon he was delivered, defended himself before the people as being Jewish himself, and having a message from God for all people, and going more to the Gentiles because of Israel’s rejection, only to again be rejected by the Jews and spared from a Roman flogging because he was a Roman citizen 21:1-22:29
1) Negative--Temple riot: As Paul journeyed to Jerusalem he was warned of persecution which awaited him, proclaimed his willingness to die for the Lord Jesus, and then entered into the persecution as Asian Jews stirred the crowd by falsely accusing him of speaking against the people and profaning the temple, only to be delivered to the steps of the barracks by Roman soldiers 21:1-37
Setting: During Paul’s journeys from Miletus to Jerusalem he was warned by the Holy Spirit of the persecution which awaited him in Jerusalem, but proclaimed his willingness to even die for the Lord Jesus if need be (as Jesus did) 21:1-16
a) Paul and the party traveled from Miletus to Cos, Rhodes, Patara, and to Tyre of Syria 21:1-3
b) The party stayed in Tyre for seven days with disciples who told Paul through revelation by the Spirit not to go to Jerusalem, but the party left the city with an escort of disciples and sailed on to Ptolemais and then went to the house of Philip in Caesarea 21:4-8
c) At the house of Philip a prophet named Agabus proclaimed that Paul would be bound in Jerusalem and delivered to the Gentiles, but Paul proclaimed his willingness to suffer for the Lord Jesus against the protest of the people, and he was committed to the Lord’s will (cf. Lk. 18:31-32; 22:42) 21:9-14
d) Paul and the party then went up to Jerusalem with some of the disciples from Caesarea including Mnason of Cyprus 21:15-16
2) When Paul came to Jerusalem, he proclaimed his ministry among the Gentiles, was warned to demonstrate that he was not against the Law for Jews, and attempted to do that, when Jews from Asia stirred up a crowd accusing Paul of speaking against the Jews and profaning the temple, only to be rescued to the steps of the barracks by Roman soldiers 21:17-36
a) When the party came to Jerusalem they were well received, reported to James and the elders of Jerusalem all that God had done through Paul for the Gentiles, were warned of the rumors circulating that Paul was against the Law, and were urged to demonstrate that Paul was not against the Law even though the Gentile mission was good 21:17-25
(1) When the party came to Jerusalem they were well received by the brethren 21:17
(2) On the next day Paul and the party visited James and the Jerusalem elders and reported all that God had done among the Gentiles through Paul and they glorified God 21:18-20a
(3) James then reports to Paul that among the thousands of Jews who have believed many are zealous for the Law and will be upset when they learn that Paul is in town because there is a roomer that he is telling Jews to forsake the law 21:20b-22
(4) James urges Paul to demonstrate that he is not against the law by participating in the ceremonial service of those completing their vows 21:23-24
(5) James again affirms the Gentile mission of Paul by reciting only the prohibitions mentioned in the council of Acts 15 21:25
b) As Paul went to demonstrate that he was not against the practice of the law by Jews, Asian Jews stirred up the crowd with false accusations that Paul was against the Jews and had profaned the temple with Gentiles so that Paul’s life was only spared through Roman soldiers who took him to the steps of the barracks 21:26-36
(1) On the next day, Paul took those whose vow he was going to pay for in a demonstration of his commitment to the Law for Jews to the Temple, and gave the offering for himself and them 21:26
(2) When the seven days of purification were almost completed, Jews from Asia stirred up a crowd against Paul falsely proclaiming that he spoke against the Jewish people, and that he had defiled the temple by bringing Gentiles into its Jewish courts 21:27-30
(3) All of Jerusalem was aroused, seized Paul, drug him out of the temple, shut the temple gates and tried to kill him only to stop when the Roman tribune and his solders arrived 21:31-32
(4) Paul was delivered from the midst of the crowd by the Roman soldiers to the steps of the barracks as the crowd cried, “Away with him!” 21:33-36
3) Positive--Testimony to unbelieving Jews: As Paul was about to be led away from the crowd he was given permission to address them, whereupon he identified him as a Jew like they, but with a mission from God to all peoples which has been amplified among the Gentiles because of Jewish rejection, whereupon the crowd wanted Paul dead, and the Romans almost had him flogged until they learned of his Roman citizenship 21:37--23:10
a) Setting: As Paul was about to be led by the Roman soldiers into the barracks, he spoke to the tribune in Greek, corrected his mistaken identification of Paul for an escaped Egyptian slave and received permission to speak to the people 21:37-40a
(1) As Paul was about to be brought into the barracks he spoke in Greek to the Tribune 21:37
(2) The Tribune thought Paul was an escaped Egyptian who led a revolt with four thousand men 21:38
(3) Paul identified himself as a Jew from the major city of Tarsus in Cilicia and requested that he might speak to the people, which he was given 21:39-40a
b) When Paul gained the attention of the people, he defended himself against the accusations that he was anti-Jewish by proclaiming that he and his mission were Jewish (like they are), but God gave him a universal mission which Jewish rejection made more Gentile 22:1-21
(1) Setting: Paul gained the attention of the people from the steps, and began to speak his defense to them in Hebrew (Aramaic) as brethren and fathers 21:40b--22:1
(2) Paul identifies himself as being just as Jewish as his audience is 22:3-5
(3) Paul describes his conversion to the Way in Jewish terms and his commission from God to witness to all peoples 22:6-15
(4) Paul describes his movement to the Gentiles as being a divine command because his Jewish brethren would reject his testimony about Jesus 22:16-21
c) The response to Paul’s message was that the Jews wanted him to be killed and the Romans almost had him flogged until they learned that Paul was a Roman citizen 22:22-29
(1) When Paul spoke of the Gentile nature of his mission, the Jews demanded that he be killed 22:22
(2) In the riotous activity of the crowd the tribune had Paul brought into the barracks to be scourged in order to find out why the people were against him 22:23-24
(3) When the tribune learned that Paul was a Roman citizen, he was not scourged and the tribune was fearful for having bound him 22:25-29
2. Paul’s declares his message to be for all people--especially the Jews: As the Jews accuse Paul of doing wrong against the law and the temple (like with Jesus and Stephen), Paul declares before the Sanhedrin, Felix, Festus, and Agrippa that his message, concerning the resurrection of Jesus, is the hope Israel’s future and is for all peoples, especially Israel as the fulfillment of Scripture 23:11--26:32
a. Paul’s first apology: When Paul was brought before the Sanhedrin by the tribune on the next day, he proclaimed that he had been pure since God’s calling of him, that he was devoted to the law more than those trying him, and that the reason he was on trial was because of the hope of Israel, the resurrection from the dead, which divided the party, caused the Pharisees to acquit Paul, caused the tribunal to deliver Paul to the barracks, and led to the Lord’s affirmation that he would also testify of Him in Rome 22:30--23:10
1) Setting: On the next day the Tribune brought Paul before the Sanhedrin in order to learn the real reason why the Jews accused him 22:30
2) Looking intently at the council Paul said that his conduct had been blameless since his call by the Lord 23:1
3) When Paul was struck for his statement, he rebuked the “high” priest for his hypocritical use of the Law and affirmed his loyalty to the law 23:2-5
a) The high priest commanded those by Paul to strike him after he had proclaimed his purity 23:2
b) Paul reviled the high priest as a hypocrite because he breaks the law by ordering that Paul be struck while claiming to judge Paul by means of the law 23:2-3
c) Those near by questioned Paul for reviling the high priest 23:4
d) Paul recanted (in a play of words which suggests that their view of the priest’s position is not the same as God’s view) in a desire to show himself as one who respected the law which he quoted from Exodus 22:27 23:5
4) When Paul saw that the council was divided between Sadducees and Pharisees, he noted that he was on trial for the hope (of Israel), the resurrection from the dead, which led to a division between the groups, the tribunal’s departure with Paul to the barracks, and the Lord’s encouragement of Paul that he would speak in Rome as he had in Jerusalem 23:6-11
a) When Paul perceived that the council was divided between Sadducees and Pharisees, he proclaimed that he was a Pharisee, and that he was on trial for the hope (of Israel)--the resurrection of the dead 23:6
b) When Paul mentioned the resurrection, the council divided, the Pharisees supported Paul, the tribune had to take Paul back to the barracks for his protection, and the Lord appeared to Paul exhorting him that he would testify in Rome as he had in Jerusalem 23:7-11
(1) When Paul mentioned the resurrection, the assembly of Pharisees and Sadducees was divided because the Sadducees did not believe in the supernatural including the resurrection, angels or spirits, while the Pharisees did 23:7-8
(2) With the rise of a great clamor, the Pharisees’ party moved closer to Paul’s message by proclaiming Paul to be without guilt since he could have been spoken to by a spirit or an angel 23:9
(3) When the discussion became violent, Paul was taken by the tribune away from the Sanhedrin to the barracks 23:10
(4) The following night the Lord came to Paul and encouraged him to be encouraged because he would testify about Him in Rome as he had in Jerusalem 23:11
b. Paul’s second apology God sovereignly preserved Paul from a plot by the Jews against his life by having the tribunal of Jerusalem deliver Paul to Caesarea where Paul defended himself before the Jews as being innocent of any charges brought against him, and being on trial because of his proclamation of the hope of Israel through the resurrection, whereupon Felix refused to decide the trial as he became involved in his own self-interests 23:12--24:7
1) Through the “coincidence” of Paul’s nephew overhearing about the plot to kill Paul, he was delivered under armed guard to Caesarea to the governor, Felix, with a letter of explanation and held under guard until his accusers from the Jews arrived 23:12-35
a) A group of Jews made an oath to fast until they killed Paul through a plot with the chief priests and elders to ambush him on his way to another trial 23:12-15
b) The son of Paul’s sister heard about the ambush, informed Paul, and then under Paul’s direction informed the tribune 23:16-22
c) At 9:00 p.m. the tribune had Paul escorted away from the Jewish threat to Caesarea with 200 soldiers, 70 calvary, and 200 armed troops, and with a letter to governor Felix commending himself (falsely), explaining the circumstances, and announcing that he had given the case over to him 23:23-30
d) After Paul is escorted to Ceasarea and Felix read the letter, he was held under guard in Herod’s praetorium until his accusers came and Felix would hear the case 23:31-35
2) When the Jews came before Felix with the accusations that Paul disrupted society and tried to profane the temple, Paul dismissed the first charge as having no evidence, and argued that he was only on trial because of his belief in the resurrection, whereupon, Felix refused to be decisive about either Paul’s message or Paul’s case because of his own self-interests 24:1-27
a) Setting: After five days the Jews arrived with the high priest Ananias, elders and a spokesman named Tertullus to lay their case down against Paul 24:1
b) After honoring Felix, Tertullus (with the Jews) accused Paul of being a danger to society, and one who tried to defile the temple 24:2-9
c) Paul, as a better orator than Tertullus, honored Felix, dismissed the question of societal disruption due to the lack of evidence, and argued that he was only on trial, as a good Jew, for his belief in the resurrection of the dead 24:10-21
(1) Under the recognition of Felix, Paul first responded by also honoring Felix 24:10
(2) Secondly, Paul negated the charge that he was a danger to society by referring to his peaceful activity when he came to Jerusalem, and by noting that the Jews have no evidence for such a charge 24:11-13
(3) Finally, Paul proclaimed that the reason he was on trial before Felix was because of his belief, as a member of the Way, and as a good Jew, in the resurrection of the dead as the hope of the Messianic kingdom 24:14-21
d) Felix responded to the trial by offering Paul a measure of freedom while he waited for a decision, and by delaying to decide personally about Paul’s message, or Paul’s freedom because of his own self-interest 24:22-27
(1) Felix, having a knowledge of the Way, put off his decision of the trial until Lysias the tribune who had delivered Paul to Felix arrived 24:22
(2) Felix then had Paul kept in custody, but with a measure of liberty allowing his friends to care for him 24:23
(3) After some days, Felix then came with his wife, Drusilla, to hear Paul speak of Jesus, but delayed any kind of commitment to Paul’s message of justice and self-control 24:24-25
(4) Felix also delayed any decision concerning Paul’s case as he waited for payment by Paul, and as he offered a political favor to the Jews upon his replacement by Porcius Festus 24:26-27
c. Paul’s third apology In trials before Festus and Agrippa which proclaimed the innocence of Paul, and that he must go to Rome in accordance with his appeal, Paul proclaimed himself to be innocent of any wrongs against the Jews, and that he was only announcing as a faithful Jew commissioned by Jesus, the hope of Israel, for all peoples through the resurrection of Jesus 25:1--26:32
1) When the Jews came to Caesarea at the requirement of Festus to try Paul, Paul denied all of the false charges by the Jews, and chose to appeal to Caesar rather than be returned to Jerusalem for trial because he was innocent, and should be tried before Rome; Festus granted his appeal 25:1-12
a) While Festus was in Jerusalem, he was urged by the Jews to return Paul to Jerusalem for trial (so that they may ambush him), but Festus refused exhorting them to come to Caesarea and present their case against Paul before him 25:1-5
b) In about ten days, Festus returned to Caesarea and set forth a trial in which the Jews brought many indefensible charges against Paul 24:6-7
c) In a trial before Festus, Paul denied all of the false charges by the Jews, and chose to appeal to Caesar rather than be returned to Jerusalem for trial because he was innocent, and should be tried before Rome; Festus granted his appeal 25:6-12
(1) Paul proclaimed that he had not acted against the law of the Jews, the temple nor Caesar 24:8
(2) Festus, now wishing to do the Jews a favor (cf. 25:3), asked Paul if he now wished to go up to Jerusalem to be tried 25:9
(3) Paul declined to go up to the Jews because he was innocent, because he was being tried as he ought to be before Caesar’s tribunal, and because he in his innocence would rather appeal to Caesar (cf. 23:11) 25:10-12
(4) Festus, after conferring with his council proclaimed that Paul would go to Caesar as he had appealed 25:12
2) In a trial arranged by Festus before King Agrippa, Paul proclaimed himself as merely a faithful Jew who once was against Jesus, but met him on the Damascus road, and has been proclaiming faithfully ever since the hope of Israel through the resurrection of Jesus to all peoples, whereupon, Agrippa announced in private that Paul was innocent, and could go free if he had not appealed to Caesar 25:13--26:32
a) Setting: Several days after Paul’s trial before Festus, Agrippa and Bernice came to visit Festus, Festus explained the Jewish nature of the trial with Paul, and Agrippa agreed to hear Paul on the next day 25:13-22
(1) After some days, the king, Herod Agrippa, and Bernice arrived at Caesarea to welcome Festus 25:13
(2) Festus explained (in a self-flattering manner) Paul’s case to Agrippa as not being about (secular) evils, but about Jewish matters, and the resurrection of Jesus, so that Paul was now being held to be sent to Rome 25:14-21
(3) Agrippa requested to hear Paul on the next day, and was Festus agreed 25:22
b) On the next day when Paul came before Agrippa in the “audience hall”, Festus announced that even though he found none of the charges assigned by the Jews to be valid, Paul had appealed to Caesar, and thus now he was seeking Agrippa’s help in evaluating the case so that he could send a reasonable letter along with the case to Caesar 25:23-27
(1) On the next day, Agrippa and Bernice entered the audience hall with great pomp, and Paul was also brought in to the hall 25:23
(2) Festus then addressed King Agrippa concerning Paul’s case proclaiming that even though all the Jews believed that Paul should die, he found him innocent, but was now allowing this trial to take place because Paul had appealed to Caesar, and Festus did not know what to write about the trial as he sent Paul to Rome 25:24-27
c) When Agrippa gave Paul permission to speak Paul defended himself by proclaiming before this discerning judge of Jewish matters that He is a Jew, who once vehemently stood against the name of Jesus, but now because of his experience on the Damascus road with Jesus, proclaims to all peoples (Jews and Gentiles) that Jesus is the fulfillment the Scriptures’ hope of resurrection for all 26:1-23
(1) Agrippa gave Paul permission to speak for himself, and he began 26:1
(2) Paul honors Agrippa as his judge because he is familiar with the customs and controversies of the Jews, and he urges him to listen patiently 26:2-3
(3) Paul identifies himself as a well known Jew, and that he is on trial for the Jewish hope of the resurrection 26:4-8
(4) Paul explained that he once vehemently stood against the name of Jesus Christ, and those who held to it, but on his journey to Damascus he was met by Jesus who commissioned him to go and proclaim forgiveness of sins through faith in Jesus for all peoples--Jews and Gentiles 26:9-18
(5) Paul proclaimed to Agrippa that he was obedient to the heavenly vision proclaiming Jesus to all peoples--the Jews in Damascus, Jerusalem, and through all Judea, and the gentiles--to repent and do appropriate good works, and this is why the Jews tried to kill him in the temple 26:19-21
(6) Paul then testifies that God has helped him to this day so that he could proclaim to all peoples what the Jewish Scriptures foretold, namely, that Jesus is the first of the communal resurrection--He is the Jewish hope 26:22-23
d) Festus interrupted Paul’s defense with a discounting of the Scriptures as an authority in this hearing 26:24
e) Paul objects that he is not mad, and urges Agrippa to consider what he has said in view of the scriptures which he does believe 26:25-27
(1) Paul objects that he is not “mad”, but speaking the sober truth 26:25
(2) Paul (as a model evangelists) then appeals to King Agrippa to consider what he has said in light of the scriptures (the prophets) which he does believe 26:26-27
f) King Agrippa questions whether or not Paul is trying to make him into a Christian 26:28
g) Paul answers in the affirmative to Agrippa and again proclaims his mission to all peoples as one who wishes that all who presently hear him may become a Christian 26:29
h) Agrippa, Bernice, and those with them arose, and then proclaimed in private that Paul was innocent, and could be released if he had not appealed to Caesar 26:30-32
B. Paul goes as God’s vindicated messenger to Rome among receptive Gentiles, then presents his message in Rome to Jews who reject it, whereupon he proclaims his message to all peoples 27:1--28:31
1. Paul is shown to be God’s vindicated messenger to receptive Gentiles: In this long journey to the center of the Gentile people (Rome), Paul is vindicated by God as His messenger, and the Gentiles are demonstrated to be receptive to the mission in accordance with God’s word 27:1--28:16
a. When the rulers (Festus and Agrippa?) decided that they should sail to Italy, they delivered Paul with other prisoners to the centurion of the Augustan Cohort, named Jusius 27:1
b. The party (with Paul as prisoner, Luke the writer, and Aristarchus, a Macedonian [cf. Col. 4:10; Philemon 24) set to sea on a ship of Adramyttium (a seaport of Mysia) traveling down the Asiatic coast 27:2
c. Although the trip to Rome was characterized by enormous trials, Paul was vindicated by God as the Gentiles followed his words and found physically salvation, and Paul was both thankful and encouraged in Rome because God’s word had come to pass when brethren came from all around to great him 27:3--28:15
1) The next day the ship put in at Sidon where Julius (the centurion) allowed Paul leave to be with his friends and to be cared for 27:3
2) From Sidon they sailed east and north of the Island of Cyprus because the winds were against them, then west past Cilicia and Pamphylia to Myra in Lycia where they change ships to one from Alexandria sailing to Italy 27:4-6
3) They sailed slowly for many days, arrived with difficulty off Cnidus and sailed because of the wind to the south of Crete to a place called Fair Havens near Lasea 27:7-8
4) Because of the difficult sailing, and because dangerous winds of winter were near (the fast of the Day of Atonement), Paul advised the rulers not to set sail without loosing much cargo and many people, but the centurion paid no attention to him, and they set sail to reach Phoenix, a harbor of Crete, for the winter 27:9-12
5) With a gentile breeze from the south, they sailed along the shore of Crete 27:13
6) When a severe storm lasting fourteen days came upon the ship, all was nearly lost, but God spared all on board to the island of Malta as they listened to the words of Paul 27:14--28:1
a) Soon a “north-easter” which Luke compares to a typhoon struck down from the land, and being unable to fight it, they drifted along until they secured the dinghy near Cauda 27:14-16
b) Several desperate measures were taken to secure the ship from drifting into land (they got the dinghy on board, they set a loose anchor [or lowered the mainsail], and were driven by the storm 27:17
c) As the storm raged they threw cargo overboard the next day, and on the third day cast out the tackle [spare cargo] of the ship by hand, because all hope of being saved was being abandoned due to their inability to navigate to dark skies, and the severity of the storm 27:18-20
d) Paul, reminding them that he had foretold them of this calamity, urged them all to be encouraged because an angel of the Lord whom he worships told him that night that he would have to stand before Caesar, and all would be saved on the ship, even though the ship would be lost, and they would have to run on to some island 27:21-26
e) On the fourteenth night of the storm they were drifting through the central Mediterranean (the sea of Adria) when sounding produced decreasing fathoms so that they lowered four anchors to prevent them from running into land, and prayed that morning would come 27:27-29
f) Sailors attempted to escape through the lowering of the dinghy, but Paul declared that only those who stayed with the boat would be saved, so they cut away the dinghy 27:30-32
g) In the morning of the fourteenth Paul encouraged all to eat since they would all be saved, whereupon, they eat and then threw overboard the excess wheat 27:33-38
h) When morning dawned they saw a beach and attempted to sail upon it, but they ran the vessel aground, and as it began to break up, the soldiers intended to kill the prisoners lest they should escape, but the centurion, wishing to save Paul, intervened and all escaped to the land--called the island of Malta 27:39--8:1
7) When they arrived on the island of Malta, Paul was vindicated through not being harmed by a snake bite, and the natives were cured of their illnesses as they came to Paul, causing them to send the party off to Rome with all that they needed 28:2-10
a) When they arrived on the island of Malta, the natives (barbaroi) welcomed them all and kindled a fire to keep them warm from the rain and cold 28:2
b) As Paul was gathering a bundle of sticks, a viper bit him, and the natives identified this as justice from the gods upon him 28:3-4
c) When Paul did had no harm from the viper, the natives changed their minds and called him a god (Paul is vindicated) 28:5
d) The party also stayed with a chief man of the island named Publius, and Paul healed his ill father, causing the people to come for healing, and to send them off to sail for Rome will all that they needed 28:7-10
8) The party set sail for Italy, were met by brethren along the way, and by brethren from the district of Rome when they arrived causing Paul to give thanks to God and to be encouraged 28:11-15
a) After three months they set sail for Italy on an Alexandrian ship with the twin Greek navigation gods, Castor and Pollux, as their figurehead 28:11
b) They put in at Syracuse (on the south-east of Sicily) for three days, and then arrived at Rhegium (on the toe of Italy), then they came to Puteoli (in the Bay of Naples) where brethren were found with whom they stayed for seven days, then they came to Rome 28:12-14
c) The brethren at Rome came from as far away as the Forum of Appius (the Appian Way, 43 miles from Rome) and Three Taverns (33 miles south of Rome) causing Paul to given thanks and to be greatly encouraged that God’s word had come to pass 28:15
2. Paul declares his Gospel to be for all peoples even though the Jews reject it: The hardness of Israel toward’s the mission is demonstrated again through those in Rome, but Paul continues to proclaim the message to all peoples 28:16-31
a. Setting: In Rome Paul was allowed to stay by himself under the protection of a Roman guard, and so after three days, he called together the leaders of the local Jews 28:16-17a
1) In Rome Paul was allowed to stay by himself with a soldier that guarded him 28:16
2) After three days, Paul calls together the local leaders of the Jews 28:17a
b. When Paul met with the local Jews (two times) he first proclaimed that he was not anti-Jewish, but in prison for the hope of Israel, then he proclaimed Jesus as the hope of Israel, and told those who rejected his message that they were falling into the national pattern of disbelief, thus the message would go to the Gentiles who would listen 28:17b-28
1) Paul explains to the local Jews that he is not a prisoner because he is against the Jews, but because he proclaims the hope of Israel 28:17b-20
a) Paul explains to the Jews that even though he had done nothing against the people of the customs of the Jews, he was a prisoner in Rome to see Caesar because the Jews in Jerusalem falsely plotted against him 28:17b-19
b) Paul proclaims to these Jews that he is a prisoner because of the hope of Israel 28:20
2) The local Jews proclaim that they have not heard any word about Paul from Jerusalem, but that they do desire to hear more about the “sect” of Judaism know as the Way which is being spoken against everywhere 28:21-22
3) On an appointed day Paul proclaimed from Morning until evening to the many Jews who came to him about the “hope of Israel” (the kingdom, Jesus from the Law and Prophets) 28:23
4) The Jews were divided over Paul’s testimony: some were convinced, and some disbelieved 28:24
5) Before the Jews departed Paul proclaimed to those who disbelieved (from Isaiah 6:9-10) that they were falling into the national pattern of not believing and thus becoming hard hearted 28:25-27
6) Paul also proclaims that in light of Israel’s hard heartedness, the message is going to the Gentiles because they will listen (as was proven in chapter 27) 28:28
7) Note well: Verse 29 is not in the best manuscripts
c. Summary Statement: Paul lived in Rome for two whole years welcoming all who came to him and preaching the hope of Israel (the kingdom of God, and Jesus as Messiah) openly and unhindered 28:30-31
1 Everett Ferguson writes, “Macedonian woman had greater independence and importance in public affairs. This coincides with the greater prominence that women held in the Macedonian churches (notice esp. the women associated with the Philippian church*Acts 16:14-15; Phil 4:2-3). Under the influence of the Macedonian princesses women came to have greater freedom in the Hellenistic Age” (Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 71).
Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines
An Introduction to the Pentateuch
Related MediaI. Identification:
A. The Pentateuch consists of the first five books of the OT: Genesis, Exodus Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy
B. The term “Pentateuch” comes from the Greek term pentáteuchos meaning “five-volumed (book) after the Jewish designation, “the five-fifths of the law”1
C. The Jews called it “Torah” (instruction) which is often rendered in English by “Law” (Matt 5:17; Luke 16:17; Acts 7:53; 1 Cor 9:8)
D. Although each book is a unit, together they form a larger unit and unity
II. Unity:
A. These five books form a backbone for the rest of the OT and NT theologically (Deut 26:5-10; Josh 24:2-13; Acts 13:17-41)
B. The books contain a chronological and theological progression:2
The Pentateuch: The founding of the Theocracy--the re-establishment of God’s rule on earth through man over evil and over all creation
1. Genesis: The origins behind the founding of the theocracy--the promised blessing of the seed in the land and of all peoples through the seed
2. Exodus: The redemptions of the seed of Abraham out of bondage and the formation of this people to be a nation with a constitution
a. The redemption of the people
1) Their bondage 1--10
2) Their redemption 11-18
b. The formation of a people with a constitution:
1) Moral judgments 19-20
2) Social judgments 21--24
3) Cultic judgments 25ff
3. Leviticus: Israel’s culture is established by providing a manual of ordinances to help with their needs when approaching God who is going to live among His people in holiness (Lev 26:11-12)
4. Numbers: YHWH orders Israel’s walk (the military arrangement, census of the tribes, transport of the sacred palladium), but Israel disrupts YHWH’s order; Nevertheless, the promised blessing cannot be frustrated from within or from without
5. Deuteronomy: The reconstitution of the nation under YHWH to enter the land through a covenant renewal in legal-prophetic form
C. The Pentateuch is also tied around the two-fold narrative character of narrative interspersed with blocks of legal material. La Sor et al consider this to be connected with the genre of the suzerain-vassal treaty form which combines history (the historical prologue) and law (in the stipulations)3
III. Authorship: Moses4
A. The Pentateuch is an anonymous work5
B. The Books do give indications of Moses as its writer:He was ordered to write historical facts (Ex 17:14; Num 33:1-2), laws (Ex 24:4, 7; 34:27ff) and one poem (Deut 31:9, 22)
C. Moses is affirmed as author in the rest of the OT: (Joshua 1:7-8; 8:32, 34; 22:5; 1 Ki 2:3; 2 Ki 14:6; 21:8; Ezra 6:18; Dan 9:11-13; Mal 4:4)
D. The NT referred to Moses as the author of the Pentateuch (Matt 19:18; Mark 12:26; Luke 2:22; 16:29; 24:27; John 5:46-47; 7:19; Acts 13:39; Rom 10:5)
E. Moses is testified to be the author of the whole Pentateuch in a unanimous way in the Talmud and the Church Fathers!
IV. Documentary Hypothesis:
A. “The aim of higher criticism is to determine the date, authorship, composition and/or unity of the literary works in the Old Testament”6
B. Philosophically higher criticism developed out of the Rationalism of Spinoza (1670)
1. All truth must stand before the bar of reason since only reason is universal in time and common to all humanity
2. Therefore the Bible’s claim of special revelation and inspiration is repudiated
3. Therefore, not all of the Bible can measure up to the demands of reason.
C. This was an attempt to identify the main documents which were sources behind the Pentateuch (assuming that Moses was not the author [under reason])
D. Elements employed to identify these blocks were:
1. Subject matter
2. The use of divine names (YHWH, Elohim)
3. Duplications in material (doublets and triplets)7
4. Similarity of vocabulary and style
5. Uniformity of theological outlook
6. Priestly Concerns
E. In 1875 Wellhausen (building upon earlier scholars such as Graf) identified four sources behind Genesis which were called J, E, D, P. This became known as the Graf-Wellhausen Hypothesis:
1. The Yahwist’s narrative (“J” from the German Jahweh)8
2. The Elohist’s narrative (“E”)9
3. The Deuteronomist’s document 10
4. The priestly document (P) dealings with priestly issues (portions of narrative, genealogies, ritual, cult) in Genesis through Numbers (supposedly this comes from 586-516 BC)
F. A major difficult with this approach is that it overlooks literary styles and techniques used in narration (e.g., the use of duplications to communicate sovereignty, the use of divine names to teach theology et cetera)11
1 La Sor, Hubbard, Bush, Old Testament Survey,54.
2 This material is modified from Allen P. Ross’ “An Outline for The Theology of the Hebrew Psalter,” 3-4, and class notes from Elliott E. Johnson.
La Sor et al make a good observation when they write, “The Pentateuch thus has two major divisions: Gen. 1-11 and Gen. 12-Deut. 34. The relation between them is one of question and answer, problem and solution; the clue is Gen. 12:3” (OTS, 57).
3 La Sor et al, OTS, 59 n. 7.
4 When one affirms Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, this does not mean that there was no editorial redaction in the final canonical form. Certainly Moses was not able to write about his own death at the end of Deuteronomy (Deut 34:5ff). In addition Moses was obviously not an eyewitness to the Genesis events. No doubt these were preserved through oral tradition until the time of the Exodus when finally Moses put them down in writing. However, it is not necessary to follow La Sor et al’s evolutionary explanation for the formation of the rest of the Pentateuch (OTS, 63).
5 This is in keeping with the OT practice in general and with ancient literary works in general (cf. Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah (La Sor et al, OTS, 61 n. 14).
6 Allen P. Ross, “Lecture One: The Literary Analytical Approach,” 1.
7 Two creation accounts (J and P), two flood accounts (P and J), endangering Sarah (12:10--13:1; 20:1-18), Abraham’s treaty with Abimelech (21:22-34), God’s covenant with Abraham (12; 15; 17), Hagar and Ishmael (16:4-14; 21:8-21; birth of Isaac (21:1-7); wooing of Rebekah (24); Jacob’s deception of Esau and flight from him (25--27:8; 27); theophany in Bethel (28:13-16, 19; 28:1-12, 17-18; 20-22), Jacob’s meeting with Esau (32--33), Joseph and his brothers (37, 39--50); Theophany at Sinai (Ex 19; 20:18-21; Moses’ ascent into the mountain (24:1-4; 24:12-18); Decalogue (34:5-26; 20:1-17); Decalogue tablets (34:24-28; 31:18); Balak’s embassy to Balaam (22:2-19); Balaam sets out on the road (22:22-35; 22:20-21); Meeting of Balaam and Balak (32:36-40); Balaam blesses Israel (23:28--24:9; 22:41--23:10); Balaam’s second blessing (24:10-19; 23:11-24)
8 Driver affirmed that this was written in 850 BC in the southern kingdom. That it was personal, biographical, anthropomorphic, included prophetic-like ethics and theological reflection.
9 Driver affirmed that this was written in 750 BC in the northern kingdom and was more objective, less consciously tinged with ethical and theological reflection and with concrete particulars running from Genesis through Numbers.
There also was a source considered to be JE which an unknown redactor combined.
10Driver affirmed that this was composed under Hilkiah for reform and that it unified the place of worship in Jerusalem, that it was written under prophetic influence (Jeremiah) and that the Deuteronomic school also reworked Joshua to Kings. See the appendix to Deuteronomy for a fuller discussion of this.
11La Sor et al write, The danger is rather that, when such analysis becomes the concern of biblical scholarship to the exclusion of more comprehensive, overall considerations, it tends to reduce the Pentateuch to unrelated fragments and hence to result in the loss of any real grasp of the unity really present in it” (OTS,65). I would add, however, that a movement toward canonical interpretation does not necessarily need to be at the expense of historical, critical studies. We do not need to be “post-critical.”
This approach was antisupernatural (did not presume direct divine communication), evolutionary (animism, polytheism, monotheism was an assumed development of religion), lacking in logic and argumentation (circular in reasoning, e.g., passages are J because they have yalad, therefore, yalad is peculiar to J), inconsistent (mixture of J and E elements, e.g., Gen 3:1-5 is J, but Elohim is there), proof texting (Ex 6:2-3 does not mean they had never heard of YHWH but that they had never experienced him [yada] as YHWH [cf. 6:7; 14:4]),
Selected Bibliography of Exodus
Related MediaBooks
Cassuto Umberto. A Commentary on the Book of Exodus. Translated by Israel Abrahams. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1976.
**Childs, Brevard S. The Book of Exodus: A Critical Theological Commentary. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1974.
*Cole, Alan. Exodus. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 1973.
Driver, S. R. The Book of Exodus. Cambridge: At the University Press, 1911.
Fokkelman, J. P. “Exodus.” In The Literary Guide to the Bible, pp. 56-65. Edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987.
Hannah, John D. “Exodus.” In The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty: Old Testament, pp. 103-162. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Victor Books, 1985.
Jacobs, B. Exodus: The Second Book of the Law. New York: KTAV, 1985.
Keil C. F., and Delitzsch F. “The Pentateuch.” In Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes. Vol. 1. Reprint (25 vols in 10). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1982.
Youngblood, Ronald F. Exodus. Everyman’s Bible Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1983.
Periodicals
Kitchen, K. A. “The Old Testament in Its Context.” Theological Students’ Fellowship Bulletin, 59 (1971): 2-10; 60 (1971): 3-11; 61 (1971): 5-14; 62 (1972): 2-10; 63 (1972): 1-5; 64 (1972): 2-10.
Kline, “Law and Covenant.” Westminister Theological Journal, 27 (November 1965): 19-20.
Mendenhall, G. E. S.v. “Covenant.” In Interpreters Dictonary of the Bible, 715.
Related Topics: Library and Resources
An Argument of the Book of Numbers
Related Media
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MESSAGE STATEMENT:1 |
After the Lord constituted the exodus generation at sinai into a people in covenant relationship with him under theocratic rule, as well as initiated and guaranteed her walk with him in spite of her repeated disobedience, he made final preparations for the sons of israel to obtain and maintain the promised land |
I. CONSTITUTING THE EXODUS GENERATION AT SINAI:2 The Exodus generation is ordered in covenant relationship to YHWH as a theocracy with the sons of Israel encamped around the tabernacle in military order and the Levites and priests encamped closer to the tabernacle as God’s substitutes for the first-born of the nation and as guardians of the tabernacle, the sons of Israel purifying the camp since God dwells in their midst, the tabernacle being supplied for by the accepting gifts of the chieftains of the people, and the people celebrating the Passover in the wilderness 1:1--9:14
A. The Census: The census of the sons of Israel by leaders and number orders the tribes for their march and encampment emphasizing that the community is a theocracy with His priests at the center around the tabernacle 1:1--2:34
1. An Exploration of the Dimensions of the Community:3 Moses, Aaron, and the heads of the twelve secular tribes of Israel counted all of the men of Israel above the age of twenty who could go out to war by tribe totaling 603,550 men, but the Levites were not included in the census because they were to care for the tabernacle and protect the sons of Israel from God’s wrath for coming near to the tabernacle 1:1-46
a. The Census of the People:4 On the first of the second month of the second year Moses obeyed the command of the Lord that he, Aaron, and the heads of each of the twelve secular tribes of Israel should number the men of Israel above the age of twenty who would be able to go out to war 1:1-19
1) Setting: On the first of the second month in the second year after the nation had come out of the land of Egypt the Lord spoke ti Moses in the wilderness of Sinai in the tent of meeting 1:1
2) Exhortation: The Lord commanded Moses to take a census (calculate the total) of all the congregation of the sons of Israel: 1:2-4
a) By their families (clan)
b) By their fathers’ households
c) According to the number of names
d) Every male
(1) Head by head
(2) From twenty years old and upward
(3) Whoever is able to go out to war in Israel5
e) Moses and Aaron are to number the men by their armies with a man of each tribe--each one head of his fathers household 1:4
3) List of Men Who Shall Stand with Moses: Moses lists the representatives of each of the twelve secular6 tribes: 1:5-16
a) Of Reuben: Elizur7 the son of Shedeur 1:5
b) Of Simeon: Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai 1:6
c) Of Judea: Nahshon the son of Amminadab 1:7
d) Of Issachar: Nethanel the son of Zuar 1:8
e) Of Zebulun: Eliab the son of Helon 1:9
f) Of Joseph: 1:10
(1) Of Ephriam: Elishama the son of Ammihud 1:10a
(2) Of Manasseh: Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur 1:10b
g) Of Benjamin: Abidan the son of Gideoni 1:11
h) Of Dan: Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai 1:12
i) Of Asher: Pagiel the son of Ochran 1:13
j) Of Gad: Eliasaph the son of Deuel 1:14
k) Of Naphtali: Ahira the son of Enan 1:15
l) Summary: These (above) are those who were called of the congregation--the leaders of their fathers’ tribes, the heads of the divisions of Israel 1:16
4) Moses and took the above leaders, assembled all the congregation together on the first of the second month and counted the people just as the Lord had commanded 1:17-19
b. The Results of Census:8 Moses provides the results of the census by tribe and then summarizes that he, Aaron, and the leaders of Israel ended with a total of 603,550 men 1:20-46
1) The following are the total men who were numbered by tribe:
a) The numbered men of the tribe of Reuben9 were 46,500 1:20-21
b) The numbered men of the tribe of Simeon were 59,300 1:22-23
c) The numbered men of the tribe of Gad were 45,650 1:24-25
d) The numbered men of the tribe of Judah were 74,600 1:26-27
e) The numbered men of the tribe of Issachar were 54,400 1:28-29
f) The numbered men of the tribe of Zebulun were 57,400 1:30-31
g) The numbered men of the tribe of Ephraim (of Joseph) were 40,500 1:32-33
h) The numbered men of the tribe of Manasseh (of Joseph) were 32,200 1:34-35
i) The numbered men of the tribe of Benjamin were 35,400 1:36-37
j) The numbered men of the tribe of Dan were 62,700 1:38-39
k) The numbered men of the tribe of Asher were 41,500 1:40-41
l) The numbered men of the tribe of Naphtali were 53,400 1:42-43
2) Summary: The above numbers are the ones whom Moses, Aaron and the leaders of Israel numbered totaling 603,550 1:44-46
c. The Levite’s Special Role: The Levites were not to be included in the census of fighting men, but were to care for the tabernacle and all that belongs to it camping around it, being responsible to take it down when they set out and to set it up when they encamp and protecting the sons of Israel from death for coming near to it 1:47-54
1) Not Numbered: The Levites were not numbered among the tribes of Israel became the Lord forbade Moses to include them in the census 1:47-49
2) Cared for the Tabernacle: The Levites were to care for the tabernacle and all that belongs to it camping around it, being responsible to take it down when they set out and to set it up when they encamp, protecting the sons of Israel from death for coming near to it 1:50-54
2. The Character of the Community as a Priestly Theocracy:10 The arrangement of tribes around the tabernacle when encamped and the pattern for marching with the tabernacle in the midst of the camp physically demonstrates the nation to be ruled by the Lord with His priests at the center around the tabernacle 2:1-34
a. Summary: The Lord told Moses and Aaron that the sons of Israel shall camp, each by his own standard, with the banner of their fathers’ households, around the tent of meeting at a distance 2:1-2
b. East: JUDAH,11 Issachar, and Zebulun totaling 186,400 men who will set out first 2:3-9
c. South: REUBEN, Simeon, Gad totaling 151,450 men who shall set out second 2:10-16
d. Middle: The tent of meeting and the camp of the Levites shall follow the camp of Reuben so that the Levites shall be in the midst of the camps as they travel just as they are in the midst of the camps when encamp 2:17-18
e. West: EPHRAIM, Manasseh, Benjamin totaling 108,100 men who shall set out third 2:19-24
f. North: DAN, Asher, Naphtali totaling 157,600 men who shall set out last 2:25-31
g. Summary: The above are the numbered sons of Israel by their tribes totaling 603,550 men among whom the Levites were not numbered and the sons of Israel did according to all that the Lord commanded Moses camping by their standards and going out by his family according to his father’s household 2:32-34
B. Analyzing the Inner Structure of the Priestly Hierarchy: Through two distinct censuses which the Lord commanded Moses and Aaron to take the Levites are identified as those who are a substitute for the first-born of the nation, and who are to guard12 and care for the holy tabernacle when they travel 3:1--4:49
1. Census I--All Levites More than One Month Old As the First-Born of Israel: With Aaron and his sons as priests and the task of the Levites stated concerning the tabernacle, they are numbered from one month old and older to be 22,000 men who are also positioned around the tabernacle as substitutes for the first-born of the sons of Israel; and the overage of 273 Israelite first-born men is redeemed through five shekels per head totaling 1,365 shekels to Aaron and his sons 3:1-51
a. Summary Statement: These are the generations of Aaron and Moses when the Lord spoke with Moses on Mount Sinai 3:1
b. Sons of Aaron:13 The names of the sons of Aaron who were anointed priests and where ordained to serve as priests were Nedab (the first born), Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar (of whom the last two replaced the first two because of the former’s offering of strange fire before the Lord in the wilderness of Sinai) 3:2-4
c. The Levites Role: The Lord spoke to Moses ordering him to bring the tribe of Levi before Aaron the priest to perform the duties14 for him and his sons and for the whole congregation before the tent of meeting and to do the service of the tabernacle being on guard to judicially put to death any unauthorized person approaching the tent of meeting15 3:4-10
d. Levites as the First-Born of Israel: The Levites who are a month old and older were 22,000 in number and their position around the tabernacle was stated because they were a substitution for the 22,273 first-born of the sons of Israel; but for the 273 Israelite first-born men over the Levite number of 22,000 men, five shekels per head were given as redemption to Aaron and his sons totaling 1,365 shekels 3:11-51
1) Substitutionary First-Born: Because the first-born belong to the Lord who struck down the first-born in Egypt,16 the Levites are the Lord’s instead of every first born of the sons of Israel17 3:12-13
2) Order to Number the Sons of Levi: Moses is ordered (in the wilderness of Sinai) to number the sons of Levi in accordance with the following criteria: 3:14-15
a) By their fathers’ households
b) By their families
c) Every male
d) From a month old and upward
3) Census of the Levites by Clan and Position in the Camp:18 Moses lists the number of Levites in each clan and assigns them their position in the camp--7,500 Gershonites to the west of the temple, 8,300 Kohathites to the south of the tabernacle, 6,200 of the family of Merari to the north of the temple, Moses, Aaron and his sons to the east of the tabernacle with a total of Levites at 22,000 men 3:16-37
a) Summary: Moses numbered the Levites according to the word of the Lord as he had been commanded 3:16
b) Sons of Levi: The sons of Levi by names are Gershon, Kohath, and Merari 3:17
c) Families of the Levites: The Families of the Levites according to their fathers’ households are as follows: 3:18-20
(1) The sons of Gershon by families are Libni and Shimei 3:18
(2) The sons of Kohath by families are Amram, Izhar, Hebron and Uzziel 3:19
(3) The Sons of Merari by families are Mahli and Mushi 3:20
d) Numbers and Positions of the Levites:
(1) Gershonites: The Gershonites (including the Libnites and Shimeties) numbered 7,500 and were to camp behind the tabernacle to the west and to care for the curtains of the tabernacle 3:21-26
(2) Kohathites: The Kohathites (including the Amramites, Izharites, Hebronites, and Uzzielites) numbered 8,30019 and were to camp on the south of the tabernacle and to care for sacred vessels of the tabernacle 3:27-32
(3) Merari: The family of Merari (including the Mahlites and Mushites) numbered 6,200 and were to camp on the north side of the tabernacle and to care for poles and tent pegs of the tabernacle 3:33-37
(4) Summary: The Levites whom Moses and Aaron numbered in accordance with the command of the Lord were 22,000 3:39
(5) Moses, Aaron and Sons: Moses, Aaron and his sons were to camp to the east side of the tabernacle toward the sunrise and to perform the duties of the sanctuary for the sacrifices of the sons of Israel guarding it from the layman (who was to be put to death if he/she came near 3:38
4) Redemption of Israelite First-Born: Since the 22,000 Levites were to be a substitute for the first-born of the sons of Israel and the first-born of the sons of Israel numbered 22,273 men, the sons of Israel were to pay a ransom of five shekels per head20 for the 273 first-born for whom the Levites did not have representatives; this totaled 1,365 shekels which was given to Aaron and his sons 3:29-51
2. Census II--All Male Levites between Thirty and Fifty Years Old As Workers:21 In accordance with the command of the Lord Moses and Aaron numbered the sons of Levi between thirty and fifty years of age at 8,580 and assigned them their duties under the direction of Aaron and his sons--The Kohathites at 2,750 were to carry the sacred vessels, the Gershonites at 2,630 were to carry the curtains, and the Merarites at 3,200 were to carry the poles and tent pegs of the tabernacle 4:1-49
a. Removal Duties of the Kohathites: Moses and Aaron are commanded to take a census of the Kohathites who are between thirty and fifty years old so that they can take care of the holy objects of the tent of meeting after the priests have prepared them for removal 4:1-20
1) Command to Take Census: Moses and Aaron were commanded to take a census of the sons of Kohath by their families and by their fathers’ households from thirty years of age to fifty years of ages to do the work of the tent of meeting 4:1-3
2) Duties of the Kohathites: Aaron and his sons are to first enter into the Tent of meeting, cover the holy objects and furnishings of the tent of meeting and then assign the Kohathites their work and load making sure that they do not see the holy objects lest they die 4:4-20
a) Preparation by Aaron and His Sons: Aaron and his sons are first to enter into the sanctuary, cover22 the holy objects and furnishings of the sanctuary before the Kohathites enter to carry the objects lest they die23 4:4-16
b) In order that the Kohathites might live and not die, Moses and Aaron are commanded to have Aaron and his sons to go in and assign each of the Hohathites to his work and his load with the most holy objects, but they are not to see the holy objects even for a moment lest they die 4:17-20
b. Removal Duties of the Gershonites: Moses and Aaron are commanded to take a census of the Gershonites who are between thirty and fifty years old so that they can carry the curtains of the tabernacle under direction of Aaron and his sons 4:21-28
1) Command to Take Census: Moses and Aaron were commanded to take a census of the sons of Gershon by their families and by their fathers’ households from thirty years of age to fifty years of ages to do the work of the tent of meeting 4:21-23
2) Duties of the Gershonites: Under the direction of Aaron and his sons (especially Ithamar) the Gershonites are to carry the curtains of the tabernacle24 4:24-28
c. Removal Duties of the Merarites: Moses and Aaron were commanded to take a census of the Merarites who were between thirty and fifty years old so that they could carry the poles and tent pegs of the tabernacle under direction Ithamar the son of Aaron 4:29-34
1) Command to Take Census: Moses and Aaron were commanded to take a census of the sons of Merari by their families and by their fathers’ households from thirty years of age to fifty years of ages to do the work of the tent of meeting 4:29-30
2) Duties of the Merarites: Under the direction of Ithamar the son of Aaron the Merarites are to carry the poles and tent pegs of the tabernacle25 4:31-33
d. Summary of Census: In view of God’s command to Moses and Aaron they numbered the Levites for service and arrived at a grand total of 8,580 from 2,750 Kohathites, 2,630 Gershonites, and 3,200 Merarites 4:34-49
1) Sons of Kohath: The Kohathites numbered 2,750 men between thirty and fifty years of age 4:34-37
2) Sons of Gershon: The Gershonites numbered 2,630 men between thirty and fifty years of age 4:38-41
3) Sons of Merari: The Merarites numbered 3,200 men between thirty and fifty years of age 4:42-45
4) Grand Total: The total of all of the men of the Levites whom Moses and Aaron numbered between thirty and fifty years of age who could enter to do the work of service and the work of carrying in the tent of meeting were 8,480 men 4:46-49
C. Cleansing the Camp--Rights and Responsibilities of the Sons of Aaron:26 Because the Lord dwelt among the sons of Israel he ordered Moses to command the sons of Israel to purify the camp by sending out those who were unclean (lepers, those with a discharge, those in contact with the dead) and by exhorting the sons of Israel to deal with their acts of unfaithfulness, whereupon, they are to bless the sons of Israel with the Lord’s name affirming that He will bless them 5:1--6:27
1. Separation from Defiling Things--Purifying the Camp: The Lord ordered Moses to command the sons of Israel to send outside of the camp any man or woman who was a leper,27 was having a discharge,28 or was unclean because of a dead person29 so that they will not defile the camp where the Lord dwelt and they obeyed 5:1-4
2. How to Treat the Unclean:30 The Lord spoke to Moses exhorting him to speak to the sons of Israel about how to deal with acts of unfaithfulness (not paying debts, adultery, breaking a Nazirite vow) which would make them unclean and require resolution whereupon Moses is to command Aaron and his sons to bless the sons of Israel with the Lord’s name affirming that He will bless them 5:5--6:27
a. Repayment of Debts:31 The Lord ordered Moses to command the sons of Israel who have committed a sin against mankind and acted unfaithfully against the Lord to make full restitution to the one who was wronged adding one fifth to it, and to make this to the priest in addition to the ram if he has no relative with whom he may make this restitution, and the priest may keep the gifts32 5:5-10
b. Trial of Suspicion:33 When a woman went astray and defiled herself through adultery or when her husband became jealous and suspected his wife of committing adultery, she was brought before the priest with a grain offering34 and required to drink water with the dust of the tabernacle in it; whereupon she would be shown to be guilty if or stomach swelled and her thigh wasted away,35 or she would be vindicated if nothing happened 5:11-31
c. Nazarite Vow:36 The Lord commanded Moses that the one who makes a Nazirite vow to dedicate himself to the Lord will pollute himself if he partakes from the vine, cuts his hair, or comes into contact with the dead, and at the fulfillment of his vow is to offer a burnt offering, sin offering and peace offering which the priest will present to the Lord 6:1-21
1) Opening Formula: The Lord commanded Moses concerning the man or woman who makes a Nazirite vow to dedicate himself to the Lord 6:1-4
2) The Pollution of Nazirites: The man or woman who makes a Nazirite vow will pollute him or herself if he/she partakes of anything from the vine, cuts his/her hair, or comes in contact with the dead 6:3-12
a) Separation from wine, strong drink, vinegar, and any think from the grape vine 6:3-4
b) Shall not cut hair:37 6:5
c) Separation from all of the dead including family 6:6-8
d) Description of procedure if one dies suddenly beside a Nazarite 6:9-12
3) The Deconsecration of a Nazirite When the Vow is Fulfilled: When the Nazirite vow is fulfilled he/she is to offer without defect one male lamb as a burnt offering, one ewe-lamb as a sin offering, one ram as a peace offering with unleavened cakes and wafers spread with oil which the priest will then present 6:13-21
d. Blessing by Aaron and His Sons:38 Moses is to tell Aaron and his sons to bless the sons of Israel with His name whereupon, He will bless them and grant them peace 6:22-27
D. Events after the Erection of the Tabernacle:39 Through a digression describing events which took place before the taking of the census (1:1ff) Moses proclaims the communities’ acceptance of the tabernacle through gifts given by its chieftains, the purification/dedication of the Levite work-force (in place of the first born of the people) and the Lord’s command that the people observe the Passover in the wilderness 7:1--9:14
1. Commitment of the Community to the Theocracy--The Chieftains’ Initiatory Gifts:40 On the day that Moses finished setting up the tabernacle, he anointed and consecrated it, the leaders of the tribes of Israel offered six covered carts and twelve oxen before the tabernacle which were accepted and given to the sons of Gershon and Merari, and Moses demonstrated the unified acceptance of the tabernacle through the gifts from the leaders of the twelve tribes 7:1-89
a. Setting: On the day that Moses finished setting up the tabernacle, he anointed and consecrated it, all its furnishings, the altar, and its utensils 7:1
b. Tribal Offerings: The leaders of the tribes of Israel, the heads of their fathers’ households, offered six covered carts (one for every two leaders) and twelve oxen (one for every leader) before the tabernacle 7:2-3
c. Acceptance of Offerings: Moses daily accepted the carts and oxen for twelve days and gave two carts and four oxen to the sons of Gershon, four carts and eight oxen to the sons of Merari, none to the sons of Kohath since they carried the holy objects on their shoulder 7:4-11
d. Presentation of Offerings: Moses listed those from the tribes of Israel who presented their offerings41 on the appropriate days: 7:12-83
1) Nashon of Judah 7:12-17
2) Nethanel of Issachar 7:18-23
3) Eliab of Zebulun 7:24-29
4) Elizur of Reuben 7:30-35
5) Shelumiel of Simeon 7:36-41
6) Eliasaph of Gad 7:42-47
7) Elishama of Ephraim 7:48-53
8) Gamaliel of Manasseh 7:54-59
9) Abidan of Benjamin 7:60-65
10) Ahiezer of Dan 7:66-71
11) Pagiel of Asher 7:72-77
12) Ahira of Naphtali 7:78-83
e. Summary of the Dedication Offering: Moses recorded the summery of the dedication offering as follows:
1) Twelve silver dishes
2) Twelve silver bowls,
3) Twelve gold pans
4) shekels of silver for the utensils
5) Twelve golden pans full of incense
6) Twelve bulls
7) Twelve rams
8) Twelve male goats one year old for the sin offering
9) Twelve bulls
10) Twelve bulls for a burnt offering
11) Twelve rams for a burnt offering
12) Twelve male goats for a sin offering
13) 60 Bulls for a burnt offering
a) rams for a burnt offering
and
b) male goats
Moses spoke to the Lord in the tent of meeting 7:89
2. Purification of the Levitical Order: After prescribing how the seven lamps on the lampstand should be mounted, the Lord prescribed through Moses how the Levite work-force (in place of the first-born Israelites) was dedicated/purified for their work as movers of the tabernacle and how those who retire at age fifty may continue to help the younger Levites with guarding the Tabernacle 8:1-26
a. Lighting the Menorah:42 The Lord spoke to Moses exhorting him to tell Aaron that he is to mount the seven lamps on the lampstand so that they would give their light forward, and Aaron obeyed the Lord 8:1-4
b. The Dedication/Purification of the Levite Work Force:43 The Levite work force (in place of the first born Israelites) is dedicated/purified for their work as movers of the tabernacle 8:5-22
1) The Command to Dedicate/Purify the Levites: 8:5-19
2) Obedience to the Command to Dedicate/Purify the Levites: 8:20-22
c. The Retirement of the Levites:44 The Lord commanded Moses that the Levites may only do the hard work of erecting, dismantling and transporting the tabernacle from ages 25-50 whereupon, they are to retire and only help the younger men do “guard duty” 8:23-26
3. Observance of the Second Passover at Sinai:45 On the first month of the second year after the people had come out of Egypt the Lord commanded the sons of Israel to observe the Passover on the fourteenth day according to its statues and ordinances and made provisions for exceptional cases--the defiled, the disobedient, and the alien 9:1-14
a. The Observance of the First Passover:46 On the first month of the second year after the people had come out of Egypt the Lord commanded Moses to have the sons of Israel observe the Passover at its appointed time (at twilight on the fourteenth day) according to all of its statutes and ordinances and they did in the wilderness 9:1-5
b. The Complaint of Those Bared from Participating in the Passover: Some men who were unclean because they had been with a dead person asked Moses why they should not be allowed to present their offering to the Lord at the Passover with the sons of Israel, and Moses agreed to seek the Lord’s command concerning them 9:6-8
c. Provision for Those who are Bared from Participation in the Passover: The Lord provided provisions for exceptional cases among the sons of Israel with regard to the Passover 9:9-14
1) Defiled: If one has contact with a dead person, that one may observe the Passover one month later (on the fourteenth day of the second month) according to all its statues and ordinances 9:9-12
2) Clean: If one is clean and not on a journey but does not keep the Passover, that one is to be cut off from the people and to bear his sine for not presenting his offering to the Lord 9:13
3) Alien: If a foreigner is among the sons of Israel and observes the Passover according to the statue and ordinance of the Passover, he is permitted since there is one statue for both alien and the native of the land 9:14
II. THE JOURNEY--ITS SETBACKS AND SUCCESS: Israel’s walk in YHWH’s presence was initiated and guaranteed by Him in spite of the disruption and disorder caused by Israel’s repeated disobedience 9:15--25:18
A. The Journey Commences: After the Lord prescribed his means of guidance through moving from over the tabernacle and resettling upon the tabernacle and through message through two trumpets which the priests were to blow, the nation left Sinai under the Lord’s direction and traveled in military array a three days journey to the wilderness of Paran 9:15--10:36
1. The Means of Guidance--The Cloud and Silver Trumpets:47 The prescribed means of guidance for the sons of Israel was the movement of the cloud over the tabernacle and the sounding of two silver trumpets 9:15--10:10
a. Leading of the Lord: On the day that the tabernacle was erected the cloud covered the tabernacle by day and in the evening it appeared like fire over the tabernacle leading the sons of Israel from campsite to campsite by going ahead of them and then resting on the tabernacle 9:15-23
b. Blowing of Trumpets: The Lord commanded Moses to make two hammered trumpets of silver and for them to be blown by the priestly sons of Aaron: two to gather the congregation at the tent of meeting, one to gather the leaders, an alarm for the camps on the east side to set out, a second alarm for the camps on the south to set out, an alarm at war, and at the offerings in the day of gladness and for the appointed feasts 10:1-10
2. Departure From Sinai in Battle Order: On the 20th of the second month48 of the second year the cloud was lifted from over the tabernacle of the testimony, and the sons of Israel set out in military array for the first time on their journeys from the wilderness of Sinai to the wilderness of Paran where the cloud settled 10:11-36
a. Statement:49 10:11-13
b. The sons of Judah set out 10:14-16
c. The sons of Gershon and Merari took down the tabernacle 10:17
d. The sons of Rueben set out 10:18-20
e. The sons of Kohath set out with the holy objects 10:21
f. The sons of Ephraim set out 10:22-24
g. The sons of Dan set out as the rear guard 10:25-28
h. Moses and his brother-in-law, Hobab, set out 10:29-32
i. Summary: The Lord led the sons of Israel for a three days’ journey with Moses honoring God as a mighty warrior when He set out and praying that the Lord would return to Israel when they came to rest 10:33-36
B. Setbacks on the Journey: Like increasing waves the people and their leaders rebelled against God and his leaders resulting in His holy judgment upon those in rebellion, His continual affirmation of those whom He had chosen as His leaders, and an ultimate progress toward the promised land in spite of the peoples’ sinfulness 11:1--21:35
1. Preliminary to Major Setbacks--Issues Associated with Mosaic Leadership and Authority: When the people, and even leaders (Miriam and Aaron), complained against the Lord and Moses over their circumstances out of their greed and jealousy, they kindled the Lord’s anger resulting in judgment upon the people and affirmation upon Moses as His unique leader 11:1--12:16
a. Complaint One--Taberah:50 When the people became like those who complain against adversity before the Lord, He became angry and burned the outskirts of the camp51 until they cried out to Moses and he prayed to the Lord; thus the place was named Taberah52 11:1-3
b. Complaint Two--Kibroth-hattaavah: When the people complained over the food and Moses complained over the task of caring for these people, the Lord responded by supplying help for Moses through the seventy elders and by supplying quail for an entire month until the people became sick of it, and He judged with death those who had incited the incident out of their greed 11:4-35
1) Complaint over Food by People: The rabble who were among the Israelites and the sons of Israel began to complain about only having the manna to eat and to long to go back to Egypt and the foods they had there 11:4-9
2) Complaint over People by Moses: When Moses heard the people complaining about their food, he began to complain to the Lord about the burden He had given to him of these people and asked to die 11:10-15
3) The Lord Response: The Lord’s response to the complaints of Moses and the people was that He promised to share Moses’ responsibility among the seventy elders by placing His Spirit upon them, and that He would bring about meat for the people of Israel to eat for an entire month so that they will be sick of meat, and He did so 11:16-30
4) When a portion of the people53 greedily gathered the quail which the Lord provided for them He struck them with a server plague resulting in the burial of many and the naming of the place Kiborth-hattaavah54 11:31-34
5) Move to Hazeroth: From Kibroth-hattaavah the people went to Hazeroth and remained there 11:35
c. Complaint Three--Rebellion of Miriam and Aaron against Moses:55 When Miriam and Aaron lead a jealous criticism against Moses’ unique position with the Lord, He affirmed Moses’ uniqueness, brought leprosy upon Miriam, and responded to Moses’ intercession by healing Miriam after seven days of separation, whereupon, the people moved from Hazeroth to Paran 12:1-16
1) Criticism: Miriam lead56 a criticism against Moses with her brother Aaron under the pretense of criticism over his marriage to a Cushite woman,57 but really over jealousy questioning whether the Lord had spoken only with (through) Moses 12:1-2
2) Affirmation of Moses: After Moses is described as the most humble man on the earth he is also confirmed by the Lord before Moses, Aaron, and Miriam as the one to whom the Lord speaks face to face (unlike the speech which he does with other prophets through dreams or visions) and thus the one whom Aaron and Miriam should have been afraid to criticize 12:3-8
3) The Lord’s Judgment: When the anger of the Lord was kindled by the rebellion of Miriam and Aaron He departed leaving Miriam leprous, as white as snow 12:9-10
4) Aaron Appeals to Moses: When Aaron see Miriam’s Leprous condition he begs Moses as his lord not to account this foolish sin to them (Aaron and Miriam) and not to let Miriam remain in this condition 12:11-12
5) Moses’ Intercession: Moses interceded form Miriam asking the Lord the heal her, and He agreed to let her return to the camp after she had been shut up for seven days outside the camp during which time the camp did not move and after which time she was received in the camp 21:13-15
6) Movement from Hazeroth to Paran: After Miriam was received again into the camp, the people moved out from Hazeroth and camped in the wilderness of Paran 12:16
2. The Three Major Setbacks: Through the failure of the people to believe the faithful spies, the rebellion led by some of the Levites and the sin of Moses and Aaron at the waters of Meribah the Lord brought disciplining judgment (death) upon those who did evil while at the same time affirming His plan and His representatives 13:1--21:34
a. Failure of the Community to Believe the Faithful Spies:58 When the leaders of the twelve tribes went as spies into the land and reported back to the sons of Israel its prosperity and the might of its inhabitants, the people--against the advice of Caleb and Joshua--became fearful and rejected the Lord’s gift requiring the Lord to judge the older generation in their continued rebellion with death in the wilderness and to give the land to the younger generation after forty years of wondering 13:1--15:41
1) Unbelief of the Spies:59 13:1--14:45
a) Scouts are Chosen: Under the direction of the Lord Moses sent twelve spies (leaders from the tribes of Israel) into the Land of Canaan to spy out the land with regard to the strength of the people, the nature of the land, its cities and to bring back some of its fruit 13:1-20
b) The Expedition: When the spies went into the land they spied it from the south (wilderness of Zin) to the north (Rehob) and then brought back a cut branch of grapes from Eshcol 13:21-24
c) The Report: After forty days the spies returned to the sons of Israel at Kadesh in the wilderness of Paran and reported (except for Caleb60) that although the land was rich (as testified to by the fruit they brought) it was also inhabited by mighty people61 who would conquer them62 13:25-33
d) The People’s Response:63 The people responded with despair as they wept all night, grumbled against Moses and Aaron, proclaimed that they wished that they had died in Egypt or in the wilderness,64 accused the Lord of bring them into this land for them to die by the sword and for their wives and children to become plunder,65 and desired to appoint a leader to help them return to Egypt causing Moses and Aaron to fall on their faces in the presence of them all 14:1-5
e) The Counterresponse of Joshua and Caleb: When Joshua and Caleb rebuked the people for their rebellion against the Lord and affirmed that the He would enable to take the land, the people decided to stone them, but the Lord interrupted them as He appeared in His glory in the tent of meeting 14:6-10
f) God’s Response: When the Lord responded to the rebellion of the people by intending to destroy them and raise up a new generation from Moses, Moses interceded for the people on the basis of God’s character and the Lord pardoned the people but required that the generation from age twenty and upward (except for Caleb and Joshua) would wonder for forty years66 and die in the wilderness for their high handed sin 14:11-38
g) The People’s Expedition:67 The people continued to demonstrate their rebellious nature as they went into the land to conquer it against the command of the Lord (cf. 14:25) and the exhortations of Moses resulting in their defeat by the Amalekites and Canaanites 14:39-45
2) Renewed Commitment to Land and Stress on the Need for Obedience:68 The Lord confirmed His promise of the Land by describing specific accompaniments to the sacrifices when they enter the land, by describing the procedure for the sons of Israel to offer the first of their dough when they enter the land for blessing from the Lord, by describing God’s provision for unintentional sins in the Land while dealing justly with deliberate sin, and by describing reminders for the nation to remain obedient to Him as their redemptive Lord through placing tassels on their garments 15:1-41
a) Accompaniments to the Sacrifice--Meal, Oil and Wine: When the sons of Israel enter the Land they are to provide specified accompaniments of meal, oil and wine to their thanksgiving offering to the Lord 15:1-16
b) Offering and Provisions for Sin: When the sons of Israel enter the Land they are to offer the first of their dough to the Lord for blessing and seek out a sin offering for inadvertent sin, but defiant sin is to be dealt with by cutting the people off as is illustrated by the man who was stoned for gathering wood on the sabbath 15:17-36
(1) First Dough Offering:69 When the sons of Israel enter the Land they are to offer from the food of the land the first of their dough throughout their generations 15:17-21
(2) Atonement for Inadvertent Sins: When the nation or an individual (native or alien) inadvertently sins against the commands of the Lord, they are to make a sin offering, but if one sins defiantly, it is considered to be blasphemy and that one is cut off from among his people because he despised the word of the Lord 15:22-31
(3) An Example of the Defiant--A Sabbath Breaker Stoned:70 When a man was found gathering wood on the Sabbath while the nation was in the wilderness, he was brought before Moses and Aaron and then stoned by the congregation outside of the camp as the Lord commanded 15:32-36
c) Tassels on Clothes:71 The Lord commanded Moses to tell the sons of Israel to put tassels on the corners of their garments with a cord of blue through each72 as a reminder to obey the commandments of the Lord who brought them out of Egypt rather than following their own heart 15:37-41
b. Sin of the Levites and Its Aftermath: After some of the Levites rebelled against Moses and Aaron and were destroyed along with their followers by the Lord as a part of His affirmation of Moses and Aaron, the Levites were proclaimed to be the representatives of the sons of Israel who would receive the consequences for guilt and who should receive provision for their service through the sacrifices of the people 16:1--19:22
1) Sin of the Levites: When the Levites exalted themselves in rebellion against Moses and Aaron the Lord judged them for their evil and those who followed them and confirmed Moses and Aaron through His choice, Aaron’s mediating atonement and Aaron’s rod which budded causing the rebellion to cease as the people feared for their lives 16:1--17:13
a) The Rebellion of Korah, Dathan and Abiram: When Korah, Dathan and Abiram led a rebellion against Moses and Aaron which was designed to exalt themselves, the Lord confirmed Moses and Aaron by judging all of those in the rebellion with destruction through an earthquake and fire 16:1-35
(1) The Leaders of the Rebellion: Korah (of Levi), Dathan and Abiram (of Reuben) rose up against Moses and Aaron with 250 leaders of renown of the community 16:1-2
(2) The Incense Test for Holiness: When the leaders accused Moses and Aaron of exalting themselves, Moses humbly affirmed that the Lord would decide this matter by choosing the one who is holy--either these leaders with their censers of incense and fire or Moses and Aaron 16:3-7
(3) Moses Rebukes the Levites: Moses rebuked the Levites under Korah and his company for rebelling against God by desiring to exalt themselves even more than He had exalted them wanting themselves to be priests and grumbling against Aaron 16:8-11
(4) Moses Defied: When Moses summoned Dathan and Abiram to come to him, they refused and accused him of misleading them away from their inheritance of the land and of lording it over them, whereupon, Moses asked the Lord not to regard their offering since he had not harmed them 16:12-15
(5) The Incense Test at the Tent of Meeting: On the next day when Korah and his company, Moses and Aaron came to the tent of meeting the Glory of the Lord appeared with the intention to destroy the entire congregation (save Moses and Aaron), but when Moses interceded, the Lord decided to destroy the dwellings of Korah, Dathan and Abiram 16:16-24
(6) The Punishment of the Rebels: After Moses announced that the what was about to happen was to be God’s confirmation of him, the Lord opened the ground and swallowed up the households of Dorah, Dathan and Abiram and with fire consumed the 250 men who were offering incense 16:25-35
b) The Aftermath of Korah’s Rebellion--Aaron halts the Plague: When the Lord ordered Eleazar to hammer the cencers of the sons of Korah into a plating for the altar as a warning, the people rebelled accusing Moses and Aaron for having caused the death of the Lord’s people, whereupon, the Lord brought a plague upon the congregation and Aaron was confirmed through stopping the plague via mediated atonement and through causing his rod to uniquely blossom from among the rods of the other tribes thus causing the people to fear that they would all perish 16:36-5073
(1) The Fire Pans as Reminders: After the judgment of Korah and his company the Lord ordered Eleazar the priest, the son of Aaron, to take the censers (fire pans) of those who had been judged and to hammer them into a plating for the altar as a reminder that only the descendants of Aaron were to come near to burn incense before the Lord 16:36-40
(2) The Outbreak of the Plague: When on the next day the people accused Moses and Aaron of having caused the death of the Lord’s people, the glory of the Lord appeared at the tent of meeting and began to judge the people with a plague, but Aaron took his censer with fire on it from the alter and incense and made atonement for the people by standing between the dead and the living and thus checking the plague which killed 14,700 additional people 16:41-50
c) Aaron’s Rod: When the Lord confirmed the tribe of Levi from among the twelve tribes through the budding of Aaron’s rod as a means of putting down the rebellions, the people panicked that they were all going to perish 17:1-1374
(1) The Test of the Staffs: The Lord confirmed Aaron as a means to putting an end to the grumbling by having all of the leaders of the twelve tribes of Israel present a rod to Moses with their names on it, and then causing Aaron’s rod alone to blossom and produce ripe almonds and keeping it as a sign before the testimony against the rebels 17:1-10
(2) The Response of Panic: The people responded to Moses with fear and panic over so many dying--especially when they came near to the tabernacle of the Lord; they wondered if they were going to completely perish 17:11-13
2) Renewed Commitment to the Levitical Order:75 The Lord commanded Moses and Aaron to proclaim that the priests and Levites were to represent the sons of Israel at the tent of meeting and thus receive the consequences for guilt as well as provision from the Lord through the people’s offerings which they too were to offer one tenth of to the Lord; and the priests were to cleanse the people from uncleanliness when they came into contact with a corpse by sprinkling them with water and ashes from a red cow who had been sacrificed outside of the camp lest they be cut off from the people for defiling the tabernacle 18:1--19:22
a) Duties and Privileges of the Tribe of Levi: As a remedy for the sons of Israel’s fear of judgment at the temple the Lord told Aaron that he and his sons shall bear the guilt in connection with the sanctuary in the future and then prescribed a proportional means by which He would provide for their service as well as the Levites who assisted them through one tenth of the offerings of the sons of Israel to the Lord 18:1-31
(1) The Remedy for the Panic Above: As a remedy for the sons of Israel’s fear of judgment at the temple the Lord told Aaron that he and his sons (the priesthood) shall bear the guilt in connection with the sanctuary in the future and that although their brothers (the Levites) may assist them, only the priests may come near the inside of the sanctuary (the furnishing and the alter) lest they die along with the outsider who comes near 18:1-7
(2) The Priestly Emoluments (fees): The Lord gave the priests a portion of the offerings of the sons of Israel: grain, sin, guilt, wave, oil, wine, first fruits, first of the womb, the redemption price of men and unclean animals, and the meet of the first born of the ox and lamb--this is an indestructible covenant76 18:8-19
(3) Reward for the Levites:77 The Lord announced to Aaron that he would have no inheritance in their land, but the Lord shall be their portion and the tithe from the sons of Israel shall be the Lord’s provision for the sons of Levite who shall represent the sons of Israel at the tent of meeting 18:20-24
(4) A Tenth of the Tithe--A Priestly Perquisite: The Lord told Moses that the Levites where to take a tenth of the tithe offered to them from the sons of Israel to and to offer the best of it to the Lord, whereupon, they would be able to enjoy the rest anywhere as their compensation for service 18:25-31
b) Laws on Cleansing--Purification from Contamination by a Corpse: When someone or something is defiled by coming into contact with a corpse, they can become clean again by being sprinkled on the third and seventh days with a mixture of water and ashes (with cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet) from a red cow who was slain and wholly burnt outside of the camp, lest they defile the tabernacle and thus need to be cut off 19:1-22
(1) The Red Cow (Heifer):78 The sons of Israel were to bring to Eleazar the priest an unblemished red cow to be slaughtered outside of the camp whereupon he is to sprinkle some of its blood toward the front of the tent of meeting, then the cow is to be completely burned, its ashes mixed with cedar wood, hyssop and scarlet material, then it is to be used to clean those who have touched a corpse, and those connected with the sacrifice are to purify themselves 19:1-13
(2) Purification by Sprinkling: When anyone touches one who has died or enters the tent of one who has died, or when an open vessel is in the tent of one who has died they are unclean for seven days and need to be sprinkled with a mixture of water and ashes from the red cow on the third and seventh day to be clean lest they be cut off from the assembly because he has defiled the sanctuary of the Lord; and the one who performs the ceremony as well as all that the unclean person touches will also be unclean until evening 19:14-22
c. The Sin of Moses and Aaron: On the first month of the fortieth year, Miriam died, then Moses and Aaron were forbidden from leading the sons of Israel into the promised land because of their sin at the waters of Meribah, Edom refuses to allow Israel to cross through their land to enter the promised land and Aaron dies on Mount Hor in accordance with God’s word 20:1-29
1) The Sin of Moses and Aaron:79 On the first month of the fortieth year the leaders of the Sons of Israel moved toward death80 as Miriam died and Moses and Aaron were forbidden from leading the sons of Israel into the promised land because of their sin during God’s provision of water for the sons of Israel at the waters of Meribah 20:1-13
a) The Death of Miriam: When the sons of Israel came to the wilderness of Sin in the first month81 and stayed at Kadesh, Miriam died and was buried there 20:1
b) Meribah: While the people were at Kadesh they rebelled against Moses and Aaron because of the lack of water whereupon the Lord commanded Moses to speak to the rock and water would come forth, but Moses became angry and struck the rock twice82 which resulted in the Lord providing water for the people but Moses and Aaron being forbidden from leading the sons of Israel into the land and the place being named Meribah because the sons of Israel were bitter with the Lord 20:2-13
(1) Rebellion: When there was no water in the wilderness, the people rebelled against Moses and Aaron complaining that they had been delivered from Egypt to only this barren wilderness 20:2-6
(2) The Lord’s Instruction: When Moses and Aaron fell on their faces before the doorway of the tent of meeting, the glory of the Lord appeared to them and commanded Moses to take the rod and speak to the rock before the assembled community and it will bring forth water 20:7-8
(3) The Lord’s Provision: When gathered the assembly before the rock, he addressed them as rebels, said that he and Aaron would bring froth water for them from the rock, struck the rock twice with his rod and water came forth abundantly for the congregation and their beasts 20:9-11
(4) The Lord’s Rebuke: Because Moses and Aaron did not believe the Lord (by not obeying His words) nor treat Him as holy (by striking the rock)83 in the presence of the sons of Israel, they were prevented from bringing the people into the land, and the waters were called Meribah84 because Israel contended with the Lord, but He proved Himself holy85 among them 20:13
2) The Encounter with Edom:86 Although Israel requested twice of Edom for permission to pass through their land with assurances that they would not touch any of their land, Edom twice refused the request and supported their refusal with force with the result that Israel turned away87 20:14-21
a) Request to Pass through the Land: 20:14-17
b) Edom’s Refusal and Threat of War: 20:18
c) Israel’s Second Request to Pass through the Land: 20:19
d) Edom’s Second Refusal with Force: 20:20-21
3) The Death of Aaron: When the sons of Israel came to Mount Hor near the boarder of Edom, Moses, in accordance with the Lord’s command, took Aaron upon Mount Hor, gave his garments to Eleazar, and then returned with Eleazar down the mountain after Aaron’s death (due his rebellion at Meribah) whereupon the people wept for thirty days 20:22-29
3. Ultimate Progress In Spite of Sin: Even through Israel rose up again in her grumbling against Moses and the Lord so that she had to be disciplined, the Lord brought about ultimate progress for the people as they approached the land and defeated the Canaanites to the South, moved into the Transjordan region, defeated the Amorites under Sihon and the people from Bashan under Og also taking their land and cities 21:1-35
a. Progress--Encounter with the Canaanites:88 When the Israelites move northward toward the land of Canaan, the Canaanites under the King of Arad attack them and took some of them captive causing the Israelites to vow to place them under the ban (herem) if they Lord would allow them to defeat them, whereupon the Lord delivered the Canaanites into the hand of Israel and they completely destroyed them causing the place to be named Homah (destruction) 21:1-3
b. Sin--The Copper Snake:89 When the people were traveling from Mount Hor by the Red Sea to go around the land of Edom, they began to grumble against God and Moses for their wilderness wondering causing the Lord to judge them with fiery serpents which bit the people so that they died and could only be delivered by looking upon the serpent which Moses made and set upon a standard 21:4-9
c. Progress--The Route through Transjordan: Israel moved from Mount Hor, around Moab between Armon and Moab to Bamoth90 21:10-20
d. The Victory over Sihon: When Sihon the king of Ammon refused with force Israel’s peaceful request to simply pass through their land, Israel defeated the Ammorites and lived in their cities (especially Hesbon the former home of the king) 21:21-32
e. The Victory over Og: When Og, the king of Bashan, came out against the Israelites who were going up the way of Bashan, the Lord told Moses not to fear him and He gave them and the land into Israel’s possession 21:33-35
C. Successes on the Journey:91 Although the sons of Israel were under the spiritual attack of Moab and the Midianites so that God might destroy them, they were victorious because God was faithful to His promise to Abraham, and because the priesthood through Phinehas was jealous with God’s jealousy making atonement for the idolatrous sin of the people 22:1--25:18
1. Enemies Are Defeated:92 When the leader of Moab became fearful of the sons of Israel who were camped on his boarder he tried to destroy them through an oracle of God upon them and through raising God’s anger upon them as they sinned, but he was unsuccessful because they Lord was faithful to His promise to Abraham, and because the Lord only judged the leaders of the people who led them into Baal worship 22:1--25:5
a. External Enemies Are Defeated--Balak’s Failure to Turn YHWH Against Israel:93 When the sons of Israel camped in the plain of Moab, Balak became fearful and sought to defeat Israel by having Balaam, a Mesopotamian prophet, come and proclaim a curse upon Israel, but Balaam could only speak God’s word which was a blessing for the people of Israel and a warning of cursing upon those who would curse her (in accordance with the Abrahamic covenant) 22:1--24:25
1) Setting: The sons of Israel journeyed and camped in the plains of Moab in the Transjordan region opposite of Jericho 22:1
2) Prologue to the Balaam Oracles: When the sons of Israel were on the boarder of Moab, Balak the king of Moab sought out Balaam as a prophet to proclaim a curse upon Israel, but Balaam could only come as one who would speak the word of God, and although Balak attempted to persuade Balaam (through money and a banquet) and the Lord (through sacrifices), Balaam returned to Balak with the word that God gave to him 22:2--23:6
a) The Hiring of Balaam: When the sons of Israel were on the boarder of Moab, Balak, the king of Moab, became fearful, sought an alliance with the Medianites against Israel, and twice besought Balaam, a Mesopotamian prophet, to curse Israel who refused to come the first time under God’s direction and then agreed to come the second time under God’s direction but only to speak what God told him to say 22:2-21
(1) Balak’s Fear: 22:2-6
(2) First Pursuit of Balaam: 22:7-14
(3) Second Pursuit of Balaam: 22:15-21
b) Balaam and the Ass:94 As Balaam began to leave with the leaders of Balak, he was stopped by his donkey who three times tried to avoid the angel of the Lord who was before him, and then learned from the angel that he may go, but he must speak the word which he is told to speak 22:22-35
c) The Meeting of Balak and Balaam: Although Balak was disappointed that Balaam did not come with his first invitation, he entertained Balaam with a banquet and then took him to a high place where he could see Israel whereupon they tried to win God’s favor through seven sacrifices and Balaam received a word from God to proclaim to Balak 22:36--23:6
(1) Balak Meets Balaam: When Balak met Balaam at the city of Moab on the Arnon border he rebuked Balaam for not coming with the first invitation, heard Balaam proclaim that he could only speak God’s words, provided a banquet for Balaam at Kirathhuzoth and then took Balaam in the morning to the high place of Baal to see a portion of Israel 22:36-41
(2) Balak and Balaam offer seven bulls and seven rams to the Lord so that they might He might look favorably upon them, whereupon, Balak went to receive a word form the Lord and returned to Balak and the Leaders of Moab with God’s word95 23:1-6
3) The Oracles of Balaam: Although Balak attempted to persuade both Balaam and God to curse Israel, God, and thus Balaam, both blessed Israel and warned of cursing upon any who cursed her 23:7--24:25
a) Balaam’s First Oracle: Balaam proclaimed against Balak’s desire and in accordance with the Lord’s desire that Israel was a unique, righteous people among the nations 23:7-10
(1) Balak’s Purpose: Balaam described Moab’s purpose in calling him to be to curse Israel 23:7
(2) Balaam’s Limitation: Balaam stated that he could not do what the Lord would not do (e.g., curse Israel) 23:8
(3) Balaam observed that Israel was a unique, great people from among the nations 23:9-10a
(4) Balaam proclaimed Israel as righteous and that he desired to be blessed like her 23:10b
b) Result--Balak’s Reaction: Balak responded in anger to Balaam but not defeat, as he seeks still another oracle from Balaam 23:11-17
(1) Rebuke: Balak rebuked Balaam for blessing rather than cursing his enemies, but Balaam remained consistent to speak the Lord’s word 23:11-12
(2) New Plan: Balak took Balaam to a place where he would see less of Israel96 in hopes that he would change his oracle 23:13
(3) Persuasion Repeated: Again Balak offered seven sacrifices to the Lord to win His favor and Balaam received a message to give to Balak 23:14-17
c) Balaam’s Second Oracle: Balaam proclaimed that with God as their strength Israel was indestructible and mighty 23:18-26
(1) Consistent Decree: Balaam proclaimed that God is consistent in His decree, and thus he must be too by blessing Israel 23:18-20
(2) God with Israel: Balaam proclaimed that God was still with Israel 23:21
(3) Defense: Balaam proclaimed that God was Israel’s defense against all 23:22-23
(4) Victorious: Balaam proclaims that Israel will be victorious over its enemies like a lion over its prey 23:24
d) Result--Balak’s Reaction: Balak responded to Balaam in frustration but not in defeat 23:25--24:2
(1) Frustration: Balak was frustrated commanding him to say nothing, but Balaam remained consistent to what the Lord said 23:25-26
(2) New Location: Balak took Balaam to another place97 in hopes that the Lord would change His mind and curse Israel 23:27-28
(3) Persuasion Repeated: Balak offered seven more sacrifices to the Lord, but Balaam did not seek another omen from the Lord because he know it pleased the Lord to bless Israel who was tribe by tribe before him 23:29--24:2
e) Balaam’s Third Oracle: Balaam saw the greatness of Israel and offered blessing to whoever blessed them and cursing to whoever cursed them 24:3-9
(1) Saw God’s Will: Balaam finally saw God’s will and praised Him 24:3-4
(2) Israel’s Magnificence: Balaam proclaimed the magnificence and blessedness of Israel 24:5-6
(3) Future Greatness: Balaam predicted the future blessing and greatness of Israel 24:7
(4) God is Defense: Balaam again described the Lord as Israel’s defense 24:8a
(5) Powerful People: Balaam described Israel as a powerful people who will destroy her adversaries 24:8b-9a
(6) An Offer of Blessing or Cursing: Balaam offered blessing or cursing to whoever blessed or cursed Israel98 24:9b
f) Result--Balak’s Reaction: Balak became furious with Balaam and gave up on cursing Israel through him 24:10-13
(1) Flee: Balak again became angry with Balaam for not cursing Israel but blessing her and ordered him to flee without payment for his services 24:10-11
(2) Balaam’s Response: Balaam responded to Balak by remaining firm to his stand to say what God told him to say 24:12-13
g) Balaam’s Fourth Oracle: Balaam predicted the rise of Messiah, a future kingdom, and the fall of present kingdoms 24:14-24
(1) Prediction: Balaam was going to his own people, but first he wanted to predict what Israel would do to Balak’s people in the future 24:14
(2) God’s Will: Balak again revealed that he saw God’s will and praised Him 24:15-16
(3) Messiah and Kingdom: Balaam predicted the coming of a future king (Messiah) and the rise of a future kingdom for Israel over Moab and all of her neighbors 24:17-19
(4) Future Destruction: Balaam described the future destruction of those leaders who were present: Amelek, Kain, Assher, and Eber 24:20-24
4) Conclusion to the Balaam Oracles: Balaam and Balak both go their separate ways back to their homes 24:25
b. Internal Enemies Are Defeated--Balak’s Success in Turning Israel From YHWH:99 25:1-5
1) Israel’s Worship of Baal: While the sons of Israel were at Shittim,100 they were drawn into the worship of Moab’s god, Baal of Peor, through Moabite women causing the Lord to be angry with Israel 25:1-3
2) Judgment upon Leaders: Lord commanded Moses to slay all of the leaders of Israel so that He might turn His anger away from the entire people, so Moses ordered the judges to slay the men who had joined themselves with Baal of Peor 25:4-5
2. Phinehas Ultimately Justifies Priestly Leadership:101 When one of the leaders of Israel comes with a Midianite woman to his tent to have sexual relations with her, Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron through Eleazar, pierces them both through with a spear and stops the plague which killed 24,000 people causing God to affirm him and to offer him a perpetual priesthood, and causing God to command Moses to be at constant war with the Medianites 25:6-18
a. Righteous Judgment through Phinehas: When one of the sons of Israel came with a Midianite woman to his tent Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron through Eleazar, pierced them through the body with a spear and the plague on Israel which killed 24,000 was stopped 25:6-9
b. Phinehas Affirmed by God: Because Phinehas had God’s jealousy for uprightness among the people, the Lord proclaimed that he had His covenant of peace and would have a perpetual priesthood having made atonement for the sons of Israel 25:10-13
c. Oracle Against Midian: After identifying the son of Israel as Zimri, a leader of the Simeonites, and the Midianite woman as Cozbi, a daughter of Zur a leader in Midian, the Lord commanded Moses to be hostile to the Midianites and to strike them because they had been hostile with the people through their deceptive tricks at Peor 25:14-18
III. FINAL PREPARATIONS FOR SETTLEMENT: The Lord prepared the sons of Israel to obtain the land by taking a census of those among whom it was to be apportioned, by prescribing His will concerning events which will occur in the land, by transferring the leadership from Moses to Joshua, by an expression of commitment of the people to the Lord and His program of conquest, by proclaiming the Lord’s faithfulness in the wilderness, and by proclaiming the Lord’s specific provision of the Land of Canaan as well as how to maintain it as a people through purity and inheritance 26:1--36:13
A. The Second Census--The Reconstitution of the Community:102 Under the command of the Lord Moses and Eleazar took a census of the sons of Israel who survived God’s wilderness judgment by the Jordan at Jericho which numbered the men at 601,730 and the Levites at 23,000 so that the land might be apportioned 26:1-65
1. Directions for Taking a Census: The Lord commanded Moses and Eleazar after the plague while they were in the plains of Moab by the Jordan at Jericho to take a census of the sons of Israel who are twenty years old and upward 26:1-4
2. The Results of the Census:103 The sons of Israel who were numbered by families totaled 601,730 men 26:5-51
a. Reuben: The families of Reuben numbered 43,730 men: 26:5-7
b. An Addendum to the Korahite Rebellion: Neither the Reubenites nor the Korahites died out despite the deaths of Korah, Dathan, Abiram and their families 26:8-11
c. Simeon: The families of Simeon numbered 22,200 men 26:12-14
d. Gad: The families of Gad numbered 40,500 men 26:15-18
e. Judah: The families Judah numbered 76,500 men 26:19-22
f. Issachar: The families of Issachar numbered 64,300 men 26:23-25
g. Zebulun: The families of Zebulun numbered 60,500 men 26:26-27
h. The Sons of Joseph--Manaseh and Ephraim: 26:28-37
1) Statement: These are the sons of Joseph according to their families--Manasseh and Ephraim 26:28
2) Manasseh: The families of Manasseh numbered 52,700 men 26:29-34
3) Ephraim: The families of Ephraim numbered 32,500 men 26:35-37
i. Benjamin: The families of Benjamin numbered 45,600 men 26:38-41
j. Dan: The families of Dan numbered 64,400 men 26:42-43
k. Asher: The families of Asher numbered 53,400 men 26:44-47
l. Naphtali: The families of Naphtali numbered 45,400 men 26:48-50
m. Summary: The number of the sons of Israel were 601,730 men 26:51
3. The Method of Apportioning the Land: The Lord commanded Moses that the apportioning of the Land was to be by lot to the names above--the larger inheritance to the larger families, and the small inheritance to the smaller families 26:52-56
4. The Levitical Clans:104 The Levites were numbered to be 23,000 from a month old and upward separately from the sons of Israel since no inheritance was given to them from among the sons of Israel 26:57-62
a. Traditional Clans: The Gershonites, Kohathites, and the Merarites were the traditional clans of Levi 26:57
b. The Sub-clans of Levi: The families of the Levi were the Libnites, Hebronites, Mahlites, Mushites, and Korahites 26:58a
c. Genealogy of Kohath: Moses and Aaron, although Kohathites, were distinct from among the Levites105 26:58-61
1) Kohath was the father of Amram 26:58b
2) Amram’s wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Levi in Egypt 26:59a
3) Amram and Jochebed gave birth to Aaron and Moses, and their sister Miriam 26:59b
4) Aaron gave birth to Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar 26:60
5) Nadab and Abihu died when they offered strange first before the Lord 26:61
d. Summary: The Levites were numbered to be 23,000 from a month old106 and upward separately from the sons of Israel since no inheritance was given to them from among the sons of Israel 26:62
5. A Postscript: Of all of those who were numbered by Moses and Eleazar there was not a man from the earlier census taken by Moses and Aaron except for Caleb and Joshua because they died in the wilderness according to the Lord’s command107 26:63-65
B. Laws about the Land, Observances and Vows: As the nation prepares to enter the promised land the Lord proscribes His will concerning events which will arise, namely, the right of women to inherit the land, the transfer of leadership from Moses to Joshua, specific daily and yearly observances for the sons of Israel to keep, and His expectations when one makes a vow 27:1--30:16
1. The Right of Women to Inherit Land:108 When the daughters of Zelophehad brought their case before Moses of their father dyeing without sons, the Lord commanded Moses to allow the daughters to receive their father’s inheritance and proscribed rules for the succession of the inheritance when other difficult cases arise 27:1-11
a. The Case of the Daughters of Zelophehad:109 When the daughters of Zelophehad besought Moses and Eleazar for the right to keep an inheritance of the Land in their father’s name since he had died without any sons, Moses brought their case before the Lord and the Lord confirmed their request exhorting Moses to transfer the inheritance of their father to them 27:1-7
b. The Law of Succession: The Lord then proclaimed as a rule that if a man dies without any sons, then his inheritance shall be transferred to his daughter, and if he has no daughter then to his brothers, and if he has no brothers, then to his father’s brothers, and if his father has no brothers, then to his nearest relative in his own family to posses it 27:8-11
2. Commitment to Mosaic Succession--The Succession of Moses by Joshua: When the Lord commanded Moses to go up to the mountain of Abarim to see the land which He was giving to the sons of Israel whereupon he too would die, Moses pleaded with the Lord to replace him with another leader of the congregation, and the Lord appointed Joshua as Moses’ succeeder, and Moses transferred his authority to Joshua before Eleazar and the people 27:12-23
3. A Calendar and Pattern of Daily Observances in the Land:110 The Lord prescribed specific daily and yearly observances for the sons of Israel to keep when they enter into the land 28:1--29:40
a. Introduction: The Lord commanded Moses to be careful to present the food for His offerings at the appointed times 28:1-2
b. The Daily Offering: Two male lambs were to be offered each day as burnt offerings to the Lord--one in the morning and the other at twilight with a grain offering and a libation 28:3-8
c. The Sabbath Offering: In addition to the daily offering two male lambs one year old without defect were to be offered to the Lord with a grain offering and its libation 28:9-10
d. Rosh Hodesh, the New Moon: In addition to the offerings above the sons of Israel were to offer two bulls, one ram, seven male lambs one year old without defect, and a male goat for a sin offering along with appropriate grain offerings and libations at the beginning of each month 28:11-15
e. The Paschal Sacrifice and Unleavened Bread: On the Lord’s Passover (the fourteenth day of the first month) and for the Feast of Unleavened bread (the fifteenth day of the first month and for the next seven days) the sons of Israel were on the first day to rest and to present an offering of two bulls, one ram and seven male, one year old lambs without defect along with their grain offering and a male goat for a sin offering to make atonement for them in addition to the offerings above 28:16-25
f. The Feast of Weeks: Then fifty days after the Feast of Unleavened Bread on the day of First Fruits (or Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks)111 the sons of Israel were to rest and offer two young bulls, one ram, seven male lambs one year old with their grain offerings and libations and one male goat to make atonement for them in addition to the offerings above 28:26-31
g. The First Day of the Seventh Month: On the first day of the seventh month the sons of Israel were to rest and offer one bull, one ram, seven male lambs one year old without defect, the appropriate grain offerings, and one male goat as atonement for them besides the other offerings and libations 9:1-6
h. The Tenth Day of the Seventh Month: On the tenth day of the seventh month the sons of Israel were to rest and offer one bull, ram, seven male lambs one year old without defect, appropriate grain offerings, and a male goat for atonement in addition to the other offerings and libations 29:7-11
i. The Fifteenth to the Twenty-First of the Seventh Month: On the fifteenth day of the seventh month the sons of Israel were to rest and offer thirteen bulls, two rams, fourteen male lambs one year old without defect, the appropriate grain offerings, and a male goat as atonement repeating these on the second through seventh days minus one bull each day 29:12-34
j. The Eighth Day: On the eighth day from the fifteenth (or 22 of the seventh month) the sons of Israel were to rest and offer one bull, one ram, seven male lambs one year old without defect, the appropriate grain offerings and one male goat for a sin offering besides the regular offerings 29:35-38
k. A Subscript: Moses spoke to the sons of Israel all that the Lord had commanded that they these offerings were to be presented to the Lord in addition to their votive offerings, freewill offerings, burnt offerings, grain offerings, libations and peace offerings 29:39-40
4. Status of Female Vows--The Annulment of Vows and Oaths Made by Women:112 The Lord commanded Moses that although all vows of men are binding, the vow of a woman may be annulled by either her father (if she was a daughter who lived in his house) or by her husband if he annulled it on the day that he head of it; if he did not, the vow stood and he was responsible for it if he annulled it at a later time 30:2-16
a. Introduction: Moses spoke the following words to the heads of the tribes of the sons of Israel as the commandment of the Lord 30:1
b. Case One--Men and Vows: If a man takes a vow to the Lord, or binds himself with an obligation, he is not to violate his word, but to do it as he promised 30:2
c. Case Two--Young Women and Fathers: If a young woman takes a vow to the Lord, or binds herself with an obligation, she is bound by it unless her father hears of it and forbids it on the day that he learns of it; in this case the Lord will forgive her 30:3-5
d. Case Three--Woman and Husband: If a married woman takes a vow to the Lord, or binds herself with an obligation, she is bound by it unless her husband hears of it and forbids it on the day that he learns of it; in this case the Lord will forgive her 30:6-8
e. Case Four--Widow or Divorced Woman: If a widow or divorced woman takes a vow to the Lord, or binds herself with an obligation, she is bound by it unless she took it in her husband’s house, he heard of it and forbade it on the day that he learned of it; in this case the Lord will forgive her 30:9-12
f. Generalization: A husband may confirm or annul an oath of his wife, but if he does not upon hearing it, the vow remains binding, and if he annuls it some time after he has heard of it, he will be held responsible 30:13-15
g. A Summation: The Lord commanded the statutes above to Moses concerning a man and his wife and a father and his youthful daughter 30:16
C. Renewed Commitment through the Defeat of Midian and Settlement in Transjordan: The sons of Israel renewed their commitment to the Lord through the dedication of the spoils of battle to the Lord from the defeat of the Midianites and by the dedication of the sons of Rueben and Gad to fight with the sons of Israel in Canaan before they settle in their inheritance in the Transjordan 31:1--32:42
1. Defeat of Midian and Renewed Commitment to Priestly Theocracy:113 As a consequence to the pollution caused by the Midianites, the Lord commanded the sons of Israel to fight against them, they utterly destroyed them, purified themselves and then distributed the booty as the Lord prescribed with a portion of it going to the Lord 31:1-54
a. Preparation for War: In accordance with the Lord’s command, Moses spoke to the sons of Israel to prepare for war and they gathered twelve thousand men (one thousand from each tribe) as well as Pninehas the son of Eleazar the priest with the holy vessels and trumpets to fight against the Midianites 31:1-6
b. The War: When the sons of Israel went to war against the Midianites they killed every male, the five kings of Midian and Balaam the son of Beor, captured the women and children, plundered their livestock, burned their cities, and took all the spoil and prey which they presented to Moses, Eleazar, and the sons of Israel who were camped at the plains of Moab 31:7-12
c. Exhortation of Moses: The the army returned to the sons of Israel, Moses was angry that they had returned with the women who had brought a plague upon Israel and commanded that all of the male children be killed, that only the virgin girls be allowed to live and that the army purify itself (for contact with the dead) and wait seven days before they reenter into the camp 31:13-24
d. Dividing the Booty: The Lord commanded Moses, Eleazar, and the leaders of the tribes to divide the booty between the warriors and the congregation, but to also issue a tax of one out of every 500 captured persons and animals to the Lord with the half from the warriors going to Eleazar and one out of fifty from the congregation going to the Levites 31:25-31
e. Listing of the Booty and Its Divisions: Moses lists the booty, its division among the warriors and the congregation and its portion to the Lord as prescribed above 31:32-47
f. A Memorial Offering: Because none of the sons of Israel were found to be missing from the battle, they provided a memorial offering to the Lord of thanksgiving (6,700 ounces of gold) 31:48-54
2. Settlement of Transjordan--Commitment of All to Settle in the Land is Tested Through Gad and Reuben:114 When the sons of Reuben and Gad requested to settle in the Transjordan area, Moses at first rejected their request as a sin which would discourage the sons of Israel to take the land much as their fathers had done, but when the sons Gad and Reuben offered to enter into Canaan and fight with the sons of Israel for their inheritance, Moses agreed and gave them, with Manasseh, the Transjordan for an inheritance 32:1-42
a. The Proposal: When the sons of Reuben and Gad saw that the land in the Transjordan region was suitable to their many livestock, they requested of Moses that they be allowed to settle in this region rather than going across the Jordan115 32:1-5
b. Moses’ Rejection: Moses rejected the proposal of Reuben and Gad to settle in the Transjordan because he perceived it to be a sin similar to that of their fathers who discouraged the people from settling the land and caused God’s anger to burn against them 32:6-15
c. A Compromise Formula: The leaders of Gad and Reuben explained that even through they would like for their inheritance to be in the Transjordan, they would go and fight with the Sons of Israel until all of them had obtained their inheritance 32:16-19
d. Moses’ Acceptance: Moses agreed to let them settle in the Transjordan if they would keep their word and go to war with Israel, but warned them that if they did not fight, it would be sin against the Lord 32:20-24
e. Gad and Reuben Agree: The sons of Gad and Reuben agreed to build for their children, wives and livestock in the cities of Gilead and to then to cross over in the presence of the Lord to do battle just as Moses said 32:25-27
f. The Essence of the Compromise Formula: Moses told Eleazar, Joshua and the heads of the fathers’ households that the sons of Gad and Reuben would fight with the sons of Israel in the promised land and then be given the land of Gilead for a possession, but that they would be apportioned a possession in Canaan if they did not fight 32:28-30
g. Gad and Reuben Repeat Their Acceptance: The sons of Gad and Reuben agreed to fight for Israel in Canaan as the Lord has said and then to possess the land in the Transjordan 32:31-32
h. The Grant of Transjordan: Moses gave to the sons of Gad, Reuben and the half-tribe of Joseph’s son Manasseh the kingdom of Sihon, King of the Amorites, and the kingdom of Og, the king of Bashan with all of its cities, territories 32:33-38
1) Statement: 32:33
2) The Possession of the Sons of Gad: 32:34-36
3) The Possession of the Sons of Reuben: 32:37-38
i. Manassite Incursions into Upper Transjordan--Gilead:116 The sons of Machir, the son of Manasseh, took Gilead from the Amorites and Moses gave it to them 32:39-42
D. A Review of Israel’s Journey through the Wilderness:117 Moses recounts the journeys of the sons of Israel as well as strategic events which occurred along the way as a conclusion to the wilderness wanderings and a memorial of the Lord’s faithfulness in spite of the peoples rebellion 33:1-49
1. Introduction: 33:1-4
2. Rameses to the Sinai Wilderness: 33:5-15
3. The Sinai Wilderness to Kadesh: 33:16-36
4. Kadesh to the Steppes of Moab: 33:37-49
E. Laws about the Land:118 The Lord commanded Israel to take the land and thus provided the geographical boundaries of the land, the means of apportionment through Eleazer and Joshua, as well as provisions to maintain the land in purity from blood guiltiness and within each tribe when women inherit the land 33:50--36:13
1. The Divisions and Boundaries of the Land: The Lord commanded the sons of Israel to occupy the land and then provided the geographical boundaries of the land and the means for its apportionment through Eleazer the priest and Joshua to the leaders of each tribe 33:50--34:29
a. The Command to Occupy the Land: The Lord commanded the sons of Israel to occupy the land, driving out the inhabitants, destroying their false worship, taking possession of it in accordance with the lot by tribe119 and with the warning that they will be afflicted by those in the land whom they do not drive out 33:50-56
b. The Boundaries of the Promised Land:120 The Lord provided the northern, southern, eastern, and western boarders for the land of Canaan which the sons of Israel were to inherit 34:1-15
1) The Southern Boarder: The southern boarder ran from the Dead Sea through the ascent of Akrabbim, through the wilderness of Zin south of Kadesh-barnea to the Mediterranean Sea 34:1-5
2) The Western Boarder: The western boarder was the Mediterranean Sea 34:6
3) The Northern Boarder: The northern boarder ran from the Mediterranean Sea to Mount Hor (Herman?) to Lebo-Hamath (southern Syria?) to Zedad (65 miles NE of Damascus) to Ziphron to Hazar-enan (75 miles NE of Damascus) 34:7-9
4) The Eastern Boarder: The eastern boarder ran from Hazar-enan to Shepham, down to Riblahon the east side of Ain to the east side of the Sea of Galilee and down along the Jordan river to the Dead Sea 34:10-12
c. The Apportionment:121 After explaining that the two and a half tribes of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh would not be included in the apportionment of the land since they already had their portion in the Transjordan, the Lord to Moses that Eleazer the priest, Joshua the son of Nun and a chosen leader from each of the remaining nine and a half tribes will be the ones to apportion the land 34:13-29
1) Introduction: The following is an apportioning of the land among the nine and a half tribe since Gad, Reuben and half of Manasseh received their portion received their portion in the Transjordan 34:13-15
2) Leaders Chosen: The Lord told Moses that Eleazar the priest and Joshua the son of Nun along with one leader from each of the remaining nine and half tribes were to apportion the land for the people’s inheritance 34:16-29
2. Levitical Provisions in the Land:122 The Lord commanded Moses for the sons of Israel to proportionately provide forty-eight cities for the Levites and their flocks, six of which were to be cities of refuge, from five hundred to 1,000 yards away from the city walls 35:1-8
a. The Placement of the Cities: The Lord commanded Moses for the people of Israel to provide cities for the Levites to live in123 as well as pasture land for their animals the first of which extended around the city five hundred yards (1,000 cubits) and the second of which extended 1,000 yards (2,000 cubits) around the city walls 35:1-5
b. A Description of the Cities: These cities were to be proportionately given from the sons of Israel by their size numbering forty-eight124 in all and six of which were to be cities of refuge where the manslayer could flee 35:6-8
3. Refuge in Case of Homicide:125 In the case of murder the sons of Israel were not to permit financial expiation, but were to allow the blood avenger to take the murderer’s life for intentional homicide, and when the manslaughter was unintentional the manslayer was to be judged by the congregation and then taken to one of six appointed cities of refuge where he was to remain until the death of the high priest 35:9-34
a. The Cities of Refuge: The Lord commanded Moses to have the sons of Israel select six cities of refuge--three in the Transjordan126 and three in the land of Canaan127--for the person to flee to, whether Jew, alien or sojourner, who unintentionally killed another 35:9-15
b. Deliberate and Involuntary Homicide: Unlike deliberate homicide wherein one killed another in a premeditated way which required the blood avenger to put the murderer to death, the lack of intention was involuntary manslaughter 35:16-23
1) Deliberate:128 The blood avenger was to put the murderer to death if he struck the person with an iron object, a stone, a wooden object or his hand by lying in wait or in enmity 35:16-21
2) Involuntary: One committed involuntary manslaughter if he pushed him suddenly with out enmity, threw something at him without lying in wait or struck him with any deadly object without being his enemy or seeking his injury 35:22-23
c. Involuntary Manslaughter--The Procedure: When one committed involuntary manslaughter the congregation129 would deliver the manslayer from the blood avenger and restore him to the city of refuge130 where he was to stay until the death of the High Priest,131 but if he left the city of refuge before the death of the High Priest, the blood avenger was allowed to take the life of the manslayer 35:24-29
d. Supplement and Peroration: Because blood pollutes the land and there is no expiation for it other than the blood of him who shed it or the death of the high priest, they were not to receive a ransom for the life of a murderer or a manslayer, and the death penalty was to be enforced under no less than two witnesses 35:30-34
4. The Right of Women to Inherit Land--Marriage Requirements of Heiresses:132 When the heads of the fathers’ households of the family of the sons of Gilead, Machir, and Manasseh brought their concern that land from one family could be lost to another through the right of women to inherit the Land the Lord spoke through Moses commanding that women who inherit the land marry within their tribe so that their land will not be lost just as the daughters of Zelophehad did 36:1-13
1 The usual divisions of this book are centered around geography: (1) At Sinai [1:1--10:10], (2) From Sinai to Kadesh [10:11--12:16], (3) At or Near Kadesh [13:1-19:22], (4) From Kadesh to the Plains of Moab [20:1--22:1], (5) In the Plains of Moab [22:2--36:13]. See Wenham, Numbers, 54; Hill and Walton, SOT, 132; Ryrie Study Bible, 205; The NIV Study Bible, 187-88. While a geographical progression truly characterizes this book, the argument of the book is not very clearly seen through these categories. Budd (Numbers, xvii) seems to have offered better logical categories which aid in understanding the logic of the book:
A. Constituting the community at Sinai (1:1--9:14)
B. The journey--its setbacks and success (9:15--25:18)
C. Final preparations for settlement (26:1--35:34)
These categories will be adapted for the larger structure of this argument. -viii).
2 Wenham writes, These opening chapters of Numbers are not arranged in strictly chronological order. The regulations in chapters 1--6 are dated by 1:1 to the first day of the second month, whereas 7:1--9:15 fall between the first and fourteenth day of the first month (cf. Ex. 40:2). Chapters 1-6 are probably placed before chapters 7--9 to explain the significance of the latter. For example chapter 4, specifying the tasks of the Levitical clans, explains the gift of wagons to them in 7:1-9. Chapter 3 explains the purpose of dedicating the Levites, described in 8:5-26 (Numbers, 56).
3 Milgrom writes, The march of the Israelites through the wilderness, from Mount Sinai to the promised land, will take them through hostile environments, both natural and human. To meet those dangers, the people must be organized into a military camp, which requires a census. Under the supervision of Moses, Aaron, and the tribal chieftains, all males over twenty, other than Levites, are registered by their respective clans. The Levites, who are assigned special functions, are subject to a special census (3:14-39; 4:21-49) (Numbers, 3).
4 This is the second census that was taken. The first was to tax all who were over twenty years old half a shekel for the building of the tabernacle (Ex 30:12-16; cf. 38:25f).
5 The nation is being organized to invade the Promised Land (See 1:3, 20, 22, 24).
6 The Levites were not counted in the census.
7 Note that all of these name are theophoric (compounds in which a name of God is used). For instance Elizar means my God is a rock.
8 Wenham's correlation is significant: This census invites comparison with the opening chapters of the gospels. Matthew begins by tracing the genealogy of Jesus, the new Israel, while Luke mentions that he was born in a census (Lk. 2:1-7). It is not clear if Luke saw this event as recapitulating the experience of the people of God in Numbers; but certainly many other parallels are drawn by the evangelists between our Lord's life and Israel's wilderness experiences. The great difference is that whereas Israel often failed the test, Jesus triumphed (Numbers, 1:20-46).
9 The formula for each entry is about the same: (1) the sons of ..., (2) their genealogical registration, (3) by their fathers' households, (4) their numbered men, (5) according to the number of names, (6) head by head, (7) every male from twenty years old and upward, (8) whoever was able to go out to war, (9) their numbered men of the tribe of ... were ....
10 Wenham states, Here symbolism is very important. At the centre of the camp stood the tabernacle where God enthroned above the ark in the holy of holies. Round the tabernacle camped the priests and Levites, guarding it to prevent ordinary Israelites entering without careful preparation. Beyond the Levites camped the secular tribes, drawn up in battle order as befits the people of God. Outside the camp lived the unclean, sufferers from skin diseases or bodily discharges, who were unfit for the presence of God.
Both at rest and on the move the camp was organized to express symbolically the presence and kingship of the Lord (Numbers, 56).
This structure probably relates to the new Jerusalem (cf. Revelation 21:9ff). The Jewish tribes will become the gates of the city (21:12). We will replace the priestly portion and we (the church) may well replace Moses.
11 On each side of the tabernacle one tribe is accentuated and the other tribes are seen to be next to that tribe.
12 Elliott Johnson writes, The spatial structure and hierarchies of the house of Levites permit certain groups to approach God's presence while safeguarding the rest of the people from God's holiness. Continuing, there are concentric circles of holiness in the camp--priest, Levite and Israelite--each protecting the outer circles from divine wrath. At the absolute center stands Moses--the unique means of revealing the divine will (Analytical Outline of Numbers, 1).
13 Wenham writes, The family of Aaron did belong to the tribe of Levi (1 ch. 6:1-15), but as priests possessed superior status to the rest of the tribe. They alone had the right to handle the sacrificial blood, to touch the altar and to enter the tent of meeting. They were the authoritative teachers of the nation (e.g., Lv. 10:11; Dt. 24:8), the official mediators between God and Israel. With great privilege went immense responsibility. Those who represent God before men must be punctilious in obeying God's word. And Aaron's two elder sons were not: they offered unholy fire before the LORD, such as he had not commanded them (Lv. 10:1). This brief reference to the earlier incident explains why only Eleazar and Ithamar are mentioned as in charge of the Levites in 3:32; 4:16,28,33. It also serves to set the tone for chapters 3--4, which repeatedly allude to the mortal danger men face in dealing with God (3:10,13,38; 4:15,18-20; cf. Acts 5:1-11; 12:22-23; 1 Cor. 10:6-11; 11:29-30) (Numbers, 69).
14 These duties include keeping guard and doing the heavy work of dismantling, transporting and erecting the tabernacle (note the Hebrew terms and chapter four).
15 This would be much like a policeman shooting a criminal (cf. 1:51; 3:10,38; 18:7; cf. Ex 32:25-29; Nu 25:7-12). This was so that the entire congregation would be prevented from God's punishment for the evil of one individual (cf. 1:53; 16--17; 25:8).
16 In remembrance of their salvation the first-born Israelites had to be consecrated to the Lord (Ex. 11:4--13:15) (Wenham, Numbers, 70).
17 This is since the golden calf episode (cf. Ex 32:25-29).
18 For a good diagram of the total layout of the sons of Israel and the Levites see Wehnam, Numbers, 67.
19 The number 8,600 may well be due to the corruption of vlv (3 as in the LXX--triakovsioi) to vv (6). When this correction is made the total in 3:39 matches the individual clans in 3:22, 28, 34.
20 See Leviticus 27:6. This may well anticipate Christ's redemption of His people.
21 Wenham has a diagram of the tabernacle which clarifies the instructions in chapter four (Numbers, 72).
Applicationally Wenham writes, Running through these censuses are two important biblical principles. First, that every member of the people of God has his part to play. The priests offered sacrifice, the Merarites carried the tent pegs, the other tribes fought in the army. Each was indispensable to the smooth functioning of the whole body. Without full mutual cooperation the people would not reach the promised land. Similarly, in Christ's body every member has been endowed with spiritual gifts which contribute to the welfare of the whole church. But as in ancient Israel 'there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but the same Lord; and there are varieties of working, but it is the same God who inspires them all in every one' (1 Cor. 12:4-6). Paul devotes the rest of the chapter to working out these principles in more detail.
The second great principle that is clearly enunciated in these chapters is that Israel was a hierarchy, or more precisely, a theocracy. God spoke to Moses and Aaron, and they passed on God's words to the people. The priests, Aaron's sons, obeyed their father. The Levites were subordinate to the priests, while in their turn the Levites served as religious policemen preventing the ordinary Israelite falling into deadly sin. Similarly, the New Testament pictures the church as well organized with a hierarchical order among its office-bearers. This organization goes back to our Lord himself who appointed twelve apostles in evident imitation of the twelve tribe organization of Israel. Under Christ the apostles are the supreme authority in the church. Beneath them are the other office-holders such as prophets, teachers and elders (cf. 1 Cor. 16:16; 1 Thess 5:12ff; 1 Pet. 5:5); and the leaders are encouraged to 'command' and 'reprove with all authority', for by holding to scriptural teaching 'you will save both yourself and your hearers' (1 Tim. 4:11-16; Tit. 2:15) (Numbers, 73-74).
22 The colored cloths marked the different degrees of holiness (cf. Wenham, Numbers, 72, n. 1; V.W. Turner, The Forest of Symbols [Cornell University Press, 1967], pp. 59ff.
Milgrom writes, Thus, the sacred colors of the sancta as well as their sequence indicate their holiness rank. The Ark, covered by all three sacred colors, is the holiest. The table, next in holiness, claimed two sacred colors. The golden altar and the lampstand were provided with one sacred color, violet, denoting that they were equal in holiness. The sacrificial altar and probably the laver were also granted one sacred color, but it was purple not violet. IN this manner the sequence of the sancta is marked by the differentiation in the colors of their covers, both signifying a descending order in holiness. These distinctions are matched by the quality and workmanship of the sancta themselves. The inner sancta are made of gold, the outer altar of copper (cf. Exod. 25-27). The order of dismantling the sancta is the same as for reassembling them (Exod. 40:17-33) (Numbers, 25).
Wenham writes, The same set of colours was used in the tabernacle. Deep blue curtains were used in the holy of holies, purple in the holy place, and the outer cover was again of goatskin. Undoubtedly these colours had significance, but discovering what they signified is difficult. Evidently blue marked out the holiest objects, those most closely associated with the presence of God, perhaps because blue is the colour of heaven, God's real dwelling-place (cf. Ex. 24:10; 1 Ki. 8:27), and the tabernacle was built on the pattern of God's heavenly house (Ex. 25:9,40; Heb. 8:5). Elsewhere blue and purple hangings adorned royal tents (Est. 1:6). Similarly, kings and nobles wore blue and purple garments (e.g., Ezk. 23:6; Jdg. 8:26). The use of the same colours here reminded Israel that the tabernacle was the palace of their divine king and that the ark was his throne (Numbers, 73).
23 Milgrom writes, Only the priests, who were sacred, were qualified to handle the Ark and the other sancta. The Kohathites, however, had no sacred status (see 3:9) and hence their touching and even seeing the uncovered sancta could be fatal (vv. 15-20). Thus Aaron and his sons had to cover the sancta before the Kohathites could enter the sacred area to attend to their transport (Num. R. 4:19).
24 More specifically the screen for entrance to the tabernacle (26), the screen door for the tent of meeting (25), the curtains of tabernacle and tent of meeting (25), the hanging court of the tabernacle (25).
25 More specifically the boards of the tabernacle, its bars, its pillars, its sockets, the pillars around the court, their sockets, their pegs, their cords, with all their equipment, with all their service (4:31-32).
26 This priestly scroll is a collection of case studies in variation from the norm designed to decide future situations (e.g., the trail of suspicion [Nu 5:11-31, the Nazarite [Nu 6], the special Passover [Nu 9].
27 Leviticus 13:2
28 Leviticus 15:25
29 Numbers 19:11 ff.
30 Wenham writes, The narrative pauses for a moment for the revelation of three pairs of laws illustrating how the unclean should be treated. Whereas the expulsion of 'lepers' and others from the camp was an immediate response to the presence of unclean persons among the holy people of God, these laws could be applied beyond the wilderness situation and hence function as implicit promises that ere long Israel would reach the promised land (cf. 13:23ff) (Numbers, 78).
31 Wenham writes, The practical importance of this law is obvious. Israel had been drawn up in battle array to march towards the promised land. But their unity would be shattered if they were squabbling among themselves and taking God's name in vain. Through restitution and sacrifice, peace with God and harmony within the nation could be restored (Numbers, 79).
32 Compare Leviticus 5:14-19; 6; Matt 5:23f; Lk 19:8f; 1 Cor 6:7f; Gal 5:15 et cetera.
33 Wenham writes, As often in Numbers, it is not immediately apparent what this law has to do with its context. It seems out of place in a section concerned with purifying the camp and the people. Closer inspection shows that this ritual is indeed related to the preceding laws. Adulterous wives are picked out for special attention, because adultery pollutes those involved, making them unclean (verses 13f., 19f, 28f.; cf Lv. 18:20, 25, 27). They should therefore be eliminated from the camp (cf verses 3f). Second, both adultery and the offenses described in verses 5-11 are described as breaking faith (verse 6) or acting unfaithfully (verses 12,27). The same Hebrew word (ma‘al ) is used in both cases: false oaths break faith with God, adulterers break faith with their spouses. Thirdly, it may be noted that Leviticus 19:20-22 prescribes a guilt offering for adultery with a slave girl. This association with guilt offerings serves to link those three consecutive sections (5:5-10; 11-31; 6:1-21; n.b. verse 12). A fourth point of contact with verses 5-10 is that this ordeal is essentially an elaborate oath to establish a wife's fidelity or otherwise. Such oaths were also used to determine rights in property claims (e.g. Ex. 22:7-13) and are alluded to in verse 6 ‘breaking faith’. Whereas in the case of debt repayment we have a guilty man owning up to misusing an oath, in this ordeal we have a suspicious husband imposing a solemn oath on his wife. Finally, throughout Scripture the covenant relationship between God and his people is compared with marriage. As he is concerned with the purity of Israel shows in the expulsion of the unclean from the camp, so husbands are right to be worried if they suspect their wives have polluted themselves through infidelity. Indeed, early Jewish exegesis likened the drink made from the ashes of the golden calf to the draught administered to suspect women. The law and the golden calf episode may lie behind prophetic references to the cup which the Lord will make faithful Israel drink (Is. 51:17,22; Ezk. 23:30-34) (Numbers, 80; see 83-85 for a fuller discussion of the particulars of the test).
In other Ancient Near Eastern cultures the women would not have had any trial. This was an attempt to deal with the situation righteously, to give women rights (emphasizing that God recognized the rights of a women in a trial), and to deal with men's jealousy.
34 Without the symbols of joy--oil and frankincense.
35 The Mishnah writes, In the member she sinned with she will be punished (Sotah 1:7). Wenham writes, In adultery the woman sinned with he 'thigh' and conceived in her 'belly'. Therefore, it is fitting that these organs should be the scene of her punishment (Numbers 84).
36 The Hebrew term “nazir” from which the English term is transliterated means to separate. There are many similarities between the high priests and the Nazirites (cf. Lev 8; 10:9; 21:2ff., 11)
Wenham writes, The Nazirites were the monks and nuns of ancient Israel, lay men or women who consecrated themselves to the total service of God, usually for a specific period of time, through more rarely for life. The laws on Nazirites were included here because they fit the general theme of this part of Numbers. The nation is being organized as a holy people of God. Israel was called to be 'a kingdom of priests' (Ex. 19:6), and the rules voluntarily assumed by the Nazirites resembled those governing the behaviour of priests, while their distinctive hairstyle reminded the laity that even they were called to be kings and priests to God (cf. Rev. 5:10). Thus as marriage symbolized the relationship between God and Israel (Nu. 5), so the Nazirites epitomized the holy calling of the nation (Je. 7:29). If pollution through dead bodies demanded the expulsion of ordinary laymen from the camp (5:2-3), it had an even more drastic effect on the Nazirites, the quintessence of sanctity (6:9-12).
Formally these laws also cohere well with their context. There is the same opening formula (6:1-2; cf. 6:6f., 11f.), and as in the preceding laws, the subject is dealt with under tow main heads: the pollution of Nazirites (6:2-12) and their deconsecration (6:13-21). The reminder to give the priests the full dues links these laws with what precedes and what follows (6:19-20; cf. 5:8-10; 6:22-26). (Numbers, 85-86).
37 This was a sign of his or her separation and had to be returned to the Lord if he or she became defiled.
38 Wenham writes, The blessing which invokes God's protection on the people comes at a very apposite moment. It also serves to show that God's permanent purpose is to bless all his people, not merely those who undertake the Nazirite vow. Whereas Nazirites generally undertook their vow for a short period, the priests were always there pronouncing this blessing at the close of the daily morning service in the temple and later in the synagogues. The proclamation of this prayer by the priests was a guarantee that God would indeed bless the people of Israel (verse 27) (Numbers, 89).
39 Wenham writes, Exodus 40 to Numbers 6 describe what happened from the erection of the tabernacle on the first day of the second year until the census one month later. Numbers 7--9 record other less important events that fell within that same period, and constitute a digression whose beginning and end are marked by the inclusion, on the day when Moses had finished setting up the tabernacle (7:1; cf. 9:15) (Numbers, 91; see also S. Talmon, The presentation of Synchroneity and Simultaneity in Biblical Narratives, Scripta Hierosolymitana, 27 (1978): 9-26). See Wenham, Numbers, 91 for a chart of dated events in Exodus 40 to Numbers 10.
Milgrom writes, The wilderness camp having been organized (7:1--8:26) and purified (5:1--6:27), attention is now given to last details for making the cult operative. These include supplying the Tabernacle with its initial sacrificial implements and ingredients--gifts of the tribal chieftains (7:1-89), mounting the menorah lights (8:1-4), and inducting the Levites into service (8:5-26) (Numbers, 52).
40 Milgrom writes, It is not clear why this document concerning the initiatory gifts of the tribal chieftains was placed here. Ibn Ezra conjectures that the previously mentioned Priestly Blessing is to be identified with Aaron's blessing, recited at the end of the first public service (the eighth day following the seven-day consecration of the Tabernacle, Lev. 9:22-23), and that immediately after the blessing the chieftains brought their gifts. The context, however, offers another, more plausible reason. In chapter 4, the Levites have been assigned their transport duties. The carts required for the Gershonites and Merarite labors are now donated by the chieftains (vv 1-9). The alter gifts of the chieftains (vv. 10-88) are incidental and are included only because they form part of the same archival document (Numbers, 53).
Wenham writes, Finally, placing this record of the princes' gifts for the altar at this point in the narrative serves a theological purpose. It follows the Aaronic blessing (6:22-27). The priesthood and the altar belong together. The princes are thus portrayed as responding to the prevenient grace of God shown in the establishment of the tabernacle and priesthood. Their generosity leads in its turn to greater divine blessing, God's continued presence among them (verse 89; cf. Lv. 26:11f.). This pattern--divine blessing/believing human response/greater blessing--is basic to Old Testament theology (Numbers, 92).
Concerning the wordiness in 7:12-88 Wenham writes, It seems likely that a theological purpose underlies his wordiness: to emphasize as strongly as possible that every tribe had an equal stake in the worship of God, and that each was fully committed to the support of the tabernacle and its priesthood (Numbers, 93).
41 The gifts were one silver bowl and one silver basin, each filled with choice flour and oil for cereal offerings, one gold ladle filled with incense, and the same number and kind of sacrificial animals (Milgrom, Numbers, 53; one young bull, one ram, one male lamb one year old, one male goat, two oxen, five rams, five male goats, and five male lambs one year old).
42 Milgrom writes, The question as to why this text was placed here, at the head of chapter 8, may be resolved by the previous verse (7:89): Only when God began to speak to Moses from the Holy of Holies, after the consecration of the Tabernacle, did Moses receive the final instructions concerning the operation of the menorah. Earlier he writes concerning the content of the chapter, This passage now adds that the lamps must be affixed so that they will cast their light forward. Since the menorah is located against the southern wall of the Tabernacle (Exod. 26:35), the lamps should cast their light northward for the maximum illumination of the altar of incense and the table of the bread of presence, which stand in the center and along the north wall, respectively (Numbers, 60).
43 Milgrom writes, The Levites have replaced the Israelite first-born (3:11-13, 40-51). and have been assigned to the duties of guarding (3:14-39) and removing (4:1-33) the Tabernacle. But before the Levite work force is permitted to dismantle and handle the sancta, it must be ritually qualified, which requires that it be purified of impurities such as contact with the dead. This purification, however, should not be compared with the consecration service of the priests (Exod. 29; Lev. 8), who are consecrated with the anointment oil (Exod. 29:7,21) in order to gain a holy status so that they may have access to the sacred objects, that is, officiate at the altar and enter the Tent. The Levites, on the other hand, are forbidden to enter the Tent or officiate at the altar (cf. 18:3-4): They may only transport the dismantled Tabernacle and its sacred objects after they are covered by the priests, a task that does not require sanctification but purification (Numbers, 61).
Wenham writes, New Testament parallels to the Levites are hard to find. In their role as sacrificial victims who ransom the people from their sins one may view them as a type of Christ. In their role as lay assistants to the priesthood they foreshadow the deacons, who were appointed to relieve the apostles of church administration (Acts 6:1-6; 1 Tim. 3:8-13) (Numbers, 97). However, one needs to add that the ministry of deacons is more than administration (cf. Acts 6 with 7--9).
44 Milgrom writes, the present passage is essential not only because it informs us that the Levite must cease from the arduous task of removing the Tabernacle when he reaches the age of fifty but also because it stipulates that he does not withdraw into retirement but continues to perform guard duty, the other main Levitical function (cf. 3:7) (Numbers, 65). For a discussion of the differences in ages between Numbers 8:22; 4:3, 23, 30 and 1 Chronicles 23:3 see Milgrom, Numbers, 65-66).
45 Wenham writes, This episode therefore concludes the digression from 7:1 to 9:15, relating events that took place before the census recorded in 1:1. It is not clear whether the dedication of the Levites took place within this fortnight, but its present place is appropriate since the Levites took the place of the first-born who had been consecrated to the Lord on the first passover night (8:17f.) (Numbers, 98).
46 Milgrom writes, the prescription of the regular Passover (9:1-5) must be considered a flashback, inserted here to distinguish it and all subsequent Passover observances from the original one in Egypt. Henceforth, according to Rashbam, the sacrifice had to be observed in the sanctuary. Also, it may be no accident that the instructions concerning the Passover immediately precede the march from Sinai. This sequence duplicates the sequence of the events of the Exodus. Then too, instructions (Exod. 12--13) had preceded the march out of Egypt (Exod. 13:17; 15:27) (Numbers, 67).
Continuing he writes, It is no accident that Passover, falling on the fourteenth day of the month, follows the erection and dedication (on the first through eighth days) of the Tabernacle, followed by the altar dedication and purification of the Levites (chaps. 7--8). In later times the dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem is climaxed by the observance of one of the great pilgrimage festivals: Solomon on Sukkot (1 Kings 8:65-66), Hezekiah on Passover (2 Chron. 29--30), Josiah on Passover (2 Kings 23:21-23), the exiles on Sukkot (Ezra 3:4), Ezra and Nehemiah on Sukkot (Neh. 8:13-18), and perhaps Jeroboam on Sukkot (one month later, 1 Kings 12:32-33) (Ibid.).
47 The historical link with Exodus 40:34-38 rests in Numbers 9:15-23 with the presence of YHWH's glory (E.E. Johnson, Analytical Outline of Numbers, 1).
48 This was April-May called Iyyar or Ziv. See also Numbers 1:1 to see that only twenty days has passed since the beginning of the book.
49 This verse summarizes several days journeyings since stops were made at Kibroth-hattaavah and Hazeroth before they finally arrived at the Wilderness of Paran (cf. 11:35; 12:16). Milgrom writes, The notices that the desert of Paran is the first major stop, without mention of the minor intermediary ones (cf. 11:34-35), is intended to form an inclusion with the notice of the actual arrival at Paran (12:16), thus structurally defining the section 10:11--12:16 as a complete literary unit (Numbers, 76). The march itself took almost forty years (14:33; 33:38), but the majority of this section is concerned with the opening and closing months of the march (10:11--14:45; 20:1--22:1).
50 Milgrom writes, This short section of three verses contains all of the essential elements of all the subsequent narratives describing Israel's complaints: complaint (11:4-5; 12:1-2; 14:1-4; 17:6-7; 20:3-5; 21:5), divine punishment (11:33; 12:9-10; 14:20-37; 16:32; 17:11; 21:7), and immortalizing the incident by giving a name to the site (11:34; 20:13; 21:3; Esod. 15:23; 17:7) (Numbers, 82).
Likewise Wenham writes, This episode heads a series of stories in which every group among the Israelites rebels at God's provision and plans. On each occasion the sin is described, and then the subsequent divine judgment. As a result of unbelief and disobedience all the adult males except Joshua and Celeb die in the wilderness not in the land of promise. Even Aaron and Moses dies before arriving in Canaan. The complete reversal of national attitudes is emphasized in traditions about Kiboroth-hattaavah. The triumphant optimism of Moses, urging Hobab to accompany Israel to the good land promised by the Lord, is replaced by grumbles about the evil (RSV misfortunes verse 1, wretchedness verse 15) they are actually experiencing. Instead of looking forward to Canaan, they nostalgically yearn for Egypt (10:29; 11:5, 18, 20). Whereas Moses assured Hobab that the Lord would treat Israel well, he was soon to ask, 'Why hast thou dealt ill with thy servant?' (10:32; 11:11). Other great saints experienced similar crises of faith in times of adversity, e.g. Elijah, John the Baptist, and Peter (1 Ki. 19:4ff.; Mt. 11:2ff.; 26:69ff.). Both Moses and the people are treated gently at first; the fire is only at the edge of the camp (verse 1), and Moses is not rebuked for his doubts. It was their repeated acts of unbelief that led to their exclusion from Canaan (Numbers, 107).
51 It is not clear what was burnt on this occasion--shrubs near the tents or tents themselves (Wenham, Numbers, 106).
52 This term, hr*u@b=T^ , means burning. Wenham writes, Since Taberah is not included in the list of camp sites in chapter 33, it was probably a name given to an area near Kibroth-hattaavah (cf. verses 4-35) (Numbers, 106).
53 The construction is <u*b* , among the people.
54 The terms, hwaTh twrbq , graves of craving probably refer back to the rabble in 11:4 who had greedy desires implying that the main body of Israelites escaped the judgment).
55 Milgrom writes, The previous chapter (11:14--17, 24-31) has contrasted Moses with the ecstatics. This chapter contrasts him with prophets, in particular, with Miriam and Aaron who, on the basis of their own prophetic gifts, contest Moses' leadership. This theme serves as the link that connects the two chapters. Miriam and Aaron summon the courage to challenge Moses from the example of Eldad and Medad (11:26-29), who also have received their prophetic gift from God, prophesying independently of Moses and with the latter's encouragement. As God's intimate confidant, Moses is now proclaimed the prophet par excellence (Numbers, 93). Wenham writes in the same way, Though this protest appears to be much less serious than the widespread popular discontent described in the previous chapter, it was in fact a peculiarly piquant and fundamental one. It was not just a case of petty family jealousy, for Aaron, Moses' brother, was also the high priest and therefore supreme religious leader and most holy man in Israel; while Miriam, his sister, was a prophetess and thus head of the spirit-filled women (Ex. 15:20f.). Here, then is an alliance of priest and prophet, the two archetypes of Israelite religion, challenging Moses' position as sole mediator between God and Israel. His vindication is at once decisive and dramatic: indeed the description of his position and office clearly prefigures that of our Lord in the New Testament' (Numbers, 110).
56 That Miriam lead the criticism is supported by three lines of evidence: (1) her name is stated first (cf. vv. 4-5), and (2) the verb is in the feminine singular ( rB@d@T=w ). See also (Ex 15:1; Judg 5:1; Esther 9:29; cf. v. 32), and (3) it is she who receives the consequences of the Lord's anger (12:9-10).
57 This may have been Zipporah who is more usually described as a Midianite (cf. Ex 2:16ff) or she may have been Moses' second wife (after the death of his first) who came from Ethiopia (cf. Gen. 10:6).
58 Milgrom writes, The juxtaposition of chapters 13--14 with chapter 12 derives from the tradition that Israel's rebellion following the reconnaissance of Canaan took place in the wilderness of Paran (12:16; 13:26). There also is a psychological connection: Miriam and Aaron's public outburst against Moses (12:1-2, 8b) may have encouraged the malcontents among the Israelites to do the same (Numbers, 99).
59 Of all of the wilderness sins, this rates on top with the sin of the golden calf (cf. Ex 32-34; Dt 1:22-45; 9:12-25). Only for these two does the Lord threaten to destroy the nation (cf. Ex 32:10; Nu 14:12)
60 He believed because of God and did not need to go into the land to see it resolved.
61 The descendants of Anak in the Negev, The Amalekites, Hittites, Jebusites, and the Amorites in the hill country, and the Canaanites by the sea and by the side of the Jordan (13:29).
62 The ten men feared Canaan but never came to experience what they feared. They ignored God and should have feared Him.
63 The complain about God's gift. This is not the first time that they have done this (remember the manna in Numbers 11).
64 This idle wish will be granted as their destiny!
65 This fear never became a reality! On the contrary their rebellion against God led to the hardship which their children faced (cf. 14:31-33).
66 One year for each day that the spies were in the land (14:34).
67 Wenham writes, As the people refused to believe God's promise of victory over the Canaanites, so they would not accept his judgment. The episode concludes with tier attempting to conquer the land without divine aid, and being chased all the way to Homah (Numbers, 115).
68 The three larger subdivisions of this subunit are identified with the opening phrase, The Lord said to Moses, 'Say to the people of Israel' (1f, 17f, 37f), then with a mention of the land (2, 18), a command to do or make something (2, 22ff, 28ff) and a formula recalling Israel's salvation from Egypt and her call to holiness (41). Wenham writes, It therefore seems likely that these laws have been placed here as a deliberate comment on the preceding narrative. The people have questioned the basic purpose of their journey, and in judgment God has declared the adults will die out in the wilderness. After a break of forty years their children will enter the promised land of Canaan. Chapter 14 closes with a defeat by the Canaanites at Hormah. A question mark hangs over the whole enterprise (Numbers, 127).
Milgrom comments: Why this chapter placed here? The reason suggested by the medieval commentators is most plausible: After the generation of the Exodus is told that it must die in the wilderness (14:32), it is given some lows that will take effect in the promised land, when you enter the land... (v. 2; cf. f. 18). Thus the members of that generation are assured that their children will inherit the land (Numbers, 117).
69 This is for the non-farmer who also is meant to feel that his provision is from YHWH.
70 This incident is a particular example of the highhanded sinner just mentioned in the previous verse (15:30-31). Wenham writes, The procedures followed in their case closely resemble Leviticus 24:10-23, describing the conviction and execution of a blasphemer. It was already recognized that sabbath breaking warranted the death penalty (Ex. 31:15; 35:2-3). Stoning was prescribed, a punishment which involved a large body of people, the congregation (36), thereby symbolizing the community's rejection of this offence. Since the sabbath was a sign of the covenant, its desecration was particularly serious (Dt. 5:15).
Why then was it necessary to ascertain God's will in this case? There are three possibilities. The traditional view is that it was necessary to discover how the man should be executed. Another suggestion is that the law laid down that kindling a fire on the sabbath merited the death penalty (Ex. 35:3) but did not cover the case of gathering firewood. The law in Numbers extends the Exodus rule somewhat lest the man should have gone on to start a fire. The third possibility is a modification of the second view. By collecting sticks the man was demonstrating his clear intention of lighting a fire on the sabbath. His action prompted the query: Did premeditated preparation to break the law count as a high-handed sin and deserve the same penalty as actually breaking the law, or could it be overlooked? In favour of this view it may be noted that premeditation demonstrated in the preparations for committing a crime distinguishes murder from manslaughter, killing inadvertently, bisgagah, in Numbers 35:15ff. Intention to harm was also punishable when it issued in false testimony (Dt. 19:16-19) (Numbers, 132).
71 Milgrom writes, Most probably, the tsitsit [ tx!yx! ] was placed here to form a verbal inclusion with the episode of the spies recounted in chapters 13--14. In scouting (tur, 13:2, 25; 14:34), the spies whorted (zanah, 14:33) after their eyes and brought a false report. So by wearing the tsitsit, Israel would be prevented from ever again 'scouting' (tur, 15:39) and 'whoring' (zanah, 15:39) 'after their heart and eyes.' Moreover, wearing the tsitsit would convert their dress into uniforms of the royal priests of God (Numbers, 127).
72 Wenham writes, Blue or violet (NEB) distinguished royalty (Est. 8:15) and divinity. The ark, God's throne, was wrapped in a blue cloth (Nu. 4:6) and blue curtains adorned the tabernacle indicating that this tent was the place of the King of kings (e.g. Ex. 26:31, 36). Blue was also used in the high priest's uniform (Ex. 28:31, 37, etc.). No doubt it had a similar significance in the layman's tassel. The blue thread reminded him that he belonged to 'a kingdom of priests and a holy nation' (Ex. 19:6). Like the high priest he was called to exhibit holiness not only in his outer garb, but in his whole way of life. You shall be holy to your God (40) (Numbers, 132-33).
73 Hebrew 17:1-15.
74 Hebrew 17:16-28.
75 Milgrom writes, As a consequence of the death of their chieftains at the Tabernacle (16:35--17:5) and the toll taken by the plague, the Israelites began to dread the Tabernacle and will not come near it. To allay their fright they are given the assurance that henceforth priests and Levites alone will bear the responsibility for encroachment. This responsibility is divided into three groupings: priests and Kohathites are liable for Israelites (18:1a); priests and Levites for Levites (18:3); and priests for priests (18:1b). A fourth grouping, Levites for Israelites, is postponed to 18:22-23. This assignment of responsibility guarantees that 'wrath may not again strike the Israelites'(18:5b...) (Numbers, 145).
76 Thus it is called a covenant of salt ( jlm tyrb ; 2 Ch 13:5). Milgrom writes, Salt was the food of preservative par excellence in antiquity. Its use was required for all sacrifices (Lev. 2:13; Ezek. 43:24), and it stands in contrast to leaven and other fermentatives, whose use is forbidden on the altar (Lev. 2:11). Thus salt is a symbol of permanence, and a 'salt covenant,' therefore, means an unbreakable covenant (Numbers, 154).
77 The phrase, the Lord said to Aaron sets this paragraph off as another unit.
78 Wenham writes, Normally the animal's colour did not matter. This one had to be red to resemble blood. Heifer (RSV) is more accurately rendered 'cow' by the NEB. However, it if had never been used for ploughing or pulling a cart (2), it must have been relatively young, hence the traditional English translation (Numbers, 146-47).
Milgrom relates this chapter to the unit as follows: Perhaps the twice-mentioned warning that corpse contamination may defile the sanctuary (vv. 13,20) made this chapter a natural sequel to the parrashah of Korah (chaps. 16-18), in which the main problem is the desecration of the sanctuary by encroachment. The most attractive explanation may be that Eleazar and not Aaron officiates--as is also the case in the previous Korah episode (17:2-4). As both instances involve corpse contamination, Aaron is barred from officiating and Eleazar takes his place. Hence this unit was placed here, between the Korah narrative and the account of Aaron's sin and death (20:1-13, 20-29) (Numbers, 157).
79 Milgrom writes, After Miriam's death, the people complain about the lack of water. Moses and Aaron are commanded to bring forth water from the rock. They produce the water but in so doing they are condemned by God to die in the wilderness. Their sin is akin to heresy .... It constitutes the climax of a series of rebellions: first by the people (chap. 14); then, b the Levites and chieftains (chap 16); and finally, by the leaders, Moses and Aaron. The punishment for all of them is the same: They will not inherit the land but, instead, will die in the wilderness (Numbers, 163).
Concerning the broader structure Wenham writes, The brief notice of the death of Miriam (20:1) introduces the third and last travel narrative in Exodus-Numbers. The first deals with the journey from the Red Sea to Sinai (Ex. 13--19); the second covers that from Sinai to Kadesh (Nu. 11-12); while this final one summarizes the journeyings from Kadesh to Transjordan (Nu. 20--21). As was noted in the Introduction, certain motifs occur in all three travelogues, e.g. battles with enemies (Ex. 14; 17:8-16; Nu. 14:45; 21:1-35), complaints about the lack of food and water and its miraculous provision (Ex. 16--17; Nu. 11; 20:2-13), the need for faith (Ex. 14:31; Nu. 14:11; 20:12), the role of Moses, Aaron and Miriam (Ex. 15:20-21; Nu. 12; 20;1).
But the narratives each develop quite differently. The first begins with the defeat of the Egyptians and Moses and Miriam singing songs of triumph by the Red Sea (Ex. 15), and the people believing in the Lord and his servant Moses (14:31). The the mood changes with the complaints of the people about the lack of food and water. The second journey begins well with the cloud of fire leading the advance to the promised land (Nu. 10:11ff). But grumbles from the people and from Miriam and then the disheartening report of the spies lead to the postponement of the conquest, and finally a defeat by the Canaanites at Hormah. But the third journey proceeds quite differently. It begins in gloom and ends on a note of subdued but real jubilation. Chapter 20 records the deaths of Miriam and Aaron, and Moses' unbelief that shut him out of Canaan. But this is followed in chapter 21 by victory at Hormah, where years earlier Israel had been defeated (cf. 14:45), and further victories over Sihon, king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan, are accompanied by short songs of celebration (21:14-15, 17-18, 27-30). These three victories and their songs recall the first and greatest victory over Egypt by the Red Sea that Moses and Miriam had hailed in Exodus 15. Thus this final travel narrative inverts the patterns found in the earlier two; whereas they recount triumphs that turned into tragedy, this tells of tragedy that ends in triumph and a re-awakened hope of entry into the promised land (Numbers, 148).
80 Wenham writes, The death of Miriam followed by the death sentence passed on her brothers makes this one of the most tragic sections of Numbers (Numbers, 151).
81 Although the years has been omitted, this was probably the fortieth year of the people's wandering. This is supported by 33:38 where Aaron is said to have died on the first day of the fifth month of the fortieth year after the Exodus from Egypt (cf. 20:22-29).
82 Moses was irritated with the people and perceived the problem as his personal responsibility (20:10). In irritation Moses failed to perceive the graciousness of God's grace or the way in which God was dealing with the people (speak, do not hit; 20:8). In irritation Moses misrepresented God before the people (he struck the rock twice; 20:11). In Exodus 17:6 the Lord told Moses that He would stand before Moses when he struck the rock. Therefore, when Moses struck the rock, he struck God. It seems that the Lord's design was to portray two means by which He would supply water: (1) by striking, and (2) by speaking. He was teaching that on the first occasion God would respond by being struck, but on the second occasion God would respond by being asked. These may well foreshadow the crucifixion and later revelation. Moses misrepresented God's character when he struck the rock twice (Elliott E. Johnson, class notes of student in 303 Old Testament History II, Spring 1981).
83 Note how the Lord is often symbolized through the imagery of a rock (Pss. 18:2; 31:3; 42:9; cf. 1 Cor. 10:4!).
84 This term ( hbyrm ) has the sense of bitter. Milgrom writes, But they had quarreled only with Moses (v. 3). Elsewhere Israel's quarrel with Moses implies that their real object is God (14:2, 11, 27, esp. v. 9). Indeed, the next quarrel (21:5) makes this explicit. Moreover, Deuteronomy bears the tradition that the people are responsible for Moses' punishment (Deut. 1:37; 3:26; 4:21) as does Psalms 1-6: 32-33, 'They provoked wrath at the waters of Meribah and Moses suffered on their account, because they rebelled against Him [or 'embittered his spirit'] and he spoke rashly.' Psalms 95:7-11 bears yet another variant tradition: Israel's forty years in the wilderness was due to its sin at Massah-Meribah ... and not to the scout episode (14:26-35; Deut. 1:34-35). Hence, Moses and Aaron must die with them in the wilderness (Numbers, 166).
85 This was done by the judgment upon Moses and Aaron in 20:12. There is also a play on words in the Hebrew. The place was Kadesh and He showed himself vdqyw !
86 Wenham writes, The main thrust of this paragraph is to demonstrate Israel's irenic approach to its neighbours. Though the inhabitants of Canaan itself, i.e. the area west of the Jordan, were dealt with ruthlessly, those on the east were treated more courteously (cf. Dt. 20:10-18). Edom in particular was handled gently, because he was Israel's brother (14; Dt. 23:7). According to Genesis 27:30; 36:1, the Edomites were descended from Esau, the brother of Jacob (Israel, Gn. 32:28) (Numbers, 152).
87 They skirted Edom on their way to Moab (Num 20:21-22; 21:4; Dt 2:1-8).
88 Milgrom writes, This victory marks a turning point in Israel's military fortunes. They will henceforth be victorious in all their battles ... (Numbers, 172).
89 See also John 3:14.
90 More literally the trek was from Oboth to Lyeabarim in the wilderness which is opposite Moab to the east, to Wadi Zered, to the other side of Arnon along the boarder of the Amorites and Moab, to Beer, to Mattanah, to Nahaliel, to Bamoth.
91 The conflict with Balak using Balaam results in YHWH's guarantee of Abraham's promise in spite of Israel's harlotry in Moab. Balak offers God a chance to curse Israel, but God curses Balak. This is a test of the Abrahamic covenant and YHWH remains faithful! If God will not curse His people, and they are tempted to curse him through the infiltration in chapter 25.
92 Wenham writes, This section begins with Balaam, a Mesopotamian prophet, declaring that the patriarchal promises are being fulfilled in the history of Israel (chs. 22-24). This has analogies in the allusions to God's promises at the beginning of the Sinai and Kadesh sections (Ex. 19; Nu. 13). As before, this is followed by a great apostasy with atonement made by the priests of Levites (ch. 25; cf. chs. 1--4). This section ends with more laws about worship and the land, important themes in the earlier legislation, which serve here as an implicit promise that Israel will shortly enter into its inheritance (chs. 28--29; 33--36; cf. Lv. 1--7; 23; 25; Nu. 15) (Numbers, 164).
More synthetically, it seems to this author that these oracles are a revelatory explanation as to why Israel is beginning to make progress toward acquiring the land. She still is sinning as a people, so the progress cannot be explained by her actions. The reason Israel is being victorious is because God is fulfilling his promises to Abraham!
93 This is a test case of the Abrahamic Covenant (Gen 12).
Some of the questions implied in this unit are: (1) Is this indeed the people of promise, (2) Does this nation really have a unique relationship to the God of the universe, (3) Is Israel really the chosen people? See Elliott E. Johnson's notes for a fuller discussion.
For another structural treatment of this material see Wenham, Numbers, 165-66.
94 It seems that this resistance from the angel of the Lord was because Balaam was anxious to go and curse Israel for the fees sent from Balak (cf. 22:17, 35).
95 The irony is that these sacrifices were meant to persuade God to give Balaam a word of cursing upon Israel, but it will be a word of blessing upon Israel and thus cursing upon Moab!
96 The field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah.
97 Peor
98 Again this is a clear allusion to the Abrahamic promise (Gen 12:3; 27:29).
99 See 31:16. When Satan could not turn God against Israel, he turned Israel against God!
100 The last stop before they entered the land (cf. Josh 2:1).
101 Milgrom writes, The apostasy of Baal-peor and that of the golden calf resemble one another in their inner detail. both involve worship of other gods (Num. 25:7-8; Exod. 32:26-28), and the designation of the line of the Levites/Phinehas for sacred service in the sanctuary (Num. 25:11; Exod. 32:39). Moreover, Baal-peor is the punishment for the sin and the fulfillment of the sentence for the golden calf. The editor who added the notice 'Then the Lord sent a plague, for what they did with the calf that Aaron made' (Exod. 32:35) to the divine pronouncement 'A day will come when I will punish them for their sin' (v. 34b, NEB), clearly had Baal-peor in mind. Ironically, yet justifiably, the coup de grace to the generation of the Exodus is executed when they commit apostasy for the second time. In a real sense, Baal-peor is but an extension of the golden calf.
The story of the reconnaissance of Canaan (chaps. 13--14) provides another illuminating parallel. 'In both cases, the people stand on the brink of entering the land of Canaan, a setting filled with hope. The immediate response in the two stories, however, is open rebellion against God. A plague kills the people involved (14:37; 25:29). One or two faithful people separate themselves from the majority and act on behalf of God (Caleb and Joshua--Num. 14:6-10; Phinehas--Num. 25:6-7)' ( (Numbers, 211).
102 Budd writes, This section puts the setbacks of the past behind, beginning with the reconstitution of the community, measuring its dimensions again, and raising the question of the division of the land (26:1-65) (Numbers, xviii).
Although Wenham correctly sees this to also be a military census as the sons of Israel prepare to fight Midian and to conquer Canaan (Numbers, 189), Milgrom emphasizes the distinctiveness of this census as a land census describing the tribal arrangement of the land (Numbers, 219). In any case the wilderness wandering is bracketed by two censuses.
103 Milgrom writes, The names are closely related to those in Genesis 46:8-24, with the difference that there they are persons, whereas here they are clans. If one includes the daughters of Zelophehad (v. 33) and the Levites in the following census (vv. 57-62), the people of Israel comprises seventy clans. Thus Israel--having entered Egypt numbering seventy individuals (Gen. 46:27; Exod. 1:5)--has become a nation of seventy clans (Numbers, 219). Notice how long it took Jacob to become a nation rather than unrighteous Esau (Gen 36). When God builds a nation, it must be done more slowly than when man builds a nation because God must deal with their character along the way.
104 This census was probably for the purpose of their Tabernacle duties as was the case in Numbers 3--4 and for the following allocation of forty-eight towns to the Levites (35:1-8).
Milgrom writes, Where is the Aaronide clan? Some say it is subsumed under the Hebronites (v. 58), since Hebron is a Levitical town assigned to Aaron (Josh. 21:10; 1 Chron. 6:42). However, the text should be taken at face value. There are only two living Aaronides, Eleazar and Ithamar; and they need only be enumerated in the brief account of Aaron's family given in verses 59-62 in precisely the same fashion that the Aaronides were counted in the first census of 3:1-4 (Numbers, 228).
105 See Milgrom's discussion (Numbers, 229).
106 Because they do not serve in the army.
107 Cf. 14:29-32. Some question whether the Levites were excluded from the judgment, but this is unlikely (cf. Milgrom, Numbers, 229).
108 This is also addressed again in the appendix of 36:1-18.
109 Milgrom writes, The basic assumption here is that of Leviticus 25:29: The land belongs to God, who assigned it to the Israelite clans for their use; whoever alienates it from them is subject to divine punishment (Numbers, 230).
110 Milgrom writes, Having decided the questions of the apportionment of the land among the Israelites and the succession to Moses, the Torah's next step is to establish the cultic calendar that will prevail in the land....
Thirty days of each year, in addition to the daily and Sabbath cultic requirements, are marked for special public offerings. They exhibit the following distinctive features: (1) The offerings are cumulative; that is, the offerings for the Sabbaths and festivals are in addition to the daily offerings, and the offerings of the New Year are in addition to the daily and the New Moon offerings. Hence, should the New year fall on a Sabbath, there would be offered: (a) the daily offering (b) the Sabbath offering (c) the New Moon offering, and (d) the New Year offering. (2) The organizing principle of the calender is according to descending order of frequency: daily, Sabbath, New Moon. Then the sacrifices for the festivals follow in calendrical order, beginning with Passover. (3) All the sacrificial animals are males; bulls, rams, and lambs as burnt offerings and goats as purification offerings. (4) The sacrificial order is prescriptive not descriptive. In practice, the purification offering would be sacrificed before the additional burnt offering. (5) The number seven and its multiples are very prominent in the number of animals offered ... (Numbers, 237).
111 See Leviticus 23:15.
112 Milgrom writes, This section was probably placed here because vows (votive offerings) were mentioned in the last verse of the previous chapter (29:39), a connection that is further strengthened by the fact that the payment of vows generally took the form of a sacrifice (Numbers, 250).
Wenham writes, Finally, one should ask why this group of laws is placed here. The only answer offered by the few commentators who consider the question is that vows are a type of offering, the subject-matter of chapters 28--29. This may be so, but the subject-matter just discussed are official priestly ones, whereas anyone can make vows. It would seem to me that there may be other reasons for the insertion of the laws on vows at this point. First, vows were usually sealed with a sacrifice; and when the prayer was answered, another sacrifice would be offered (e.g., Lv. 7:16; Ps. 50:14). This would require the worshipper to go to the sanctuary, and the most convenient time to do that would be during the annual pilgrimage feasts, the subject of chs. 28--29 (cf.1 Sa. 1). Second, vows were frequent during war (Nu. 21:2; Jdg. 11:30-31; 21:1-7), and Israel was about to engage in a long campaign of conquest (cf chs. 21, 21--32 etc.). During this war the wives of the Transjordanian warriors would be left on their own, so the question of vows made in their husbands' absence might arise (32:26). Third, vows are discussed in the Sinaitic legislation (Lv. 27; Nu. 6); the inclusion of the subject here emphasizes again the parallel between the first law-giving in the wilderness of Sinai and the second in the plains of Moab. There may be yet a fourth reason for the inclusion of the law here. Israel had made a vow that they would annihilate the Canaanites (21:2). The covenant relationship between God and Israel is likened to that between father and child, or husband and wife (11:12; 25:1ff.). Could it be that the Lord's silence concerning this vow is understood as confirmation of the programme of conquest (Numbers, 206-207)?
113 Wenham writes, The Midianites were a large confederation of tribes, associated with various smaller groups such as the Ishmaelites (Gn. 37:28; Jdg. 8:22,24), the Moabites (Mu. 22:4, 7), the Amalekites (Jdg. 6:3, 33) and Ephah (Gn. 25:4; Is. 60:6). They roamed through the arid lands of Sinai, the Negeb and Transjordan. Here it is those Midianites associated with Moab that are picked out for vengeance (8, 16; cf. chapters 22 and 25), not the whole group (Numbers, 209)
Milgrom writes, Moses' final commission is to execute retribution upon the Midianites for having, on the advice of Balaam, incited their women to seduce the Israelites in the licentious rites of Baal-peor, as recorded in 25:17-19. Moses musters a small army of twelve thousand men (or twelve divisions), one thousand men (or one division) from each tribe. The army annihilates the Midianites without suffering a single casualty (Numbers, 255).
Wenham continues, Nevertheless, it is right to say that the narrator is more concerned with the aftermath of the battle than with the battle itself. The decimation of the Midianites fulfilled the divine command issued in 25:16-18 and reiterated in 31:1ff. But it also looks forward to the conquest of the Canaanites, who were to be treated similarly (cf. 21:2-4; 32), and the distribution of the spoils on this occasion between warriors, people, priests and Levites serves as a model for the big campaign. The percentage of booty allocated to the priests and Levites anticipates the allocation of special cities to them in chapter 35 (Numbers, 210).
114 Milgrom writes, Whereas 21:21-35 dealt with the conquest of Transjordan and the subsequent narrative--Balaam (chaps. 22--24), Baal-peor (chap. 25), and the Midianite war (chap. 31)--concerned itself with the threats to Israel's existence, chapter 32 begins a new phase: the settlement period, the record of how the tribes of Israel began to find themselves permanent homes (Numbers, 265).
Many of the terms of this chapter are meant to reflect the rebellion of the people earlier on in the spy story (Numbers 13--14) emphasizing a similar problem (see Wenham, Numbers, 213).
115 Note the boundaries of the promised land in Numbers 34 where the Jordan marks the eastern frontier of Canaan.
116 Although some consider this unit to be a late interpolation from the time of the Judges (Milgrom, Numbers, 275), Wenham seems to be correct when he says, This may be so, but when the sources are not extant, on cannot be certain. But there is no reason to suppose the references to Manasseh are late: Deuteronomy 3:13 and Joshua 13:29ff.; 17:1ff. both assume the settlement of part of Manasseh in Transjordan, and Numbers 27:1-11 has given a hint that some people in the tribe of Manasseh were already thinking about the problem of girls inheriting land. The same tribe brings up the question again in chapter 36. It could be that the representatives of Manasseh took no part in the negotiations until Moses had approved in principle a settlement in Transjordan (Numbers, 215).
117 This is a logical place for a summary of the trek of Israel from Rameses to the Transjordan because all of the material which follows will relate to the land of Canaan. In addition the design of this account is as a memorial to commemorate the Lord's provisions for Israel through this barren land and in spite of her rebelliousness (see Milgrom, Numbers, 277).
In addition Wenham writes, Since Moses' great achievements took place at the stations mentioned, this list serves as a sort of Obituary for him, and this is an appropriate place in Numbers to insert an obituary. But there is more to the list than this: it summarizes the main themes of the books of Exodus and Numbers. It reminds the reader of the great obstacles that the nation has overcome in escaping from Egypt and crossing the Sinai desert. If God has helped Israel thus far, then he will surely enable them to reach their goal, the land of Canaan. This glance back at history is, therefore, a fitting prelude to the last group of laws in the book (33:50--36:13) which deal explicitly with the land. God's past dealings with Israel are a guarantee that they will soon be in a position to implement these laws in the land promised to the patriarchs (Numbers, 217).
Concerning the listing of places and their possible significance in terms of numbers and order see Wenham, Numbers, 217-19.
118 Milgrom writes, Having completed its wilderness trek (chaps. 1-21, 33:1-49), secured its base at the Jordan against all enemies (chaps. 22-25, 31), allowed two and a half tribes to settle in Transjordan (chap. 32), and resolved the problem of who will be its leader (27:12-23), Israel can turn its undivided attention to the conquest and apportionment of Canaan. Each pericope begins in an identical manner: God commands Moses to transmit instruction to Israel (33:50; 34:1, 16; 35:1, 9). The instruction begin, nearly always, the same way: 'When you cross the Jordan to the land of Canaan' (35:51; 34:2; 35:10). The topics of the divine command are sequentially logical: the conquest and apportionment of the land (33:50-56), defined by precise boundaries (34:1-15), under the supervision of designated chieftains (34:16-29), who will also appropriate forty-eight towns for the Levites (35:1-8) and six Levitical towns as asylums for the involuntary homicide (35:9-34).
This entire section serves as a consolation to Moses: Barred from the promised land, he at least merits the privilege of drawing the blueprint for its apportionment (Numbers, 282).
Wenham writes, The whole book of Numbers looks forward to Israel's settlement of the promised land. It is, therefore, highly appropriate that it closes with six laws dealing explicitly with the theme of the occupation of Canaan (Numbers 230). Continuing he writes, These laws, like others in the book, are more than pure legal enactments, they are implicit promises. God is in effect pledging that he will give his people victory over their enemies (ch. 33), a huge land (ch. 34) made holy by the dwelling of the Levites and God himself within it (ch. 35), that they will hold for ever (ch. 36) (Ibid.).
119 This was already done in chapter 26, but is repeated here because of the settlement of those tribes in the Transjordan. Now it must be apportioned among the remaining nine tribes.
120 Milgrom writes, This chapter follows logically upon 33:50-56. Having been commanded to displace and replace the present occupants of the land, it becomes imperative to know its boundaries (Numbers 285).
Wenham writes, Canaan as defined here is a much larger area than ever Israel settled. David controlled most of Canaan and much of Transjordan as well, but the land defined here does not correspond to Israel's actual boundaries at any time in her history. The land described here is therefore an ideal, the territory promised by God to the people of Israel, but never fully occupied by them. But the fact that the land as defined here in Numbers 34 does correspond to the geographical entity of Canaan as known from Egyptian texts of the 14th-13th centuries BC is a clear sign of the antiquity of this section (Numbers, 232).
121 Wenham writes, The tribes are listed in rough order of their settlements, beginning with Judah and Simeon in the south and ending with Asher and Naphtali in the south (cf. Jos. 14--19) (Numbers, 232).
122 Milgrom writes, Instructions to the Levites always follow those given to the other tribes. Hence, here too, the Levites only receive their apportionment after the other tribes have received theirs. Although the Levites are to receive no permanent property in the promised land (18:23), this restriction applies solely to farmland. They are, however, provided permanent residences for themselves and pasturage for their livestock in the form of forty-eight towns and their surrounding fields (the measurements of which take into account variations in the size of the towns and the possibility of their growth (Numbers, 288-89).
Wenham adds, The importance of the priests and Levites is repeatedly stressed in Numbers, and the other tribes' obligation to support them is set out fully in chapter 18. There the laity were enjoined to give a tithe of all their produce to the Levites (18:21-24), here they are instructed to set aside a few cities, proportionate to the land holdings of the various tribes (8). Even with the surrounding pasture-lands for the cattle, the total area assigned to the Levites came to 15 square miles (40 km), about 0.1% of the land of Canaan. In a society where farm-land was wealth, this minute fraction of the land meant that the Levites would still be dependent on the generosity of the secular tribes among whom they lived. Relative to the other tribes it could still be said of the Levites that they had 'no inheritance in their land' (18:20, 23f.) (Numbers, 234).
123 This was because not all of the Levites would be serving at the tabernacle at the same time.
124 Wenham writes, The forty-eight cities are listed in Joshua 21. Note the symbolic number 48 = 4 x 12. Keil suggests that four symbolizes the kingdom of God, and that the Levites were distributed among Israel to remind them of their calling to be the holy people of God (Ex. 19:5-6; Lv. 10:11; Dt. 33:9-10) (Keil, 260-261, Wenham, Numbers, 235).
125 Milgrom writes, It is a basic theological postulate that the divine Presence cannot abide in a land polluted by murder; the offence leads to the pollution of earth and the abandonment by God of His sanctuary and people. For this reason the laws of homicide are given special treatment here. The establishment of asylums for homicides was further necessitated because of the prevalence of the institution of blood vengeance in the ancient Near East. Accordingly, the blood of the slain was avenged by his nearest kinsman, called go’el, either by taking the blood of the slayer or of a member of the latter's family or by accepting monetary compensation. Israel's laws of homicide and its system of asylum cities presuppose the following basic modifications in the prevailing practice: (1) Only the guilty party is involved; thus, no other member of his family may be slain. (2) Guilt is determined by the slayer's intention: The involuntary homicide is not put to death. (3) No ransom is acceptable in place of the death of the murderer. (4) The verdict of deliberate or involuntary homicide is made by the state and not by the bereaved kinsman, and to this end asylum cities for the homicide are established. (5) His trial is by a national tribunal and not by the kinsmen of either party. (6) The deliberate homicide is executed by the go’el, and the involuntary homicide is banished to the asylum until the death of the High Priest. The institution of asylum is attested elsewhere, but the form adopted by Israel is characterized by a revolutionary principle: The right of asylum is limited solely to the unpremeditated manslayer (Numbers, 291).
Wenham adds, This is a good example of a punishment designed to fit the crime. The murderer who took life deliberately is deliberately put to death himself. the manslaughterer who took life by chance (Ex. 21:13) must await the chance of the high priest's death before he can be released from the city of refuge.
The law's prime concern is the provision of cities of refuge for manslaughterers (15), but it moves to consider related issues. First, who qualifies for admission (16-25), then what happens if he leaves the city before the high priest's death and the prohibition of ransom (31-32) (Numbers, 235-36).
126 Bezer, Ramoth-gilead, and Nolan
127 Hebron, Shechem, and Kedesh (see Dt. 4:43; Jos. 20:708; 21:13, 21, 27, 32, 36, 38).
128 Wenham writes, The stress placed by the texts on evidence of preparation and advance planning and previous hatred (cf. Dt. 19:11) makes it probable that premeditation is the key factor differentiating murder and manslaughter in the biblical texts, rather than the slightly broader principle of intention. In the fury of a sudden brawl the participants may intention to kill each other, but according to Nu. 35:22 death would not count as murder unless the fight was part of a long-standing feud (Numbers, 237 n. 1).
129 This may well have been from all of Israel since the manslayer is then returned to the city of refuge.
130 Joshua 20:4.
131 Wenham writes, But the banishment itself was not construed as making atonement for the dead man's blood. Atonement for manslaughter came through the death of the high priest. This is shown by the ban on ransoming murderers and manslaughterers. Just as a murderer cannot buy his life for money (31), so a manslaughterer cannot purchase freedom (32). Both have caused the death of another man, and only the death of a man can atone for the killing. This it was the high priest's death, not the exile of the manslaughterer, that atoned is confirmed by the mishnaic dictate, 'If after the slayer had been sentenced as an accidental homicide the high priest dies, he need not go into exile' and the talmudic comment thereon, 'But is it not the exile that expiates? It is not exile that expiates, but the death of the high priest.' .... Thus the high priest of ancient Israel anticipated the ministry of our Lord, not only in his life of offering sacrifice and prayer on behalf of the people, but also in his death (cf. Heb. 4--9) (Numbers, 238, cf. also Makkoth 11b).
132 Wenham writes, In chapter 27 the daughters of Zelophehad raised the problem of their father's name dying out. Since he had no sons, his land would pass to other members of his family. The rules of inheritance were therefore altered to allow daughters to inherit if they had not brothers. But this raised another problem: when they married, the land would pass into their husband's family, and if he belonged to another tribe, out of their own tribe. This would upset the God--given allocations of land announced in 33:50--34:29.
... The resolution of the case of Zelophehad's daughters in chapter 27 was immediately followed by the command to Moses to appoint Joshua as his successor and ascend the mountain to die (27:12-21). An unusually brief note records the appointment of Joshua (27:22f.), but there has been no further mention of the death of Moses. A full description of the handover to Joshua, Moses' farewell to the nation, and an account of his death are the subject of Deuteronomy. The reappearance of these daughters of Zelophehad right at the end of Numbers reminds the reader that God's last command to Moses (27:12-13) awaits its fulfilment: obliquely they hint at a sequel to Numbers.
At the same time the story of Zelophehad's daughters does provide a fitting conclusion to the book of Numbers itself. The last group of six laws in Numbers 33:50--36:13 has been concerned with the land, its distribution, its extent and its holiness. Indeed, the whole story of Numbers had been one of movement towards the land of promise. The last judgment Moses gave concerns the land and asserts: every one of the Israelites shall cleave to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers (36:7). formally this is of course a statement of a legal principle forbidding the transfer of land from tribe to tribe, but theologically, like many of the laws in Numbers, it is a promise land. In the words of Genesis 17:8, 'I will give to you, and to your descendants after you ... all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their God'. On this strong note of hope the book closes, inviting the curious to read on to see how God's purposes were worked out in the subsequent history of Israel (Numbers, 239-40).
See Milgrom for some other less convincing reasons for the placement of this chapter at the end of Numbers (Numbers, 296).
Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines