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William Tyndale — A Lasting Influence

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Who was William Tyndale? What influence could a poor scholar of 500 years ago have on the English-speaking world today? The answer is, much! In this paper I will endeavor to answer the two questions above, with emphasis given in the second question to Tyndale’s influence on all subsequent versions of the Bible (after his).

Contrary to popular legend, Tyndale was not the son of paupers or beggars, but the son of a rather well to do clothes merchant who lived in the land of Gloucestershire, England. Sailors, travelers, and traders came to the region from countries such as Germany, France, Italy, and India. They came for the “white wool of the Cotswold sheep” (Daniell, 1994, p.14), bringing their culture and their language to young William’s town. This is crucial for understanding where Tyndale’s knack for languages originated.

Indeed, as one of his recent biographers has pointed out, other masters of the English language came from places “on the edges of other cultures and other tongues”(Daniell, 1994, p. 13) including two of the most familiar, Chaucer and Shakespeare. Imaging the many dialects and languages that he would have been exposed to, Tyndale’s knack for capturing enduring, timeless English in his translations of the Greek and Hebrew Bibles is seen to have been built on a firm foundation of vulgar philology.

Little else is known about Tyndale’s childhood. The hard facts are that he was born about 1494, earned B.A. and M.A degrees from Oxford in 1512 and 1515 respectively, and spent several years at Cambridge where he “further ripened in the knowledge of God’s word” (Foxe, 1877, p.115). After spending two years back in his homeland as the tutor of Sir John Walsh’s two children (1521-23), he set off for London to offer himself to the Bishop, Tunstall.

Tyndale had hoped to be hired by the Bishop as a full-time scholar and translator. To that end, Tyndale had an English translation of an oration from Isocrates to show his skills, but Tunstall would have none of it (or him). Dejected, Tyndale gained the support of a merchant named Monmouth and set sail for Hamburg in 1524. Betrayed by drunken workers in the printing shop that was producing his translation, he fled to Worms in 1524.

The first version of Tyndale’s New Testament was completed in 1526, with many revisions following. The Pentateuch came in 1530. He also translated the Old Testament books of Joshua through Second Chronicles and Jonah, but these were not printed until a year after his death in the so-called Matthew’s Bible of 1537. All of these works have recently been released in modern spelling, complete with Tyndale’s original notes in the margin.

Tyndale lived the rest of his life an expatriate. He was betrayed while going to dinner at a so-called friend’s place, handed over to the authorities, and spent 16 months in the Vilvorde Castle. On the morning of October 6, 1536, he was taken out to the stake, tied, strangled, and then burned. His crime? Translating a “corrupt” version of the Scriptures. His last words were “Lord, open the King of England’s eyes!”

Before we discuss the influence of Tyndale’s monumental English New Testament it is necessary to state, in brief, what were some of the exigencies of circumstance and history that make him such a remarkable person. Scholars (or pseudo-scholars) who today shop for a Greek New Testament on the internet from hundreds and even thousands of wholesale and resale shops can scarcely imagine what an unheard of commodity one of these would have been in 16th century England.

Erasmus published the first Greek New Testament in 1516. Legend has it that Colet’s lectures on Paul’s Epistles at Oxford (1496-9) inspired Erasmus to publish his great work. Many popular histories tell of the powerful expositions from the original Greek, and how this changed the direction of Renaissance learning forever. This would ensure that “England could breathe the clean air of the apostle again”(Daniell, 1994, p. 33). This view, however, is fantasy at best.

Colet never learned Greek. Erasmus, while writing Colet a characteristically flattering letter about the said lectures he heard, was very disdainful of any “Greekless exegete”(Daniell, 34). John Colet only made an attempt to learn Greek in 1516, three years before his death. He did, in fact, give up the endeavor almost as quickly as he had begun.

There was also the reason for Erasmus’ Bible. He was attempting to improve upon Jerome’s Latin Vulgate. Specifically, he was attempting to prove his version superior to Jerome’s by listing it parallel with the Greek. He was using the Greek text to give authority to his Latin New Testament. It would be the second and third editions of Erasmus’ New Testament that Tyndale would use as the basis for his English translation.

Procuring one of these Greek Testaments was another problem Tyndale faced. True, moveable type had been in existence for over 50 years, but printing was then (as it is now) a business. This means that the printers normally produced books that would bring them a profit. Popular stories such as Chaucer’s tales and Robin Hood were quite popular. Unfortunately, Greek New Testaments were not high on the list.

The other problem, that of actually learning Greek and Hebrew, the languages of the Bible, Tyndale had partially conquered during his years at Oxford and Cambridge. Greek he knew; but Hebrew was unknown on the entire Island. Tyndale would seek Jewish scholars on the continent to master this ancient tongue.

The last obstacle, the one that Tyndale would not overcome, was the habit of the governments of the time to burn, behead, and generally maltreat any man who dared translate the Word of God into a language that the commoners could understand. We now turn our attention to Tyndale’s marvelous Bible translation.

Truly, no modern translation of the Bible is a wholly original work. Tyndale’s is the exception to this rule. The genealogy of the English Bible always begins with Tyndale. Miles Coverdale, an Austin friar, published the first printed English translation of the entire Bible. The New Testament was essentially Tyndale, slightly revised by Coverdale after comparing it to Luther’s New Testament. The Pentateuch is also largely Tyndale’s translation, published by him in 1530.

The next Bible in the line is the “Matthew’s Bible”, published in Antwerp in 1537, authorized by King Henry VIII of England. John Rogers, the translator, also used Tyndale’s New Testament, Pentateuch, and the previously unpublished translations Tyndale made of Joshua through Second Chronicles. The apocrypha and other books were largely based on Coverdale’s Bible. This Bible bears the large, ornamental initials “W.T.” between the Testaments, thus solidifying the tacit acknowledgement of Tyndale’s presence. This Bible was also known as the Great Bible because of its size – 16 x 11 inches!

On the heels of this great work came the Taverner’s Bible, a revision of the Great Bible by Thomas Cromwell’s protg, Richard Taverner. Work on all English translations stopped abruptly on July 6th, 1555 when Bloody Mary took the throne, and all advances for reformation in England were laid low. As Protestants fled the country, God used this horrible time to bring some of the best expatriate scholars together to produce an enduring monument to Puritan scholarship in 1560 – the Geneva Bible.

The Geneva Bible bears the distinction of being the first Bible to be divided into verses. This Bible was less expensive and smaller than the Great Bible, and it soon became the choice of the commoners on the entire island. It was also the Bible used by the Puritans when they migrated to the New World. It was the Bible of Shakespeare and Milton and went through 150 editions before being suppressed in the seventeenth century. This Bible is also called the Breeches Bible because of its translation of Gen 3:7—“They sewed fig tree leaves together and made themselves breeches.”

The clergy of England were a bit miffed over the popularity of the Geneva Bible, so the Archbishop of Canterbury commissioned a revision of the Great Bible, completed in 1568. This revision was four years in the making, and retained in large part the readings of the Great Bible, which was (as I stated earlier) for the most part Tyndale’s translation. It is a historical irony to note that those same clergy who heartily approved of Tyndale’s execution and labeled his translation as “heretical” gave their stamp of approval to essentially the same work just 30 years later.

The next Bible in the line is, without a doubt, the most loved, enduring, and best selling translation in history. Until the 1990s it outsold every other translation, and still ranks as THE Bible with most Christians today. This Bible is the King James (KJV), or Authorized Version (AV). A brief history of this great work is in order before examining the influence Tyndale’s translation had on it.

We owe much to our Puritan forefathers, including what was once considered the magnum opus of the English language. When King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England in 1603, a petition bearing 1000 names known as the “Millenary Petition” was presented to him. It bore a list of grievances the puritan-minded people had with the clergy, claiming many abuses and prejudices toward them. To resolve these problems the Hampton Court Conference was called in 1604. While the result did precious little to relieve the Puritans of their burden, it did inspire the president of Corpus Christi College at Oxford, John Reynolds, to request that King James might authorize a fresh translation of the Bible.

Tyndale’s name is conspicuously absent from the original preface of the AV. This preface (reprinted by Thomas Nelson publishers in their recent reprint of the 1611 version) mentions many foreign language translations, but only mentions in passing the great tradition of earlier English translations that preceded them by stating that their aim was to make “a good translation better”.

Dr. Dan Wallace, professor of New Testament Studies at Dallas Theological Seminary, tells us that over 90% of the AV is Tyndale. An examination of Matthew chapter five reveals the truth of this statement. Of the 1,063 words, there are only 108 differences, making the percentage roughly 90%—spot on with Dr. Wallace’s figure. Examination of entire books would, no doubt, reveal similar results.

The AV has given English-speaking people some of the most memorable and well known phrases and verses. Here are some examples (we should note that every one of these is pure Tyndale):

  • And God said, Let there be light, and there was light (Genesis 1)
  • And God shall wipe away all tears from there eyes (Revelation 7)
  • Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you (Matthew 7)
  • With God all things are possible (Matthew 19)
  • In him we live and move and have our being (Acts 17)
  • Be not weary in well doing (2 Thessalonians 3)
  • Fight the good fight of faith; lay hold of eternal life (1 Timothy 6)
  • Looking unto Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith (Hebrews 12)
  • Behold, I stand at the door and knock (Revelation 3)
  • Am I my brother’s keeper (Genesis 4)
  • Ye are the salt of the earth (Matthew 5)
  • The signs of the times (Matthew 16)
  • Where two or three are gathered together (Matthew 18)
  • They made light of it (Matthew 22)
  • Eat, drink, and be merry (Luke 12)
  • Scales fell from his eyes (Acts 9)
  • Full of good works (Acts 9)
  • The powers that be (Romans 13)
  • Filthy lucre (1 Timothy 3)
  • The patience of Job (James 5)

The fact that the translators took these quotes (and many others) from Tyndale speaks to his greatness as a translator. His greatness today is still unknown to the general church-going public. The pundits who promote the AV as the only version we should use (in contrast to the “corrupt” modern translations) would be less apt to speak if they only read Tyndale’s translation.

Listed in figure one is the genealogy of the Bible from Tyndale down to the present day. There are only three “families” of versions: The Tyndale, the New English Bible, and the New International Version. If the influence of one translation can be seen as “head and shoulders above the rest,” it is Tyndale’s.

Reflection on the life and times of this lesser-known giant should always be considered when calculating influence. Here was a man who had some of his greatest work before him—the Psalms and Proverbs would surely reveal his keen sense for translation and verse; the prophets would surely speak of his passion for the Word and directness of force; further revisions of his New Testament would almost certainly bespeak of his genius and meticulous work as a scholar.

What would the world be like without the AV, Shakespeare, or Milton? When pondering the answer to this question, consider also Tyndale risking (and giving) his life to the work that God had for him. Without him, the landscape and history of English would be unimaginable. With him, the language we use became a thing of beauty, elegance, and has evolved into the universal language of the twenty first century.

In conclusion, our great tradition of English Bibles began with one man listening to the Spirit of God. The Spirit put upon Tyndale’s heart a burning passion to see the commoners read God’s unadulterated, de-barnacled Word. Being a learned man, Tyndale saw the abuses that came from a corrupt, uneducated clergy who knew little about the Word of God, and even less about the Latin verses that they recited each week.

When Tyndale first translated his New Testament, the English language was thought of as weak and unfit for Holy Writ. He changed the language and proved to all that it was rich, dramatic, and colorful; that it was fit to communicate God’s Word. Unfortunately, most people have never heard of this man, except as a passing sentence in a history book mentioning the cohorts of Martin Luther during the reformation.

More work should be done to enlighten all Christians about how the Bible they hold in their hands is, to a great degree, the result of one man’s willingness to “kick against the pricks” (Acts 9:5—also used in the AV and taken directly from Tyndale).

THE GENEALOGY OF TYNDALE1

Works Cited

Campbell, W.E. (1949). Erasmus, Tyndale and More. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.

Daniell, David, (1994). William Tyndale – A Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Gospel Communications Network (2001). The Bible Gateway. http://bible.gospelcom.net (2001).

May, Herbert Gordon (1965). Our English Bible In The Making. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.

Tyndale, WIlliam (1989). The New Testament, (David Daniell, Ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.

Tyndale, WIlliam (1989). The Old Testament, (David Daniell, Ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.

Wallace, Dr. Daniel (2001). History Of The English Bible—Part 4. [Film] Available: Indianapolis, IN.—College Park Baptist Church.

Wild, Laura H. (1929). The Romance Of The English Bible. New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc.


1 This chart is based on the work of Dr. Dan Wallace of Dallas Theological Seminary.

Related Topics: Bibliology (The Written Word), History

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Prove evidenti della Risurrezione

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Introduzione

Per circa 2000 anni c’è stato il fenomeno storico della Cristianità. Malgrado la chiesa attraverso i suoi primi anni soffrì intense persecuzioni per mano sia dei Giudei che dei Romani, essa comunque rinacque. Molti dei primi missionari di fede Cristiana morirono martirizzati a motivo del loro credo in Gesù Cristo.

Perché questi primi Cristiani vollero affrontare la morte per il loro credo in Gesù Cristo? Fu perché furono convinti del fatto storico della risurrezione di Gesù Cristo e questo provò senza ombra di dubbio che Gesù Cristo era il Figlio di Dio e anche l’unico Salvatore del mondo. Così per loro, la morte non consisteva nella fine. La risurrezione è un fatto storico e non semplicemente un pensiero, un ideale filosofico o idea.

Contesto Storico

Di conseguenza, il messaggio della chiesa primitiva era sempre incentrato sul fatto storico della risurrezione e questo non era un semplice mito teologico che iniziò a circolare tra i discepoli di Gesù Cristo 20 o 30 anni dopo di esso ma era un messaggio proclamato sin dal primo mattino del terzo giorno e si trattava anche di un messaggio basato su di una prova incontestabile.

Luca 24:9-11; 33-35 Al loro ritorno dal sepolcro, raccontarono tutte queste cose agli undici e a tutti gli altri. 10 Or quelle che riferirono queste cose agli apostoli erano Maria Maddalena, Giovanna, Maria madre di Giacomo e le altre donne che erano con loro. 11 Ma queste parole parvero loro come un'assurdità; ed essi non credettero loro… . 33 In quello stesso momento si alzarono e ritornarono a Gerusalemme, dove trovarono gli undici e quelli che erano con loro riuniti insieme. 34 Costoro dicevano: «Il Signore è veramente risorto ed è apparso a Simone». 35 Essi allora raccontarono le cose avvenute loro per via, e come lo avevano riconosciuto allo spezzar del pane.

Atti 1:21-22 Bisogna dunque che tra gli uomini che sono stati in nostra compagnia per tutto il tempo in cui il Signor Gesù è andato e venuto tra noi, 22 cominciando dal battesimo di Giovanni fino al giorno in cui egli fu portato in cielo da mezzo a noi, uno di questi diventi testimone con noi della sua risurrezione».

Atti 2:23-24; 31-32 egli, dico, secondo il determinato consiglio e prescienza di Dio, vi fu dato nelle mani e voi lo prendeste, e per mani di iniqui lo inchiodaste alla croce e lo uccideste, 24 Ma Dio lo ha risuscitato, avendolo sciolto dalle angosce della morte, poiché non era possibile che fosse da essa trattenuto. … 31 e, prevedendo le cose a venire, parlò della risurrezione di Cristo, dicendo che l'anima sua non sarebbe stata lasciata nell'Ades e che la sua carne non avrebbe visto la corruzione. 32 Questo Gesù, Dio lo ha risuscitato; e di questo noi tutti siamo testimoni.

Atti 3:14-15 Ma voi rinnegaste il Santo, il Giusto, e chiedeste che vi fosse dato un assassino 15 e uccideste l'autore della vita, che Dio ha risuscitato dai morti e del quale noi siamo testimoni!

Atti 10:39-41 E noi siamo testimoni di tutte le cose che egli ha fatto nel paese dei Giudei e in Gerusalemme; e come essi lo uccisero, appendendolo a un legno. 40 Ma Dio lo ha risuscitato il terzo giorno e ha fatto sì che si manifestasse, 41 non già a tutto il popolo, ma ai testimoni preordinati da Dio, a noi, che abbiamo mangiato e bevuto con lui, dopo che è risuscitato dai morti.

Atti 13:29-39 Dopo aver compiuto tutte le cose che sono scritte di lui egli fu tratto giù dal legno e fu posto in un sepolcro. 30 Ma Dio lo risuscitò dai morti. 31 ed egli fu visto per molti giorni da coloro che erano saliti con lui dalla Galilea a Gerusalemme, i quali sono ora i suoi testimoni presso il popolo. 32 E noi vi annunziamo la buona novella della promessa fatta ai padri, 33 dicendovi, che Dio l'ha adempiuta per noi, loro figli, avendo risuscitato Gesù come anche è scritto nel secondo salmo: Tu sei il mio Figlio. oggi ti ho generato. 34 E poiché lo ha risuscitato dai morti per non tornare più nella corruzione, egli ha detto così: Io vi darò le fedeli promesse fatte a Davide. 35 Per questo egli dice anche in un altro Salmo: Tu non permetterai che il tuo Santo veda la corruzione. 36 Or Davide, dopo aver eseguito il consiglio di Dio nella sua generazione, si addormentò e fu aggiunto ai suoi padri, e vide la corruzione, 37 ma colui che Dio ha risuscitato, non ha visto corruzione. 38 Vi sia dunque noto, fratelli, che per mezzo di lui vi è annunziato il perdono dei peccati, 39 e che, mediante lui, chiunque crede è giustificato di tutte le cose, di cui non avete potuto essere giustificati mediante la legge di Mosè.

Atti 17:30-31 Ma ora, passando sopra ai tempi dell'ignoranza, Dio comanda a tutti gli uomini e dappertutto che si ravvedano. 31 Poiché egli ha stabilito un giorno in cui giudicherà il mondo con giustizia, per mezzo di quell'uomo che egli ha stabilito; e ne ha dato prova a tutti, risuscitandolo dai morti».

Atti 26:22-23 Ma, per l'aiuto ottenuto da Dio fino a questo giorno ho continuato a testimoniare a piccoli e grandi, non dicendo nient'altro se non ciò che i profeti e Mosè dissero che doveva avvenire, 23 cioè: che il Cristo avrebbe sofferto e che, essendo il primo a risuscitare dai morti, avrebbe annunziato la luce al popolo e ai gentili».

Da notare come inizia il libro degli Atti degli Apostoli:

Atti 1:1-3 Io ho fatto il primo trattato, o Teofilo, circa tutte le cose che Gesù prese a fare e ad insegnare, 2 fino al giorno in cui fu portato in cielo dopo aver dato dei comandamenti per mezzo dello Spirito Santo agli apostoli che egli aveva scelto. 3 Ad essi, dopo aver sofferto, si presentò vivente con molte prove convincenti, facendosi da loro vedere per quaranta giorni e parlando delle cose riguardanti il regno di Dio.

Senza la risurrezione sarebbe tutto finito al verso 1 e la morte ne sarebbe stata la conclusione ma prendiamo nota di cosa i versi 2 e 3 dicono:

“Prove convincenti” il verso 3 usa come termine originale Greco tekmerion derivante dalla radice tekma che significa “limite stabilito, obbiettivo finale” Tekmerion significa “un segno stabilito e certo, una evidenza o prova” La parola è usata come prova dimostrante ed evidente in contrasto con mere superstizioni filosofiche o segni fallibili. Galen, che era scrittore medico del secondo secolo D.C. utilizzò la parola tekmerion in questo modo. Quindi anche Luca, il fisico storico esperto nel raccogliere prove, scelse questo particolare termine per confermare la prova storica, quale più convincente termine per una prova legale.

Inoltre Luca aggiunge l’aggettivo “molte” per farci capire che esaminò attentamente le prove. Il Dr. Luca che visse al tempo di Gesù Cristo e che aveva personalmente parlato con molti testimoni oculari ci sta dicendo che c’erano molte prove dimostrabili ed incontestabili, non solamente una o due ma molte. (Cfr. Luca 1:1-2)

Sin dal principio ci furono quelli che rigettarono la risurrezione come se fosse una mistificazione, una favola, una finzione o una menzogna. Un certo numero di teorie sono state presentate per dimostrare la falsità della risurrezione ma sono state tutte grandemente screditate dagli studiosi di storia uno dopo l’altro. Da notare come non uno straccio di prova valida è mai stata presentata a supporto di quelle affermazioni. Dunque come mai gli uomini fanno queste affermazioni? Perché non hanno mai esaminato le prove oppure a motivo dei loro pregiudizi, dei loro preconcetti filosofici, o della loro incredulità in questo evento miracoloso.

Il silenzio dei nemici di Cristo e la mancanza di prove storiche contro la risurrezione sono da sé quasi una grande evidenza di prova positiva della risurrezione di Gesù Cristo. Nella mia libreria, ho un libro che tratta il dibattito tra Gary Habermas e Anthony Flew intitolato, Gesù risorse dai morti?, dibattito sulla risurrezione. Il dibattito fu tenuto a Dallas e fu giudicato da una giuria organizzata in due gruppi di esperti nelle loro rispettive aree di specializzazione per fornire un verdetto sull' argomento del dibattito. Il primo gruppo consistette in cinque filosofi a cui fu chiesto di giudicare il contenuto del dibattito e decretarne il vincitore, il secondo consistette in cinque giudici di dibattito molto esperti a cui fu chiesto di giudicare le tecniche di argomentazioni dei dibattitori. Tutti e dieci i partecipanti prestano servizio in facoltà universitarie Americane e collegi come l’Università di Pittsburgh, l’Università della Virginia, l’Università Western Kentucky, l’Università James Madison e l’Università George Mason.

Le decisioni dei giudici furono le seguenti. Il gruppo dei filosofi giudicanti il contenuto diede quattro voti per Habermas il quale discuteva a favore del fatto della risurrezione, nessuno per Flew ed uno nullo. Il gruppo dei giudici esperti del dibattito votarono tre a due, anch' essi in favore di Habermas, questa volta riguardo al metodo di argomentazione. Da notare che un giudice disse:

Io sono del parere che l’oratore a favore della risurrezione [Habermas] ha un significativo carico di prove per confermare le sue dichiarazioni. La varietà di fonti storiche mi convinse ad accettare gli argomenti dell’oratore a favore. Il Dr. Flew contrario alla risurrezione, d'altra parte, non fu in grado, in particolare nel momento della confutazione e durante la sessione testa a testa, di presentare significativi punti a sostegno della sua posizione. Il Dr Habermas ritenne grave il fatto che il Dr. Flew negasse molti punti specifici. Quando le controprove avanzarono, disse Habermas, ebbi l'impressione che il Dr. Flew cercasse di evitare le accuse (Habermas and Flew, p. xiv).

Un’altro giudice esperto di dibattito disse:

Io concludo che la prova storica, sia pure imperfetta, è abbastanza forte per indurre menti razionali a concludere che Cristo di fatto risorse dai morti. Habermas aveva già vinto il dibattito. … Sconfiggendo la critica scettica dei miracoli in generale, ispirata al filosofo Hume e presentata da Flew e dimostrando la forza di alcune delle prove storiche, Habermas concluse fornendo “prove altamente probabili” sulla storicità della risurrezione “e mancanza di prove scientifiche plausibili contro di essa.” Habermas dunque, a mia opinione, vinse il dibattito (Ibid., p. xv).

Una Assurdità
Teologica e Filosofica

Ci sono sempre quelli che dicono che il fatto storico di una risurrezione fisica di Gesù Cristo non è importante. “E' sufficiente” dicono, che uno creda in una risurrezione spirituale, oppure che …

il fu Norman Perrin, uno studioso del Nuovo Testamento dell' Università di Chigago altamente stimato, rimarcò non molto tempo fa che la cosa veramente importante riguardo la risurrezione di Gesù non è tanto la realtà storica di quell'evento, ma le verità teologiche che essa esprime” (William Craig, Knowing the Truth About the Resurrection, Servant Books, p. xiii).

Altri hanno sostenuto non c'è bisogno di credere nella risurrezione. Se questo interferisce col tuo modo di pensare razionale, accetta semplicemente Gesù come come un gran leader e come un esempio di amore, gentilezza e pace.

Questo modo di pensare è semplicemente senza senso, illogico, e contrario ai fatti della vita di Cristo.

Abbiamo bisogno di vedere chiaramente che ci possono essere implicazioni teologiche positive sulla risurrezione solo per il fatto che la sua realtà storica è confermata. Mentre molti teologi possono trovare questo tipo di convinzione disperatamente antiquata, l'uomo di strada lo sa bene. Il suo buon senso gli dice che non c'è nessuna ragione per la quale un uomo morto debba essere decisivo per la sua esistenza oggi, ed io sono d'accordo con lui. Una volta che gli insegnamenti dottrinali vengono staccati dalle loro realtà storiche, siamo entrati nell'arena del mito. E semplicemente non c'è più una buona ragione per preferire i miti Cristiani agli altri miti o addirittura alle filosofie secolari. La risurrezione è reale per le nostre vite odierne soltanto quando è reale l'evento nella storia (Craig, p. xiii).

Se togliamo la risurrezione, allora Gesù Cristo non era nemmeno un buon leader umano, ma una mostruosità umana il quale si poneva allo stesso livello di un uomo che pensa di essere Capitan Meraviglia. Sia che egli fosse il più grande ingannatore del mondo meritevole di morire o che Egli fu chi dichiarava di essere, il Dio-Uomo Salvatore del mondo, la risurrezione è quella che fa la differenza.

Non è mia intenzione di presentare tutte le prove, ma di concentrare l'attenzione su alcune delle più rimarchevoli ed importanti prove.

La Prova della Pietra

Matteo 28:1-4 Ora, alla fine dei sabati, all'alba del primo giorno dopo i sabati, Maria Maddalena e l'altra Maria, andarono a vedere il sepolcro. 2 Ed ecco, si fece un gran terremoto, perché un angelo del Signore, sceso dal cielo, venne e rotolò la pietra dall'apertura del sepolcro e si pose a sedere su di essa. 3 E il suo aspetto era come di folgore e il suo vestito bianco come la neve. 4 E, per lo spavento che ebbero di lui, le guardie tremarono e rimasero come morte;

Marco 16:1-4 Ora, trascorso il sabato, Maria Maddalena, Maria, madre di Giacomo, e Salome acquistarono degli aromi a per andare ad imbalsamare Gesù. 2 La mattina del primo giorno della settimana, molto presto, vennero al sepolcro al levar del sole. 3 E dicevano fra di loro: «Chi ci rotolerà la pietra dall'entrata del sepolcro?». 4 Ma, alzando gli occhi, videro che la pietra era stata rotolata, sebbene fosse molto grande.

Luca 24:2 E trovarono che la pietra era stata rotolata dal sepolcro.

Giovanni 20:1-9 Or il primo giorno dopo i sabati, al mattino quando era ancora buio, Maria Maddalena andò al sepolcro e vide che la pietra era stata rimossa dal sepolcro. 2 Allora andò di corsa da Simon Pietro e dall'altro discepolo che Gesù amava e disse loro: «Hanno tolto il Signore dal sepolcro e non sappiamo dove l'abbiano posto». 3 Pietro dunque e l'altro discepolo uscirono fuori e si avviarono al sepolcro. 4 Correvano tutti e due insieme, ma l'altro discepolo corse avanti più in fretta di Pietro e arrivò primo al sepolcro. 5 E, chinatosi, vide i panni di lino che giacevano nel sepolcro, ma non vi entrò. 6 Arrivò anche Simon Pietro che lo seguiva, entrò nel sepolcro e vide i panni di lino che giacevano per terra, 7 e il sudario, che era stato posto sul capo di Gesù; esso non giaceva con i panni, ma era ripiegato in un luogo a parte. 8 Allora entrò anche l'altro discepolo che era giunto per primo al sepolcro, vide e credette. 9 Essi infatti non avevano ancora compreso la Scrittura, che egli doveva risuscitare dai morti,

Il Sigillo sulla Pietra

Il sigillo posto sulla pietra (Mt. 27:62-66). Come affermato dai Farisei, fu una loro richiesta verso Pilato al fine di impedire ogni tipo di imbroglio o menzogna da parte dei discepoli di Gesù Cristo. Facendo questo, tuttavia, fornirono due prove eccellenti in più sulla risurrezione di Cristo. Involontariamente, prepararono una inconfutabile controprova delle loro affermazioni nel tentativo di screditare il fatto della risurrezione (cf. Mat. 28:11-15).

Il sigillo includeva due cose (1) una corpo di guardia Romana, e (2) un sigillo consistente in una corda incerata intorno la pietra e collegata alla tomba.

Matteo 27:65, Voi avete un corpo di guardia; andate, e assicurate il sepolcro come vi sembra meglio.

Alcuni hanno dichiarato che Pilato rifiutò la richiesta di un corpo di guardia Romano dicendo loro di usare quello che era a guardia del tempio. Ma il verbo utilizzato può essere un imperativo, prendete un corpo di guardia, assicurate il sepolcro come vi sembra meglio. Può anche significare che stesse dando loro il permesso di ottenere un corpo di guardia Romano.

La parola guardia è la parola Greca kustodia, dal Latino o Romano custodia. L'uso di questo particolare termine sta ad indicare un corpo di guardia Romano e non il corpo di guardia del tempio dei Giudei. Questo è ulteriormente verificato dal fatto che chiesero a Pilato un corpo di guardia. Se avessero potuto utilizzare il loro corpo di guardia allora perchè andare da Pilato? Ancora, se solo il corpo di guardia del tempio ne era implicato, la citazione del verso 14 sarebbe stata inutile. Nessuno avrebbe dovuto parlare al governatore e tantomeno corrompere qualcuno.

Perchè ciò era così importante? Perchè la presenza alla tomba dei soldati Romani ed il sigillo Romano sulla pietra che la chiudeva rese possibile ai capi religiosi dichiarare più volte la maggior difficoltà se non l'impossibilità. La probabilità che questi timidi, timorosi Galilei e discepoli potessero o volessero rubare il corpo di Gesù da sotto il naso di questo corpo di guardia di soldati Romani abili e altamente disciplinati, non è solo ridicolo ma impossibile. Anche se i soldati si fossero addormentati, pensate al rumore che i discepoli avrebbero fatto cercando di spostare la grande pietra che impediva l'accesso alla tomba!

La Pietra Rotolata Via

Le tombe in Palestina erano qualcosa come uno scavo intagliato nella parte rocciosa di una montagna o collina. Consistevano di un ingresso rettangolare che accedeva alla camera principale o camera centrale con una nicchia scolpita nel lato di uno dei muri interni dove il corpo veniva posto. Alla fine della nicchia vi era una parte rialzata appositamente per la testa.

L'ingresso della camera centrale era chiusa da una larga pietra circolare o pesante disco di pietra messo in una scanalatura obliqua così che quando la pietra veniva liberata, sarebbe rotolata col suo stesso peso a chiudere l'entrata. Per il suo enorme peso (talvolta di alcune tonnelate) spostarla avrebbe richiesto lo sforzo combinato di molti uomini per riportarla nella scanalatura e bloccarla. Dunque chi avrebbe rotolata via la pietra?

    ¤ I nemici non l'avrebbero fatto poichè il loro scopo era di tenere il Suo corpo lì con la porta sigillata (Mat. 27:62-66).

    ¤ Se furono i discepoli a togliere il corpo, lo fecero all'insaputa delle donne, perchè vennero aspettandosi di trovare il corpo (Giov. 20:1-2). Inoltre le guardie erano presenti.

    ¤ Le donne da sole non sarebbero state in grado di rimuovere la pietra. Così, venendo alla tomba il mattino della risurrezione, si stavano domandando chi avrebbe rimosso la pietra per loro (Marco 16:2-8).

    ¤ Matteo 28:2-4 Ci dice che fu un angelo del Signore e questo mostra un' intenzione divina.

Non fu rimossa affinchè Cristo potesse andarsene in quanto egli avrebbe potuto passare attraverso i muri col Suo corpo glorificato. Fu rimossa per uno scopo divino, al fine di richiamare l'attenzione sulla testimonianza della tomba vuota. La tomba fu aperta non per permettere a Gesù di uscirene ma per permettere alla gente di entrarvi.

Perchè la gente aveva bisogno di entrare? Perchè dentro la tomba stessa vi erano deposte alcune prove stupefacenti sul fatto della risurrezione di Gesù, la testimonianza dei panni della sepoltura.

La Prova della Tomba Vuota

Giovanni 20:2-9 Allora andò di corsa da Simon Pietro e dall'altro discepolo che Gesù amava e disse loro: «Hanno tolto il Signore dal sepolcro e non sappiamo dove l'abbiano posto». 3 Pietro dunque e l'altro discepolo uscirono fuori e si avviarono al sepolcro. 4 Correvano tutti e due insieme, ma l'altro discepolo corse avanti più in fretta di Pietro e arrivò primo al sepolcro. 5 E, chinatosi, vide i panni di lino che giacevano nel sepolcro, ma non vi entrò. 6 Arrivò anche Simon Pietro che lo seguiva, entrò nel sepolcro e vide i panni di lino che giacevano per terra, 7 e il sudario, che era stato posto sul capo di Gesù; esso non giaceva con i panni, ma era avvolto in un luogo a parte. 8 Allora entrò anche l'altro discepolo che era giunto per primo al sepolcro, vide e credette. 9 Essi infatti non avevano ancora compreso la Scrittura, che egli doveva risuscitare dai morti,

La reazione di Maria

Avendo visto la pietra rimossa, la reazione immediata di Maria fu pensare che dei ladri, forse i Giudei, avessero preso il corpo. Senza entrare come fecero le altre donne, ella ritornò da Pietro e Giovanni. La sua conclusione fu hanno portato via il Signore (riferendosi probabilmente ai Giudei) .

La reazione dei discepoli

Giovanni arrivò per primo e vide i panni di lino ancora avvolti. Il verbo usato (in Greco blepo) descrive il semplice atto di vedere gettando un occhio, un semplice sguardo. Proprio quello sguardo casuale attirò l'attenzione di Giovanni dove gli indisturbati involucri, erano giacenti ordinati nella loro naturale posizione così come quando avvolgevano il corpo. La parola ordinati lo rende evidente, giacenti anche prima. Persino uno sguardo casuale è attirato da questo.

Allora Pietro arrivò e, col suo modo impetuoso entrò immediatamente e vide. La parola vide è theoreo. Questa parola denota una determinata ed attenta osservazione, uno che osserva i dettagli, non solo una occhiata casuale. Ciò che Pietro osservò furono i panni di lino avvolti.

La Prova
dei Panni Sepolti

Le Osservazioni di Pietro

    ¤ Pietro osservò i panni avvolti che giacevano indisturbati.

    ¤ Egli notò l'aspetto del sudario arrotolato separatamente, così come lo era stato quando il corpo fu preparato, suggerendoci che l'avvolgitura del capo aveva parzialmente mantenuto la sua forma circolare.

Un ladro che avesse rubato il corpo avrebbe preso il corpo con tutti i suoi panni avvolti.

Gli involucri che eventualmente fossero stati rimossi dal corpo, non sarebbero rimasti modellati in modo indisturbato. Come precedentemente descritto, c'era un luogo apposito per il corpo con uno scalino rialzato per il capo perciò il capo era avvolto separatamente dal corpo. Se qualcuno li avesse rimossi dal corpo, non sarebbero rimasti giacenti come posti in origine, cioè il sudario del capo a parte, nel posto dove si trovava il capo e gli altri panni dove si trovava il corpo indisturbato.

Pietro continuò a meditare nel suo cuore tutto ciò che aveva osservato.

Le Osservazioni di Giovanni

Quando Giovanni entrò nella tomba, ciò che vide lo portò ad una immediata comprensione, una comprensione intelligente dei fatti. La frase ciò che vide in questo versetto, denota una percezione mentale risultante principalmente dalla visione.

Pietro stava ponderando tutto ciò che aveva osservato, Giovanni invece no. Ora avendo visto la prova della tomba vuota, comprese che il Suo Signore era risorto dai morti. Nel versetto 8-9 ci viene detto che comprese e credette. Capì che la Scrittura del Vecchio Testamento e le stesse parole di Cristo riguardavano il fatto che il Messia sarebbe stato eliminato, ma avrebbe fatto ritorno e regnato attraverso la risurrezione. (Cfr. Sal. 16:10; Dan. 2; Dan. 7; Dan. 9:6) Prima non avevano compreso le Scritture o le parole di Cristo. Ma ora gli occhi di Giovanni si aprirono (cfr. Luca 24:25-27, 44-47).

La Prova
dell'Apparizione di Cristo

Le apparizioni di Cristo che seguirono la Sua risurrezione sono altre prove storiche schiaccianti. Le donne ed i discepoli videro, sentirono, e pure toccarono il Signore. Infatti, 500 fratelli in una sola volta lo videro (1 Cor. 15:6).

Sono state date varie spiegazioni riguardo la risurrezione, ma nessuna di esse onestamente e in modo chiaro concorda con la registrazione storica e sono chiaramente tentativi pregiudiziali di negare l'evidenza.

R. T. France nel suo libro, The Evidence for Jesus, scrive di teorie tipiche riguardanti Gesù, la Sua vita, morte, e risurrezione e i vari tentativi della gente di arrivare al cosiddetto vero Gesù attraverso tali teorie sia da articoli su periodici, libri o serie televisive. Egli mostra come questi danno sempre la prominenza alle teorie degli scettici e, principalmente non trattano il Vangelo come una prova storica. Alla fine del libro, dopo aver discusso sia di non-Cristiani che di prove bibliche, fa la seguente dichiarazione:

Si nota nei capitoli iniziali la tendenza di alcuni scrittori nel tentare di riscoprire il ritratto del Gesù del NT, in cerca di un più 'recente' Gesù che persino al tempo in cui i documenti del Nuovo Testamento furono scritti era stato ampiamente dimenticato e rimpiazzato da una figura semi-mitica, il 'Cristo di fede'. Si è visto ripetutamente che la prova sulla quale questo tipo di ricostruzioni sono basate (quando non sono pure speculazioni insostenibili) è infatti datata posteriormente agli scritti del NT, e può generalmente essere identificata con quelli che intorno al secondo secolo erano visti come movimenti eretici. Si tratta di una deviazione dal messaggio originale Cristiano, usualmente in direzione di una fede più attraente per il clima filosofico o religioso del giorno. The Evidence for Jesus, R.T. France, The Jesus Library, Michael Green, series editor, pp. 165-166)

La Prova
dei Discepoli Trasformati

I discepoli avevano visto il loro maestro morire e a motivo di questo, avevano perso ogni speranza. Cristo aveva detto loro che sarebbe morto e risorto. Infatti ciò era parte integrante delle Sue affermazioni. Tuttavia erano compunti, pienamente scoraggiati, e si incontravano in posti oscuri, mentre dopo la risurrezione, troviamo i discepoli gioiosi, senza timori, e rendenti pubblica testimonianza. Erano persino pronti a morire e sicuramente non pronti a morire per una menzogna (Cfr. Schaff, Vol. I, p. 173f.)

Pietro che rinnegò il Signore quando fu messo a confronto con la giovane, proclamò coraggiosamente la parola durante la Pentecoste davanti agli stessi capi religiosi che crocifissero Cristo.

Quando consideriamo la trasformazione dei discepoli in congiunzione col silenzio dei Giudei e la loro incapacità di produrre il corpo di Cristo o qualsiasi prova contraria, gli eventi di Pentecoste diventano un'altra prova della risurrezione di Cristo.

La Prova della Pentecoste
(Acts 2-4)

Solo 50 giorni dopo la morte e la risurrezione, Pietro predicò la dottrina della risurrezione e migliaia si riunirono per ascoltarlo. Ma il punto importante è che stava predicando al popolo che ebbe accesso alla tomba. La risurrezione non era un fatto nuovo, e ne stava predicando il significato dalle Scritture del Vecchio Testamento (Sal. 16:8-10).

Nessuno offrì una controprova. I Giudei stavano in silenzio, un silenzio che è significativo tanto quanto l'audacia dei discepoli nel parlare. Tremila persone le quali erano nella posizione di conoscere i fatti riguardanti la risurrezione di Cristo credettero e furono salvate. (Atti 2:41; 4:2-14).

Ci sono altre grandi prove della risurrezione di Cristo come:

    ¤ Le profezie del Vecchio Testamento.

    ¤ Le profezie di Cristo stesso.

    ¤ L'esistenza della chiesa.

    ¤ L'osservanza della Domenica come primo giorno della settimana.

    ¤ La trasformazione e la testimonianza di Paolo

Le prove che abbiamo menzionato in questo studio sono più che sufficienti per mostrare la validità della risurrezione. Per negarlo, in vista di una prova, uno non dovrebbe solo negare i suoi processi razionali, ma dovrebbe negare la Cristianità e le Scritture come valide e fonti di salvezza per l'umanità

Il Significato Dottrinale
della Risurrezione

La teologia della risurrezione è di vitale importanza al Cristiano poiché influisce sulla sua salvezza e la sua santificazione. In I Pietro 1:3, Pietro indica che siamo generati ad una viva speranza per mezzo della risurrezione di Gesù Cristo dai morti. Ci sono diverse ragioni per questo.

    ¤ La risurrezione autentica Cristo come il Figlio di Dio (Rom. 1:4)

    ¤ La risurrezione dimostra il valore espiativo dell'opera di Cristo (Rom. 4:25). Risuscitato per significa che dimostra la sufficienza della Sua redenzione per la nostra giustificazione. La risurrezione non fornisce la nostra giustificazione, essa dimostrò che la morte di Cristo era sufficiente per portarci alla giustificazione per fede. Giustificati dunque per fede (come provato dalla risurrezione) abbiamo pace (Rom. 5:1).

    ¤ La risurrezione garantisce la nostra salvezza (1 Cor. 15:17-19). Offre sicurezza riguardo la nostra salvezza e permette conforto circa i nostri amati deceduti (I Tess 4:13f ). C'è una iscrizione che si trova a Tessalonica la quale dice, Dopo la morte, nessun ritorno in vita, dopo la fossa nessun incontro. La risurrezione garantisce che questo tipo di credo è falso.

    ¤ E' la base della nostra santificazione (Rom. 6). Così come Cristo fu vincitore sul peccato e sulla morte, così anche noi possiamo essere vittoriosi grazie alla nostra identificazione o unione con Lui.

    ¤ La risurrezione di Cristo come primogenito dai morti è la garanzia della nostra risurrezione e del corpo glorificato che riceveremo alla risurrezione dei santi (Fil. 3:20-21).

Pertanto possiamo vedere che tramite la risurrezione, all' uomo viene data una speranza viva perchè essa dipende da un Salvatore vivente. Tutti gli altri capi religiosi sono morti, Maometto, Budda, Confucio. I fondatori dei culti religiosi sono tutti nelle loro tombe, i loro corpi marciti nella polvere. I loro seguaci hanno una speranza morta, ma hanno anche qualcos'altro.

Conclusione

In Atti 17:31 leggiamo,

… Poiché egli ha stabilito un giorno in cui giudicherà il mondo con giustizia, per mezzo di quell'uomo che egli ha stabilito; e ne ha dato prova a tutti, risuscitandolo dai morti.

Mentre la risurrezione può dare certezza di salvezza, una viva speranza, essa da anche certezza di giudizio perchè la risurrezione identifica Gesù Cristo come Figlio di Dio e dono della grazia di Dio per il nostro peccato. Per coloro che rigettano Cristo (il dono manifesto di Dio per la salvezza) non rimane altro che aspettare nell'angoscia il giorno del giudizio. Per il non credente è assicurata una seconda morte proprio come per il credente è assicurata la risurrezione per la vita.

La domanda importante è questa, riconosci Gesù Cristo come tuo personale Salvatore?

Le Soluzioni di Dio ai problemi dell'uomo

Dio è perfetta santità (il cui carattere santo non possiamo mai raggiungere con le nostre buone opere) ma è anche perfetto amore e pieno di grazia e misericordia. A motivo del suo amore, grazia e misericordia Egli non ci ha lasciato senza speranza e senza soluzione.

Romani 5:8 Ma Dio manifesta il suo amore verso di noi in questo che, mentre eravamo ancora peccatori, Cristo è morto per noi.

Questa è la buona novella della Bibbia, il messaggio del vangelo. Il messaggio del dono dello stesso figlio di Dio che divenne uomo (il Dio-uomo), visse una vita senza peccato, morì sulla croce per i nostri peccati, e risuscitò dai morti dimostrando sia il fatto che Egli è il Figlio di Dio che il valore della Sua morte per noi come nostro sostituto (Rom. 1:4; 4:25).

2 Corinzi 5:21: Poiché egli ha fatto essere peccato per noi colui che non ha conosciuto peccato, affinché noi potessimo diventare giustizia di Dio in lui.

1 Pietro 3:18: perché anche Cristo ha sofferto una volta per i peccati, il giusto per gl'ingiusti, per condurci a Dio. Fu messo a morte nella carne, ma vivificato dallo Spirito.

La Domanda Importante per Tutti

Come si riceve il Figlio di Dio per poter avere la vita eterna che Dio ci ha promesso? Qual è oggi per noi la questione?

Giovanni 1:12: ma a tutti coloro che lo hanno ricevuto, egli ha dato l'autorità di diventare figli di Dio, a quelli cioè che credono nel suo nome.

Giovanni 3:16-18: Poiché Dio ha tanto amato il mondo, che ha dato il suo unigenito Figlio, affinché chiunque crede in lui non perisca, ma abbia vita eterna. Dio infatti non ha mandato il proprio Figlio nel mondo per condannare il mondo, ma affinché il mondo sia salvato per mezzo di lui. Chi crede in lui non è condannato ma chi non crede è già condannato, perché non ha creduto nel nome dell'unigenito Figlio di Dio.

A motivo di quello che Gesù Cristo compì per noi sulla croce, la Bibbia dichiara che Chi ha il figlio ha la vita Possiamo ricevere il Figlio, Gesù Cristo, come nostro Salvatore ponendo fiducia nella persona di Cristo e nella Sua morte per i nostri peccati.

Questo significa che ognuno deve venire a Dio nello stesso modo con cui un peccatore che riconosce il suo stato di peccato, ripudia ogni forma di opera umana per la salvezza, e si affida totalmente solo a Cristo attraverso la sola fede per la salvezza.

Vuoi confidare in Cristo oggi come tuo personale Salvatore? Semplicemente dì a Dio che sai di aver bisogno del Salvatore Gesù Cristo, e che vuoi riceverLo per fede.

J. Hampton Keathley III is a 1966 laureato al Dallas Theological Seminary e già pastore all'età di 28 anni. Hampton attualmente scrive per il Biblical Studies Foundation ed insegna Greco al Moody Northwest (una estensione del Moody Bible Institute) in Spokane, Washington.

Versetti biblici tratti dalla versione Nuova Diodati.

Show Them No Mercy: 4 Views on God and Canaanite Genocide By C.S. Cowles, Eugene H. Merrill, Daniel L. Gard, and Tremper Longman III

Readers of the Old Testament are often stunned and horrified at the violence which seems to pervade its pages. Particularly troubling are instances in which God Himself commands the nation of Israel to completely destroy Canaanite villages, showing no compassion even on women and children. These passages are especially relevant in the 21st century, given the fact that many groups in the preceding 300 years have attempted to justify genocide on the basis of the Old Testament accounts.

Show Them No Mercy (Zondervan: Grand Rapids, 2003) by C.S. Cowles, Eugene Merrill, Daniel Gard, and Tremper Longman presents four views of God in light of these difficult Old Testament texts. In particular, the writers each attempt to explain how the loving and non-violent picture of Christ’s first advent harmonizes with the violence of God seen in the Old Testament.

The first view, presented by C.S. Cowles, is the most radical. Cowles asserts that God never truly commanded the Israelites to practice genocide, but that they instead misunderstood the nature of God and acted on the basis of national pride and corporate convenience. He is forced to conclude that the Old Testament is not completely inerrant but instead contains an imperfect and limited perspective of God which is only corrected by the New Testament’s emphasis on the love of Christ.

Eugene Merrill does an excellent job of approaching the problem from a dispensational perspective. He effectively argues that God has not changed but that the Conquest narratives reflect God’s unique relationship with the nation of Israel during a particular period of history. God’s holiness, Canaan’s idolatry, and the Abrahamic covenant made the destruction of Canaanite cities necessary. However, the same conditions no longer operate in the Church Age, and thus Christians have no justification for waging war in the name of Christ.

Daniel Gard and Tremper Longman present two remarkably similar views, although Longman’s case is made in a clearer and more convincing manner. Both connect the passages of violence in the Old Testament to New Testament descriptions of spiritual warfare and to the apocalyptic accounts of Christ’s Second Coming. Their essential argument is that the character of God remains the same, although the manner in which His holiness and wrath are demonstrated varies throughout history. The same God who once acted in wrath upon the Canaanites will one day render judgment and destruction on all who oppose Him.

A major strength of this book is its emphasis on the fact that modern-day genocide cannot be supported by Scripture. Although all of the authors could have done a better job of justifying the necessity for the Israelite’s wholesale extermination of people groups (including seemingly innocent women and children), this book is highly recommended for those who wish to sharpen their understanding of these highly difficult Old Testament passages.

Related Topics: Theology Proper (God)

The Rapture Debate

 

 (Pretribulational Scenario)

The Key Passages

1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 teaches that Christ will return in the air to resurrect Christians who have died and then “rapture” (Latin for “caught up”) living believers together with dead so that all will from then on be “with the Lord.”

1 Corinthians 15:51-53 teaches that at the rapture (compare “trumpet”, “dead raised” – 1 Thessalonians 4:16) resurrected Christians and living Christians will all receive “glorified” bodies (compare Jesus’ glorified body – John 20:19; 21:1,13).

The Issue

Pretribulationists believe that Christ will return in the rapture, prior to the tribulation, to take believers to heaven. They understand the second coming of Christ in judgment to be after the tribulation (as in diagram).

Posttribulationists believe that the rapture of Christians and the second coming occur together after the tribulation.

Other less popular views are that the rapture will occur in the middle of the tribulation (midtribulationalism) or that the rapture will occur before the tribulation but only spiritually mature Christians will go (partial rapture theory) or that the rapture will occur during the last half of the tribulation but before the final judgments (pre-wrath rapture view).

Selected Arguments For a Pretribulational Rapture

No tribulation passage mentions the church.

Revelation 4-18 , which describes the Great Tribulation includes no reference to the church. Phrases such as, “those in Christ,” “the body of Christ,” or “the church” are not found. Tribulation believers are called “saints” or the “elect” – general terms that can apply to believers in any age. Actually no Old or New Testament passage on the tribulation mentions the church (Deuteronomy 4:20; Jeremiah 30:4-11: Daniel 9:27; 12:1,2; Matthew 24:15-31; 1 Thessalonians 9:10; 5:4-9).

Several passages explicitly state that Christians won’t go through the tribulation.

Revelation 3:10 teaches clearly that believers will be kept “from the hour of testing” (Revelation 4-18 – the Great Tribulation). Posttribulationalists must either change the meaning of these words or push all the catastrophes of the tribulation to the end of the tribulation or suggest that believers somehow are protected from the tribulation judgment on the earth. None of these explanations fit the facts. 1 Thessalonians 1:10 similarly states that Christians are to “wait for His Son from heaven…Jesus, who delivers us from the wrath to come.” 1 Thessalonians 5:9,10 teaches the same truth.

The imminence of Christ’s return demands a pretribulational rapture.

According to the pretribulational view Christ could return at any time (imminence). Many passages suggest this (1 Corinthians 1:7; Philippians 3:20; 1 Thessalonians 1:10; 1 Timothy 6:14; Titus 2:13; Revelation 22:20; etc.). According to other rapture views there is no imminence. Christ’s return for believers would be a predictable moment (middle of tribulation, end, etc.).

There is nobody to live in the millennium in the posttribulational views.

When the tribulation ends, there must be some people left in their natural bodies to live in and populate the millennial earth (Isaiah 65:7-25, etc.). If, as posttribulation-alists believe, the rapture of believers and the Second Coming of Christ in judgment are both at the end of the tribulation, there is no one left to populate the millennial earth. All believers are in heaven – raptured or resurrected. All unbelievers are destroyed and in hell. But in the pretribulational view, there is no problem. Many people will be saved during the tribulation (Revelation 7:4,9,14). Of those, many will be martyred (Revelation 6:11; 7:14; 13:15) but some will survive to the end of the tribulation (Matthew 24:22; Mark 13:13). These will enter the millennium in natural bodies (Matthew 25:34; the ones “left” enter millennium – Matthew 24:40,41 and Luke 17:34-37).

The Rapture and Second Coming are separate events.

The events of the rapture of the church and the Second Coming of Christ in judgment are distinctly different making it impossible to combine them into one event (as posttribulationalism does).

The Rapture of the Church

The Second Coming of Christ

Christ returns in the air
(1 Thessalonians 4:17).

Christ returns to the earth
(Zechariah 14:4,5)

The Rapture brings comfort
(1 Thessalonians 4:18).

The Second Coming brings judgment
(Revelation 19:15).

The Rapture concerns the church – “In Christ” (1 Thessalonians 4:14,16).

The Second Coming concerns Israel and the nations (Zechariah 12:2-9).

The Rapture changes the bodies of believers (1 Corinthians 15:51-53).

The Second Coming changes the hearts of Jews (Zechariah 12:10).

Acknowledgements to Literary and Theological Analysis of the Book of Ezra

Acknowledgements

I owe an immense debt to my professors at Bob Jones University. I am especially grateful to the members of my committee. Dr. Terry Rude, my first advisor in seminary as well as the first chairman of my committee, modeled a meticulous attention to the details of Scripture and a great love of our Savior. Dr. Robert Bell, who was also my father’s dissertation chairman, ably guided me to the completion of this project. His passion for Christ-honoring excellence and the exacting standards which he consequently maintains have repeatedly spurred me to excel. To the other members of my committee, Dr. Michael Barrett, Dr. Randy Jaeggli, Dr. Ken Casillas, and Dr. Dave Shumate, who counseled, commented, and critiqued my work in one form or another, I am grateful.

I am also grateful to Dr. Ron Horton who provided direction and focus to my literary analysis both in person and through his invaluable Companion to College English. Dr. Caren Silvester unselfishly proofread large portions of the dissertation, offering many helpful stylistic suggestions. Dr. Tom Ragle, a former Oxford don and personal friend from my time in China, kindly read the entire dissertation and encouraged me throughout. My parents, Drs. Allan and Nadine Brown, and my brother, Nathan Brown, read virtually every chapter as well as many rough drafts, frequently providing substantive suggestions. Special thanks are due to Dolly Wong. In addition to proofreading individual chapters and the entire dissertation, her frequent skepticism about the viability of my ideas challenged me to hone my arguments and refine my presentation.

I also wish to acknowledge Mrs. Pat LeMaster of the J. S. Mack Library, whose untiring help in obtaining interlibrary loan materials has been deeply appreciated. My dear wife, Marianne, entered this process at the half-way mark. She graciously indexed the Scripture references throughout the dissertation and endured the long hours and occasional loneliness necessitated by the project without complaint. She is truly an ly!j^-tv#a@. Thanks is also due to Dr. Steve Buckley and Dr. Gladie Stroup of the Office of Extended Education who encouraged and supported me with a flexible work schedule.

Finally, none of this would have been possible apart from the grace of my Lord Jesus Christ. He has sustained me both physically and spiritually over the last three and a half years, and, more importantly, deepened my appreciation of the beauty of His character as revealed in the Book of Ezra. To Him be all the glory and praise.

Introduction to A Literary and Theological Analysis of the Book of Ezra

“There is a time to break and a time to build … a time to rend and a time to sew.”1 With such words the Preacher summarizes the balancing tensions of life under the sun. Even within the narrow compass of Ezra’s ten chapters, this Solomonic merismus proves true. Constructing the temple, restoring the worship of Yahweh, and building national spiritual integrity necessitated breaking cultural and even marital bonds. Beyond those challenges, the Book of Ezra engages the existential tensions implicit in post-exilic Israel. Being “in the world, but not of the world” and trusting the “good hand of God” when confronted with the secular fist were among the more prominent problems the Israelites faced. Above and behind, yet provoking and controlling these antitheses, resides the center point of Ezra’s narrative, the God of Heaven. A narrative account of the first and second returns from exile, the Book of Ezra addresses these issues with a distinctly theological message that deserves careful attention.

Difficulties

Not unexpectedly, the student of Ezra’s theological message encounters a daunting array of difficulties in matters introductory, textual, theological, and methodological. Questions concerning the authorship and compositional relationship of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah surface more frequently than any others. Running a close second are issues surrounding the dates of Ezra and Nehemiah and their chronological position within Persian history. The historical progress of the text’s development into its present form and the disparate materials of Ezra’s narrative—lists, historical details, autobiography, court records, prayers—also pose problematic questions of literary coherence and theological intention. Other challenges include the absence of an explicit theological orientation, such as one finds in Chronicles, and the presence of theologically anomalous material: mandated divorce in Ezra 9-10. Perhaps the most formidable task confronting this dissertation is methodological: it must wed harmoniously two lines of inquiry, the literary and the Biblical-theological, that have typically been separated both in presupposition and in development.

Need

Despite the compelling challenges attending the Book of Ezra, no one has written a full-length treatment of its theological message and literary structure. This deficiency stems primarily from the consensus of OT scholarship, liberal and conservative alike, that Ezra is a component of a single literary work: Ezra-Nehemiah.2The primary reason advanced in support the literary unity of Ezra-Nehemiah is the fact that most ancient manuscripts, rabbinic literature, and early church fathers attest to this unity. In Codex Alexandrinus, the Aleppo, Codex and Leningrad Codex, Ezra-Nehemiah forms a single book. The Talmud (Babba Bathra 14b, 15a, and B. Sanh. 93b) as well as Melito of Sardis appear to view them as a unity. Tamara. C. Eskenazi, In An Age of Prose (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 11-12. For a thorough recitation and review of this evidence, see H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, vol. 16 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Waco: Word Books, Publisher, 1985), xxi-xxiii. Conservatives who regard Ezra and Nehemiah as distinct literary compositions generally cite the presence of the list of Returnees in Ezra 2 and Nehemiah 7 as indicative of separate composition. To this may also be added the clear evidence that the plot of Ezra 7-10 reaches its denouement in chapter ten. Hypotheses concerning the rationale for the early combination of these two book may be found in Edward J. Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1952), 369. Nonetheless, all who outline Ezra-Nehemiah recognize Ezra as a distinct unit of thought development. It possesses an undeniable integrity that merits its own theological analysis. That Ezra is not designed to be a historical chronicle of the post-exilic period, or even the rebuilding of the temple, is also recognized by conservative and liberal scholars alike.3 Its selectivity alone warrants this conclusion. The Book of Ezra presents, rather, a theologically charged narrative. The choice of this historiographic mode and the narrative poetic it invokes makes understanding its communicative strategies a prerequisite for grasping its theological message. Though the narrative form does not control the content of Ezra’s message, it does distribute meaning along unique lines—lines to which one must attend lest he read less than the author wrote, or infer more than the author meant.4

Theologically, the Book of Ezra possesses a dual significance. Together with Nehemiah, it forms the capstone of Old Testament history, yielding the only coverage of the post-exilic returns from Cyrus to Artaxerxes I. Looking forward, it also contributes to the last span of the bridge extending into intertestamental silence. As such, it helps lay the groundwork for the revelation of God’s final word, the Messiah. Apart from its challenging literary character, the universal nature of the problems Ezra addresses should impel one to study this book for the normative theology it contains.

Previous Works

The thesis that comes the closest to a theology of Ezra is a 1991 Ph.D. dissertation by Felisi Sorgwe , “The Canonical Shape of Ezra-Nehemiah and its Theological and Hermeneutical Implications.”5 Sorgwe discusses historical-critical, canonical, and Masoretic approaches to interpretation, the authorship of Ezra-Nehemiah, similarities and dissimilarities between the canonical shapes of Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles, and the theological interrelations between Ezra-Nehemiah and the rest of the OT canon. However, he devotes only one chapter to the isolation of nine theological themes whose composite message is “the calling and molding of Israel by God to be a worshiping community.”6 His brevity and combined treatment of Ezra and Nehemiah limit this chapter’s value as a theological analysis of Ezra. At present the only full-length treatment of Ezra from a literary perspective is Tamara Eskenazi ’s Ph.D. dissertation, “In An Age of Prose: A Literary Approach to Ezra-Nehemiah.”7 She examines Ezra-Nehemiah’s narrative structure, use of repetition, characterization, and interaction of viewpoints to locate its central ideology. She does not, however, deal with Ezra’s use of dialogue or informational gapping, and her choice to bracket all historical questions appears to have blinded her to one of Ezra’s most prominent literary strategies: temporal ordering. Her work also suffers from the assumption that Ezra and Nehemiah were not contemporaries, thus skewing her analysis of perspective and characterization.8 Other theses discuss topics tangential to Ezra’s theology and literary character,9 but none develop these aspects of Ezra proper.

Historically, Old Testament theologians have approached their task along thematic lines, attempting to distill the Old Testament’s theological essence from its disparate parts. Not surprisingly, then, relatively few OT theologies develop the theological message of OT books. The advent of Brevard S. Childs ’s canonical approach to OT studies,10 coincident with burgeoning interest in “the Bible as literature,” has provided impetus to understanding the communicative intent of scriptural texts in their canonical form.11 Despite the large number of OT theologies produced in the wake of this interest, only two devote any serious attention to the theology of Ezra. Eugene H. Merrill offers an insightful chapter on “The Theology of Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther” in A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament.12 Merrill ’s theology develops two themes from Ezra-Nehemiah: the person and actions of God, and the people of God. In his Old Testament Theology, Paul R. House dedicates a chapter to the theology of Ezra-Nehemiah.13 Despite his hyphenated title, he formulates his theological themes sectionally,14 rather than treating Ezra-Nehemiah as a literary complex with a pervasive theological unity. As is apparent from the foregoing chapter titles, no OT theology provides an analysis of the theology of Ezra proper. House ’s sectional treatment comes nearest this mark, but its survey approach limits the depth of its theological sounding.

A few OT introductions give brief summaries of the literary features and theology of Ezra. Raymond Dillard and Tremper Longman present a short analysis of Ezra’s generic features and its “theological message.”15 William Lasor , David Hubbard , and Frederic Bush note the literary effects of Ezra’s thematic concerns on his presentation of chronology (specifically in chapter four). Their theological summary suggests four themes spanning both Ezra and Nehemiah.16 In Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, Brevard Childs proposes an overarching literary structure and three theological themes that support the integrity of Ezra-Nehemiah’s canonical shape.17

The number of periodical articles that deal with Ezra’s theology or literary character can be counted on one hand. William Dumbrell attempts to demonstrate how Ezra-Nehemiah preserves the “theological tenor” of post-exilic eschatological expectation in relation to the restoration of the temple, the return from captivity as a “second Exodus,” and the rebuilding of Jerusalem.18 F. C. Fensham examines several themes in Ezra and Nehemiah as a means of understanding how the “Chronicler” uses his sources theologically.19 J. G. McConville ’s study highlights Ezra-Nehemiah’s use of prophecy to engender hope for the future of Israel despite her unsatisfactory condition at present.20 Writing from a literary perspective, Tamara Eskenazi discusses the literary structure of Ezra-Nehemiah and its implications for the book’s integrity.21

More recently published commentaries often contain summary discussions of the theological and literary features of Ezra (or Ezra-Nehemiah). Commentary authors who provide some limited discussion of these features include Edwin Yamauchi , F. C. Fensham , and Charles Wilson .22 Derek Kidner ’s concise treatment, although using systematic theological categories, reflects careful attention to the theological data of Ezra.23 Mervin Breneman ’s nine page section on the theology of Ezra-Nehemiah treats seven theological topics and also offers brief modern applications for each topic.24 H. G. M. Williamson presents a theological reading of Ezra-Nehemiah that attempts to do justice to its narrative form. His treatment comes the closest of any author to synthesizing the literary and theological elements of Ezra-Nehemiah.25 Two commentaries that focus entirely on the theological significance of Ezra are noteworthy as well: Mark Throntveit ’s Ezra-Nehemiah and J. G. McConville ’s Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.26 Both commentaries offer valuable theological observations, though McConville focuses primarily on exposing the relevance of Ezra for modern Christianity. Literary “commentaries” on the text of Ezra are few and far between. The earliest, by Buckner Trawick , offers a source-critical reading of Ezra-Nehemiah.27 Much more focused on genuinely literary elements, Shemaryahu Talmon briefly discusses narrative composition, structural devices, and the use of chronology in Ezra-Nehemiah.28 Douglas Green ’s chapter in A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible provides the most valuable overview of Ezra-Nehemiah’s literary character. He outlines the major themes of Ezra-Nehemiah and then analyzes the use of characterization and style in the development of those themes.29

Bible encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks offer, in general, somewhat meager treatments of Ezra’s theology or literary character. However, the articles in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, The Oxford Companion to the Bible, and the Holman Bible Handbook deserve honorable mention.30 Each presents some analysis of Ezra’s theological message. The most substantive offerings in this category are the articles in the New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis and the Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.31 Unique in its approach, the Dictionary of Biblical Imagery examines the primary image patterns in Ezra, giving noteworthy attention to the details of the text.32 Beyond recognizing Ezra’s diverse generic elements or macroscopic structural patterns, none of the surveyed encyclopedia, dictionary, or handbook articles offer an examination of the literary character of Ezra.

Delimitations

In keeping with the nature of this dissertation, certain delimitations necessarily apply. As a Biblical theology, it does not interact with or rebut critical theories of authorship, date, or textual history. It does not address textual critical issues or crux interpretum unless pertinent to the exegesis of a specific passage. It does not provide a verse-by-verse commentary on the text, nor does it treat all theological issues relevant to systematic theology. As a literary analysis, it does not attempt to rehearse or refute the protean forms of modern and post-modern literary criticism such as New Criticism, Structuralism, Reader-Response, or Deconstructionism.33 Although acknowledging the legitimacy of studying the purely aesthetic features of a narrative, this dissertation focuses solely on those narrative strategies that contribute to the reader’s understanding of Ezra’s message. The final delimitation involves Ezra’s historical background. One must understand Ezra’s message within the historical and prophetic context of the post-exilic period. Recent dissertations and monographs, however, provide more than adequate treatment of this material.34 Thus, historical materials are introduced only in those instances where they illuminate specific aspects of Ezra’s literary or theological character.

Subject and Methodology

This dissertation attempts to fill the need for a full-length analysis of the literary and theological character of the Book of Ezra. More specifically, it seeks to discern what Ezra’s theological message is and how Ezra communicates that message through his narrative. The tools for pursuing the separate analyses incorporated here, the literary analysis35 and the book theology,36 have received much attention over the past three decades. Typically, studies focus on the literary or the theological aspect of a book and make only passing mention of the other. How these analytical modes cooperate and complement each other in ascertaining narrative meaning remains, therefore, relatively uncharted territory.37 In order to achieve a holistic understanding of the Biblical text of Ezra, this study has employed the following methodology. The original text of Ezra (Hebrew and Aramaic) was translated and read repeatedly, and modern English versions were frequently consulted. Since Ezra’s literary form both precedes and embodies its theological function, literary analysis precedes Biblical-theological analysis. After summarizing the book’s central theological message, the dissertation concludes by demonstrating how Ezra develops this message along the narrative course.

The Application of Literary Analysis

Literary analysis is the careful examination of how an author’s compositional methods communicate his intended message.38 As such, it complements and provides guidance to the Biblical theologian’s search for a book’s theological message. The first step in literary analysis involves ascertaining the genre of the text under consideration. A text’s genre determines the general rules by which one should interpret it. Despite the diversity of its compositional elements, the Book of Ezra fits within the narrative genre. Therefore, the second step will focus on analyzing Ezra’s narrative strategies.39 The approach employed here moves from structural strategies that frame the narrative, such as temporal ordering and plot, to those that flesh out the narrative, such as characterization, dialogue, and point of view.Sternberg, 39-40, makes a strong point that none of the 8 “dimensions of Biblical form” are “differentiae of literary narrative”; i.e., features that distinguish literary narrative from other types of narrative. So I’m not making a facile assumption regarding the literariness of the Bible based on the inclusion of these element. Sternberg’s thesis is that the dominance/pervasiveness of the poetic function determines Scripture’s literariness. These elements are traced, not primarily to appreciate Ezra’s literary genius or his rhetorical control of reader interest, but rather with an eye to the ideological or theological constraints these strategies place on the reader.40 In other words, the controlling question of this literary analysis is, “What theological themes are being advanced, developed, or highlighted by the author’s narrative techniques?”

The Application of Biblical-Theological Analysis

Following the analysis of the peculiar themes advanced by Ezra’s narrative techniques, the Biblical-theological method is applied to the text. This method involves two main processes: (1) isolating and developing Ezra’s theological subthemes, and (2) summarizing the book’s central theological message. The first step proceeds by using the tools of historical-grammatical exegesis to extract any thematic material not discerned through literary analysis. The dissertation then arranges and develops these themes logically, employing categories suggested by the text rather than borrowing systematic theological categories. Once the subthemes have been clarified, the central message of the book is summarized. This summary exposes how the central theme relates to Ezra’s historical setting and incorporates the book’s subthematic material.

Hearing the Message in the Reading Process

Having unraveled the intricate theological weavings of a book and separated the various themes into piles, most book theologies consider their task complete.41 However, the unraveling process obscures the vital relationship between the precisely analyzed thematic piles and the book’s textual tapestry. The discerning reader may identify individual themes as he reads through the text, but a critical question remains unanswered: if that is the theological message, why did the author not say it that way? In other words, why did the author write a narrative and not a thematic essay?

Consider attending a lecture on “The Messiah” by Handel in which the lecturer discusses the oratorio’s musical instrumentation, dynamics, and harmonies. He analyzes Handel’s compositional techniques, answering such questions as did Handel utilize counterpoint, what melodic repetitions occur, and how do Handel’s juxtapositions, combinations, and isolations of instruments and vocal lines contribute to the overall mood and texture of his work. The lecturer then offers an insightful summary of the theological themes and central message of the oratorio. If, however, the lecturer were to close without demonstrating how all the oratorio’s parts cooperate in the process of communicating that central message, his analysis would be incomplete. In the same way, the Biblical theologian has not finished his task until he gains an understanding of how the book’s message emerges in the process of reading. In other words, the Biblical theologian does not fully appreciate a book’s theological message until he understands how to hear that message in the process of reading the book.

Conclusion

In keeping with this methodology, this dissertation proceeds according to the following plan. Chapters One and Two deal with macroscopic structuring in Ezra: genre and temporal ordering. Chapter Three analyzes plot composition and dialogue. Chapter Four examines Ezra’s use of point of view and characterization. Chapters Five through Seven delineate the themes Ezra develops regarding Yahweh’s character, the importance of holiness, the Returnees’ continuity with pre-exilic Israel, and hope for the Returnees’ future. Chapter Seven concludes by showing how these themes meld into the central theological message of Ezra’s book. By tracing the emergence of Ezra’s theological message in the reading process, Chapter Eight provides a reader’s guide to the theological message of Ezra. Chapter Nine summarizes the conclusions made throughout the dissertation and then offers suggestions for further study and the homiletical use of Ezra.


1 Ecclesiastes 3:3 , 7 . All Scripture quotations will be the author’s translation, unless otherwise noted.

2 For a full recitation and discussion of the evidence supporting this position, see H. G. M. Williamson , vol. 16 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Waco: Word Books, Publisher, 1985), xxi-xxiii. For contrary argumentation supporting the distinct literary compostion of Ezra, see David Kraemer , “On the Relationship of the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah,” JSOT 59 (1993): 74-76, or C. F. Keil , “Ezra,” in vol. 4 of Commentary on the Old Testament, trans. Sophia Taylor (1866-91; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1996), 5-7.

3 F. U. Schultz states, “The books of Ezra and Nehemiah by no means intend to narrate the history of the entire period which they embrace… . This is clear not only from what they narrate, but also from that which they omit.” The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, trans. and ed. by Charles A. Briggs, vol. 7 of Lange’s Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, ed. Philip Schaff (1871; reprint, Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, n.d.), 3. For similar comments by a liberal commentator, see Joseph Blenkinsopp , Ezra-Nehemiah (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1988), 41.

4 As Ronald A. Horton so aptly states, “Because God saw fit to give supernatural character to human verbal materials, the Bible must be studied as human communication that uses the same verbal resources available to writers not supernaturally inspired. We can study its poetry as poetry, its allegory as allegory, its irony as irony, its artful structuring as artful structuring… . To know the Bible as a work of literature is to have … expanded our abilities to appropriate its truth.” Companion to College English, 2d ed. (Greenville: Bob Jones University Press, 2000), 254.

5 (Ph.D. diss., Baylor University, 1991), 133-76.

6 Sorgwe , 175. The author’s abstract expands his statement of Ezra-Nehemiah’s message, adding the phrase “so that the people might become an instrument of blessing to all the nations” (v). He fails, however, to provide any data to substantiate his claim that Ezra-Nehemiah presents Israel as an agent of universal blessing.

7 Tamara C. Eskenazi , “In An Age of Prose: A Literary Approach to Ezra-Nehemiah” (Ph.D. diss., Illiff School of Theology and The University of Denver [Colorado Seminary], 1986). Eskenazi’s dissertation has been revised and published as In An Age of Prose: A Literary Approach to Ezra-Nehemiah (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988). All subsequent references to In An Age of Prose will refer to this book.

8 Eskenazi admits the potential weakness of her analysis: “If it could be proven that Ezra and Nehemiah were, in fact, contemporaries, the significance of the pairing in the book would have to be reevaluated.” In an Age of Prose, 176-77.

9 For example, Doug Nykolaishen examines “The Use of Jeremiah 31 in the Book of Ezra” (M.A. thesis, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 1991); Timothy D. Lehman explores “The Role of the Priest in the Education of Post-Exilic Israel: Educational Insights from the Life of Ezra” (M.Div. thesis, Grace Theological Seminary, 1984).

10 Brevard S. Childs , Biblical Theology in Crisis (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1970). Childs develops his approach further in Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979) and Old Testament Theology in Canonical Context (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986). This approach was “new” only in the sense that an accepted voice within critical circles was now advocating what conservative scholars have been practicing for years: taking the canonical form of Scripture as a serious object of theological study.

11 What properly is a part of the canon is a discussion usually resolved in favor of accepting, for the Old Testament, the Masoretic Text as the “received text” of the Hebrew Bible. For a concise discussion of this issue, see Robert Alter and Frank Kermode , “General Introduction,” in The Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. Robert Alter and Frank Kermode (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987), 1-8.

12 Eugene H. Merrill , “A Theology of Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther,” in A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, ed. Roy B. Zuck (Chicago: Moody Press, 1991), 189-201.

13 Paul R. House , Old Testament Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 512-18. House makes a distinctive contribution to OT Theology. Following the Masoretic canon both in order and book division, he exposes each book’s theological perspective on the person and works of God and offers a “canonical synthesis” that traces the relations of the parts to the whole of Scripture.

14 House sees Ezra 1-6 revealing “the God who restores the remnant to the land,” and Ezra 7-10 revealing “the God who purifies the remnant.”

15 Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), 184-86.

16 Their four themes are (1) religious continuity, (2) temple and torah, (3) the importance of documents, and (4) future divine interventions. William S. Lasor , David A. Hubbard , and Frederic W. Bush , Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996), 557-65.

17 Childs contends that a deliberately manipulated chronology provides the structure in which “author or editor” of Ezra-Nehemiah develops the following themes: (1) Divine “use of foreign rulers,” (2) continuing opposition, and (3) separation from foreigners (624-38).

18 William J. Dumbrell , “The Theological Intention of Ezra-Nehemiah,” Reformed Theological Review 45 no. 3 (1986): 65-72.

19 F. C. Fensham , “Some Theological and Religious Aspects in Ezra and Nehemiah,” JNSL 11 (1983): 59-68. He examines five themes: the divine names, God as the Lord of history, religious discipline, a sense of guilt, and a living relationship with God.

20 J. G. McConville , “Ezra-Nehemiah and the Fulfillment of Prophecy,” VT 36 (1986): 203-24.

21 Tamara C. Eskenazi , “The Structure of Ezra-Nehemiah and the Integrity of the Book,” JBL 107 (1988): 641-56.

22 Edwin M. Yamauchi , “Ezra-Nehemiah,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1985), 4:565-98; F. Charles Fensham , The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R. K. Harrison (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982), 16-19; Charles R. Wilson , “Joshua-Esther,” vol. 1, pt. 2 of The Wesleyan Bible Commentary, ed. Charles W. Carter (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1967), 436.

23 Derek Kidner , Ezra and Nehemiah, The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, ed. D. J. Wiseman (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1979), 20-27.

24 Mervin Breneman , Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, vol. 10 of The New American Commentary, ed. E. Ray Clendenen (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1993), 50-58.

25 Ezra, Nehemiah, xlviii-lii.

26 Mark A. Throntveit , Ezra-Nehemiah, in Interpretation (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1992); J. G. McConville , Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, The Daily Study Bible (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1985).

27 Buckner B. Trawick , “Establishment of a Church State after the Exile,” in The Bible as Literature, ed. Buckner B. Trawick, 2d ed. (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1970), 137-49. Trawick’s chapter rearranges the text and then summarizes the books’ contents, adding a few explanatory glosses. His brief discussion of differences between Ezra-Nehemiah and 1 Esdras, an apocryphal account of the return from exile, is the chapter’s one redeeming feature.

28 Shemaryahu Talmon , “Ezra and Nehemiah,” in The Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. Robert Alter and Frank Kermode (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987), 357-64. Although Talmon argues for the possibility of the separate authorship of Ezra and Nehemiah, he combines them in his analysis.

29 Douglas Green , “Ezra-Nehemiah,” in A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. Leland Ryken and Tremper Longman III (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993), 206-13.

30 David Noel Freedman, ed., “Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 2:731-41; F. Charles Fensham , “Ezra, The Book of,” The Oxford Companion to the Bible, ed. Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 219-21; D. C. Martin , “Ezra,” Holman Bible Handbook. ed. David S. Dockery (Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 1992), 465-66. Martin’s article gives helpful, though brief, attention to Ezra’s “Purpose and Theology” as well as its “Theological and Ethical Significance.”

31 P. E. Satterthwaite focuses on the themes of restoration, the returnee’s solidarity with pre-exilic Israel, and God’s initiative in the return. “Ezra: Theology of,” NIDOTTE, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), 4:635-37. Paul Ferguson discusses the following themes: God’s sovereignty, works, immanence, grace, and holiness; Scripture; the people of God; the means of grace; leadership and ministry; and, ethics and congregational polity. “Ezra, Theology of,” Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1996), 233-35

32 Leland Ryken , James C. Wilhoit, and Tremper Longman III, eds., “Ezra, Book of,” Dictionary of Biblical Imagery (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 257-58.

33 While each of these theories builds on a few valid observations about literature, they all ramify in ways that deny other literary essentials. For example, Reader-Response criticism begins with a recognition that every reader brings to a text a pre-understanding, yet it concludes that such a pre-understanding renders authorial intention irrelevant and that every reader creates his own meaning in interaction with the text. For an introductory critique of these theories see Tremper Longman III, Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation, vol. 3 of Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation, ed. Moiss Silva (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1987), 103-23. Grant R. Osborne gives a more rigorous analysis of these theories and their implications for hermeneutics in The Hermeneutical Spiral (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1991), 365-415. For an extended historical treatment of literary approaches to Scripture, see David Norton , A History of the Bible as Literature, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

34 Consult Timothy W. Berrey , “A Theological Analysis of the Book of Zechariah” (Ph.D. diss., Bob Jones University, 1999), 17-40, for a helpful treatment of the period from Cyrus’s edict through the reign of Darius I. For a survey of the Persian Empire and its relation to the Bible, see Edwin M. Yamauchi , Persia and the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990); K. G. Hoglund , Achaemenid Imperial Administration in Syria-Palestine and the Missions of Ezra and Nehemiah (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992); Ephraim Stern , Material Culture of the Land of the Bible in the Persian Period 538-332 B.C. (Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, Ltd., 1982); J. M. Cook, The Persian Empire (New York: Schocken Books, 1983). Edwin M. Yamauchi discusses archeology’s contributions to Ezra studies in his article, “The Archaeological Background of Ezra,” Bibliotheca Sacra 137 (1980): 195-211. For a helpful bibliography on the archeological background of Ezra and Nehemiah, see Shemaryahu Talmon , “Ezra and Nehemiah (Books and Men),” Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Suppl. vol., ed. Keith Crim (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1976), 328.

35 Helpful works on narrative analysis, more or less approaching the text from a conservative perspective, include Tremper Longman ’s Literary Approaches to Interpreting
the Bible
; Richard L. Pratt , Jr., He Gave Us Stories (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1990); Meir Sternberg , The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985); Leland Ryken , Words of Delight: A Literary Introduction to the Bible, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1987). Other significant contributions, whose critical presuppositions occasionally skew their analyses, include Robert Alter ’s The Art of Biblical Narrative (New York: Basic Books, 1983), Adele Berlin , Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1994); and J. P. Fokkelman , Reading Biblical Narrative: An Introductory Guide, trans. Ineke Smit (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999).

36 While Biblical Theology, as a unique discipline, is over two hundred years old, the proper method for doing book theologies remains a relatively new area of development. In his 1979 dissertation, Terry Rude offered one of the first definitions of a book theology: “The Biblical theology of a scriptural book may … be defined as the analysis of the book as a divinely inspired literary unit in order to discern, set forth, and corroborate its theological message.” “Imperative and Response: A Theology of Deuteronomy” (Ph.D. diss., Bob Jones University, 1979), 5. Gerhard F. Hasel has since championed the book theology as the first step in his “multiplex approach” to doing Old Testament Theology. Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate, 4th ed. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991), 111-14, 194-208. For further discussion, consult Rodney K. Duke , “A Model for a Theology of Biblical Historical Narratives Proposed and Demonstrated with the Books of Chronicles,” in History and Interpretation: Essays in Honour of John H. Hayes, ed. M. Patrick Graham, William P. Brown, and Jeffrey K. Kuan (Sheffield: Sheffield Press, 1993), 65-77; Elmer A. Martens , “Accessing Theological Readings of a Biblical Book,” Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 (1996): 223-37; and Richard Schultz , “Integrating Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Literary, Thematic, and Canonical Issues,” NIDOTTE, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), 1:185-205. Martens also supplies a helpful bibliography on book theologies in Old Testament Theology, Institute for Biblical Research Bibliographies, no. 13 (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997), 94-110.

37 Though J. Barton Payne lists “literary studies” as a crucial element in Biblical Theology, by “literary” he refers only to textual criticism and higher critical studies. The Theology of the Older Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1962), 20-21. John Sailhamer explicitly addresses the literary nature of OT narratives but limits his comments primarily to its mimetic or representational function. Introduction to Old Testament Theology: A Canonical Approach (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1995), 43-54. Grant Osborne , however, recognizes the necessity of both elements in interpreting narrative: “the interpretation of narrative has two aspects: poetics, which studies the artistic dimension or the way the text is constructed by the author; and meaning, which re-creates the message that the author is communicating” (154).

38 Alter defines literary analysis as “the manifold varieties of minutely discriminating attention to the artful use of language, to the shifting play of ideas, conventions, tone, sound, imagery, syntax, narrative viewpoint, compositional units, and much else” (12).

39 In his book, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative, Meir Sternberg enumerates eight narrative features that comprise the central elements in Biblical poetics: “(1) Temporal ordering, especially where the actual sequence diverges from the chronological; (2) Analogical design: parallelism, contrast, variation, recurrence, symmetry, chiasm; (3) Point of view, e.g., the teller’s powers and manipulations, shifts in perspective from external to internal rendering or from narration to monologue and dialogue; (4) Representational proportions: scene, summary, repetition; (5) Informational gapping and ambiguity; (6) Strategies of characterization and judgment; (7) Modes of coherence, in units ranging from a verse to a book; (8) The interplay of verbal and compositional pattern” (39). While terminology may differ, the literary analysis offered here deal with the majority of these narrative strategies.

40 Sternberg proposes that all narrative is “regulated by a set of three principles: ideological, historiographic, and aesthetic” (41). In the same vein, Leland Ryken speaks of “three impulses that we find intertwined through the Bible”: theology, history, and literature (Words of Delight, 14). How these regulative principles cooperate in Biblical narrative is, as Sternberg notes, “a tricky question” (ibid.). To deal fully with the interrelations of these three narrative controls in the Book of Ezra is beyond the scope of this dissertation. In keeping with its Biblical-theological aim, the literary analysis section of this dissertation focuses specifically on the contribution of the aesthetic principle to the theological message of Ezra.

41 For example, J. Frederick Creason defines a book theology as “an analysis which divorces the components of [a book’s] message from their literary structure, arranges them topically, and lays them open for a careful investigation.” “A Biblical Theology of Judges” (Ph.D. diss., Bob Jones University, 1985), 1-2.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

Conclusion to A Literary and Theological Analysis of the Book of Ezra

The objective of this dissertation was to answer two questions: what is the theological message of Ezra, and how does its literary composition communicate that message? Since Ezra’s literary form both precedes and embodies its theological function, Chapters One through Four analyzed the narrative’s temporal ordering, plot, point of view, and characterization for indications of its theological themes. Chapters Five through Seven organized these themes topically and traced their development through the narrative, concluding (in Chapter Seven) with a demonstration how each theme contributes to the narrative’s central theological message. In order to finish answering the question of how the narrative communicates its message, Chapter Eight synthesized the foregoing literary and theological analyses and traced the development of Ezra’s theological message as the narrative unfolds. This chapter will summarize the conclusions reached in the three parts of this dissertation, and it will offer suggestions regarding areas that hold potential for further study.

Literary Analysis

Chapter One analyzes the use of temporal notations, chronology, and anachrony in Ezra. Despite the narrative’s chronological appearance, attention to temporal notation discerns four instances of anachronous arrangement: (1) the shift from Artaxerxes back to Darius in 4:23-24 , (2) the non-chronological relationship of 7-10 to 4:8-23 , (3) the reference to Artaxerxes in 6:14 , and (4) the end-before-beginning arrangement of Ezra’s return in 7:1-9 . After suggesting the historical order of the events,498 Chapter One examines the four instances of anachrony, concluding that Ezra’s anachronous arrangement of the narrative events accomplishes at least five major purposes. First, the topical arrangement of 4:6-23 proves that the “peoples of the lands” are indeed the enemies of God’s people. Second, the concatenation of the incidents of opposition faced under Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes in 4:6-23 suggests that they are analogous. Therefore, the reversal of the opposition under Darius in 5:1-6:22 argues that just as God transformed past hostility, He can transform the hostility the Returnees were currently facing under Artaxerxes. Third, the anachronous inclusion of Artaxerxes with Cyrus and Darius in 6:14 unites both plots in magnifying God’s sovereignty over His people’s rulers. Fourth, the end-before-beginning arrangement of Ezra’s return minimizes narrative suspense in order to maximize the reader’s awareness of Yahweh’s gracious goodness. Fifth, Ezra’s non-chronological arrangement of the narrative isolates all external problems to the first plot (1-6 ) so that the second plot can end with the narrative’s main point: the Returnees’ future hinges not on external problems but upon personal holiness.

Chapter Two rounds out the analysis of temporal ordering in Ezra by examining the historical order of Ezra and Nehemiah, the three major approaches to the chronological anomalies in Ezra, and the narrative’s temporal proportions. After analyzing the evidence adduced by critics in support of the position that Ezra followed Nehemiah, this chapter concludes that the critical claims do not hold up under scrutiny. There is no reason to reject the Biblical presentation that Ezra preceded and ministered together with Nehemiah during his governorship. The second section argues that both external and internal evidence indicate that the narrative was deliberately arranged non-chronologically: (1) the MT, Esdras b (LXX), Syriac, and Qumran fragments (4QEzra) support the current order of the text; (2) philological analysis of the Persian monarch’s names in Ezra 4 supports the traditional identification of Ahasuerus with Xerxes and Artachshashta with Artaxerxes; (3) the liberal use of temporal notations throughout the narrative argues that the author was fully aware of the historical order of the events he narrates; and (4) the sequential appearance of 4:23 and 4:24 may be explained as an instance of resumptive repetition. The final section of this chapter contends that that 80:1 ratio of time between Ezra 1-6 and 7-10 and the concentration of temporal parity in the documents and dialogues of 7-10 indicate that the narrative’s temporal proportioning focuses the reader’s attention on the final episode.

Chapter Three analyzes the structure and composition of Ezra’s plots. Following a survey of the various approaches to plot analysis, plot is defined as “the united sequence of events” in a narrative. In order to determine the structure and boundaries of Ezra’s plot, three models of plot structure are applied to the narrative: Aristotle’s beginning-middle-end model, Freytag’s model of conflict development and resolution, and a second Aristotelian model tracing the rise and fall of the protagonist’s fortune. The application of each model yields a two-plot structure in Ezra (plot 1: Ezra 1-6 ; plot 2: Ezra 7-10 ). The largest segment of Chapter Three explores Ezra’s selection, arrangement, and presentation of the narrative events for indications of the narrative’s theological message. The selection of plot events involves both omission and inclusion. A comparative analysis of Haggai and Zechariah with Ezra reveals that Ezra omits the Returnees’ selfish decision not to build the temple in order to highlight the relentless opposition of the peoples of the lands. Building on Seymour Chatman ’s analysis of the logical hierarchy of events in a plot,499 the section on plot inclusions analyzes the kernel and satellite events of Ezra’s two plots. Yahweh’s sovereign power and His faithfulness to His word are the primary themes of the kernel events in Ezra 1-6 . The kernel events in Ezra 7-10 develop Yahweh’s gracious goodness and the importance of holiness in the Returnees’ relationship with Yahweh. The arrangement of events in Ezra primarily follows the standard logic of cause-effect. Two deviations from this ordering principle (1:5 ; 6:22 ) reverse reader expectation to highlight the sovereign activity of Yahweh, and a third (4:6-24 ) temporarily defers the reader’s awareness that the conflict in 4:8-23 is not resolved until the end of the narrative. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the narrative’s elements of scenic discourse: letters, dialogues, decrees, and prayers. In Ezra 1-6 , scenic discourse develops the theme of opposition to God’s people and contributes to the theme of God’s sovereign power. In Ezra 7-10 , scenic discourse advances the primary themes of this section: God’s goodness and the importance of holiness.

Chapter Four examines the four techniques that distinguish Ezra’s use of point of view from that of other Biblical narrators: narratorial intrusion, shifts between third- and first-person narration, use of internal perspective, and direct characterization. The narratorial intrusions in Ezra are either elaborative or explanatory in nature. The narrator’s elaborative intrusions, which primarily develop the origin, authority, and importance of the law, reveal his deep concern with keeping the law. His explanatory intrusions support the conclusion that the sovereign power and gracious goodness of Yahweh are two of the book’s major themes. In addition to their rhetorical effects, the shifts between third- and first-person narration in Ezra 7-10 identify the narrator as Ezra the scribe and thereby grant the reader direct access to the narrator’s theological point of view. The inclusion of multiple points of view in chapters nine and ten strengthens the conclusion that unfaithfulness to Yahweh was the primary problem with the Returnees’ mixed-marriages. The analysis of internal perspective and direct characterization concludes that these techniques support the narrative’s negative picture of the peoples of the lands and present Ezra as a positive model of holiness.

Theological Analysis

After reviewing the themes identified in Chapters One through Four, Chapter Five identifies the three focal points around which the narrative revolves (Yahweh, the Returnees, and the relationship between them) and then develops the themes relating to Yahweh’s character. The Book of Ezra highlights four main aspects of Yahweh’s character: His sovereign power, faithfulness, goodness, and righteousness. The theme of Yahweh’s sovereign power develops as the narrative shows Yahweh controlling the hearts of men. The greatest potentates of the Persian world (Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes) make decrees and their subjects (the Returnees) take action in response to Yahweh stirring their spirits to accomplish His purposes. The narrative’s account of Yahweh’s behind-the-scenes triumph over the opposition to His people further magnifies His sovereign power. The thematic development of Yahweh’s faithfulness has two foci in the narrative: His word through Jeremiah and His people. After surveying Jeremiah’s restoration promises, Chapter Five demonstrates that Ezra records the fulfillment of no less than eight specific Jeremian promises. Ezra portrays Yahweh’s faithfulness to His people through various testimonies to His loyal lovingkindness. The most powerful of these testimonies occurs in Ezra’s prayer where he acknowledges that despite Israel’s great guilt, Yahweh did not abandon them in their servitude. Ezra’s picture of Yahweh’s gracious goodness develops through narratorial comments informing the reader that a given event was the result of “the good hand of God,” praise at the founding of the temple, Yahweh’s restoration and reviving of His people, and the rationale Yahweh gives for commanding His people to separate from the uncleanness of the surrounding nations. The theme of Yahweh’s righteousness involves both His justice, shown in past judgment for sin, and His mercy, shown in preserving an escaped remnant of His people. Chapter Five concludes by suggesting that the divine titles used for Yahweh, while not developing a narrative theme, nonetheless imply that Yahweh, the God of Israel, is the one supreme God who rules both heaven and earth.

From an examination of five narrative events that develop the theme of holiness, Chapter Six argues that Ezra presents separation as the heart of holiness. Holiness’ separation necessarily involves both positive and negative orientations. Negatively, holiness requires separation from all that is common or unclean. Ezra’s hallowing of twelve priests to guard the holy vessels dedicated to Yahweh illustrates holiness’s separation from the common or ordinary. The Returnees’ refusal to permit their syncretistic neighbors to help rebuild the temple and the proselytes’ separation of themselves from the “uncleanness of the lands” (6:22 ) provide two illustrations of holiness’s separation in the spiritual realm. Positively, holiness involves separating oneself wholly unto Yahweh. This positive separation is the outflow of a heart set to seek Yahweh and manifests itself in obedience to His law. The narrative portrayal of Ezra’s personal relationship with Yahweh and his commitment to study, practice, and teach the law models the positive orientation of holiness. Ezra 8:22 enunciates the relevance of this theme to the narrative’s audience: “The hand of our God is upon all those who are seeking Him for good and His strength and His wrath are against all those abandoning Him” (8:22 ). The primary conclusion of this chapter is that Ezra 8:22 establishes the principle that holiness is the key to the Returnees’ relationship to Yahweh. Without holiness there is no hope of receiving His future blessings. If, on the other hand, they will set their hearts to seek Him and separate themselves from the uncleanness of the peoples of the lands, the good hand of God will again be upon them.

Chapter Seven concludes the dissertation’s analyses of Ezra’s theological themes. It examines the narrative elements that establish the Returnees’ continuity with their past and demonstrates how all of the book’s theological themes work together to answer the question, “Is there hope for Israel?” The first section of the chapter argues that the Returnees’ genealogical, geographical, national, and spiritual continuity with pre-exilic Israel authenticates their implicit claim to be the true remnant of God’s chosen people Israel. These elements of continuity also affirm the enduring importance of continuity with their past. At the same time, the ironic exposure of the Returnees’ continuity in guilt with their fathers exposes the limitations of a focus on continuity and argues that such a focus must be guided by an overriding concern for holiness. The second section of the chapter proposes that the question motivating Ezra’s narrative interpretation of post-exilic history is “Is there hope for Israel?” After summarizing the contention of some scholars that the Book of Ezra has nothing to say about hope for the future, the thematic elements that contribute to this motif are examined. Ezra’s answer to this question is that their history demonstrates that Yahweh’s sovereign power can overcome their enemies, that He is faithful to His promises, that He is disposed to be good to His people, and that their continuity with pre-exilic Israel authenticates them as the true remnant of His people. But their history also teaches that Yahweh is righteous and will not tolerate sin in His people. The key to their future is, therefore, not political accommodation or spiritual compromise but holiness: a steadfast allegiance to Yahweh that separates from all uncleanness and wholeheartedly obeys His law.

Literary-Theological Synthesis

Chapter Eight brings the dissertation’s analysis of the Book of Ezra to a conclusion by synthesizing its literary and theological analyses in a demonstration of how Ezra’s message develops along the line of the narrative. This chapter illuminates the relationship between the narrative’s theological message and the narrative itself. This is accomplished by tracing the theological themes introduced and developed by Ezra’s literary techniques in each section of the narrative. As the informed reader moves through the narrative, it becomes apparent that its thematic structuring was designed to highlight the relationship between Yahweh’s character and the Returnees’ conduct. The final section of the chapter analyzes the parallels and contrasts between Ezra’s plots, noting how they contribute to the message of the book.

Prospects for Further Study

The apocryphal book of 1 Esdras, which covers the same period of history as Ezra, includes material Ezra does not and arranges its material in a different order. A comparative analysis of the literary and theological aspects of 1 Esdras and Ezra would provide a demonstration of how a different literary setting alters the ideological emphasis of a narrative. It might also provide evidence for the superiority and inspiration of the canonical Ezra. Although Tamara C. Eskenazi devoted a chapter of her published dissertation to this topic, there is yet room for a more thorough investigation.500

The most significant aspect of one’s pre-understanding in approaching any book of Scripture is his view of inspiration. Genre identification, the nature of the Biblical narrator (reliable or unreliable) and his point of view (normative or arbitrary), the selection, arrangement, and presentation of plot events, the rationale for adherence to or deviation from chronological order—the doctrine of inspiration impinges on all these aspects of literary analysis. A wide spectrum of views exists regarding the significance of inspiration for literary analysis of the Bible. Kenneth R. R. Gros Louis emphatically rejects the doctrine of inspiration as a major obstacle to “studying the Bible as literature.”501 In a different vein, Meir Sternberg argues that “inspiration simply figures as an institutional rule for writing and reading; and it is no more liable to questioning than the Bible’s rules of grammar (or the reality of Hamlet’s ghost). To make sense of the Bible in terms of its own conventions, one need not believe in either, but one must postulate both.”502 To date no one has investigated the ramifications of the doctrine of inspiration for conservative narratology. Such an investigation would have the practical value of providing the conservative interpreter with a set of guidelines that would guard him from misusing literary analysis in his search for a fuller understanding of the message communicated by Biblical narratives.

Then and Now: Homiletical Values in Ezra

To most readers of Scripture, Ezra is a largely unknown and unappreciated book. Written during a period of Persian dominance, Ezra appears to be little more than a brief history of the first two returns of exiles from Babylonian captivity. As this dissertation has demonstrated, however, the Book of Ezra communicates a powerful message concerning the relationship between the character of Yahweh and the conduct of His people. In relation to His character, Ezra reveals Yahweh as the God of heaven and earth, who exercises sovereign control over history to fulfill His word, blessing those who seek Him and turning His strong wrath against those who abandon Him. The view of history presented in Ezra radically opposes modern secularism. History is not a closed continuum in which the actions of men ramify in cause-effect fashion. Not only does Yahweh’s sovereignty make Him the governor of human history, but it grants Him license to be an actor within history. All effects do not have merely human causes. God is an active participant in history, moving both king and subject to accomplish His ends. This picture of Yahweh’s sovereignty should be a great solace to the believer. It should also remind him that he serves the God who is in charge of history and who may be “entreated” by His people to intervene in their behalf (8:23 ).

Ezra also enunciates in propositional form the truth that Yahweh’s character and men’s conduct co-determine the relationship between them. Yahweh’s sovereignty knows no bounds, for He is the God of heaven and earth, without rival and without equal. Yet He has sovereignly chosen to grant men responsibility for their actions and make His relationship with them contingent upon their use of that responsibility. Ezra articulates this principle with a clarity equal to that of the parable of the potter’s house in Jeremiah 18 : “The hand of our God is upon those that seek Him for good, and His strength and His anger are against all those that abandon Him” (8:22 ).

The conduct that provokes Yahweh’s strong wrath is disobedience to His word and disloyalty to Him. The sad irony of the Returnees’ intermarriage with “foreign women” is that they were uniting with those who had consistently opposed the work of God. This danger still faces God’s people today, tempting them to deny their Lord through fleshly capitulation to the world’s enticements. On the other hand, the conduct which Yahweh blesses may be summed up in the word holiness. Holiness, as illustrated in Ezra, is essentially separation: separation from all that is common or defiling, and separation unto the Lord. Yahweh’s holiness demands that His people avoid any relationship that compromises their undivided loyalty to Him. The few glimpses of Ezra’s life given in the narrative illustrate that such whole-hearted devotion manifests itself in a passion for God’s word and humble dependence upon God. Holiness is no less the key to the believer’s experience of God’s blessing than it was for the Returnees living in the post-exilic period.


498 If arranged historically, the order of the text would be 1:1-4:5 ; 4:24-6:22 ; 4:6-7 ; 7:1-10 :44 ; 4:8-23 .

499 Seymour Chatman , Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1978), 53-56.

500 In an Age of Prose: A Literary Approach to Ezra-Nehemiah (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 155-74.

501 Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1982), 2:16-17

502 The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 81. In Sternberg ’s view, “inspiration is primarily nothing but a rule that governs the communication between writer and reader, licensing the access to privileged material (e.g., thoughts) that would otherwise remain out of bounds and giving all material the stamp of authority” (33).

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

References To God In Ezra

Expressions

Narrator or Jews

Samarians or Persians

God of heaven and earth

5:11

God of heaven

5:12

6:9, 10; 7:23 (2x)

law of the God of Heaven

7:12, 21

God of Israel who is in Jerusalem

7:15

God of Israel

3:2; 5:1; 6:14, 22; 8:35; 9:4

God who is in Jerusalem

6:18

1:3

God of Jerusalem

7:19

your God

4:2

our God

4:3; 8:21, 23; 9:8 (2x), 10, 13; 10:2

my God

9:6 (2x)

eye of their God

5:5

hand of his God

7:9

hand of our God

8:18, 22, 31

house of God which is in Jerusalem

4:24; 5:2, 16

house of the great God

5:8

house of their God

7:16

house of your God

7:17, 19, 20

house of our God

8:17, 25, 30, 33; 9:9

house of God

2:68; 3:8; 5:13, 14, 15; 6:16, 22; 8:36; 10:1, 6, 9

1:4; 5:17; 6:3, 5, 7 (2x), 12; 7:24

laws of your God

7:14, 25, 26

temple of God

3:9; 6:5, 17

Total: 63

38

25

Yahweh God of Heaven

1:2

Yahweh God of Israel

4:1, 3; 6:21; 7:6; 9:15

Yahweh God of our fathers

7:27

Yahweh God of your fathers

8:28, 10:11

House of Yahweh God of Israel

1:3

House of Yahweh

1:5, 7; 2:68; 3:8; 3:11, 7:27, 8:29

Temple of Yahweh

3:6, 10

word of Yahweh

1:1

appointed feasts of Yahweh

3:5

law of Yahweh

7:10

commandments of Yahweh

7:11

hand of Yahweh his/my God

7:6, 28

Yahweh my/our God

9:5, 8

Yahweh

1:1; 3:3, 6, 10, 11 2; 6:22; 7:27; 8:28, 36

Total: 35

33

2

Related Topics: Theology Proper (God), Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

Selected Bibliography for A Literary and Theological Analysis of the Book of Ezra

I. Literary Analysis

Books and Monographs

Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 4th ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981.

Alter, Robert. The Art of Biblical Narrative. New York: Basic Books, 1983.

Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Translated by Willard R. Trask. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953.

Avishur, Yitzhak. Studies in Biblical Narrative: Style, Structure, and the Ancient Near Eastern Literary Background. Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publication, 1999.

Bal, Mieke. Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. 2d ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.

Bar-Efrat, Shimon. Narrative Art in the Bible. Translated by Dorothea Shefer-Vanson. 2d ed. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989.

Berlin, Adele. Poetics and Biblical Interpretation. Sheffield: Almond Press, 1983; reprint, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1994.

Bloom, Edward A. The Order of Fiction: An Introduction. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press, 1964.

Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1961.

Brichto, Herbert Chanan. Toward a Grammar of Biblical Poetics: Tales of the Prophets. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Brooks, Peter. Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984.

Chatman, Seymour. Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978.

Dorsey, David A. The Literary Structure of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1999.

Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn. In an Age of Prose: A Literary Analysis of Ezra-Nehemiah. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.

Eslinger, Lyle. Into the Hands of the Living God. Sheffield: The Almond Press, 1989.

Exum, J. Cheryl, and David J. A. Clines, eds. The New Literary Criticism and the Hebrew Bible. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993.

Fokkelman, J. P. Narrative Art and Poetry in the Books of Samuel. Vol. 1: King David. Translated by George van Driem, Roy Vreeland, and Judith Frishman. Assen, The Netherlands, 1981.

________. Reading Biblical Narrative: An Introductory Guide. Translated by Ineke Smit. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999.

Forster, E. M. Aspects of the Novel. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1927.

Friedman, Norman. Form and Meaning in Fiction. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1975.

Genette, Grard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980.

Gibson, Andrew. Towards a Postmodern Theory of Narrative. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1996.

Golden, Leon and O. B. Hardison Jr., Aristotle’s Poetics: A Translation and Commentary for Students of Literature. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.

Good, Edwin M. Irony in the Old Testament. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1965.

Gros Louis, Kenneth R. R. Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives. Vol. 2. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1982.

Kermode, Frank. The Sense of an Ending. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Kort, Wesley A. Story, Text, and Scripture: Literary Interests in Biblical Narrative. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988.

Lanser, Susan S. The Narrative Act: Point of View in Prose Fiction. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.

Lewis, C. S. Reflections on the Psalms. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1958.

Licht, Jacob. Storytelling in the Bible. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1978.

Long, Philips V. The Art of Biblical History. Vol. 5 in Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.

Longman, Tremper III. Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation. In Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1987.

Lotman, Jurij. The Structure of the Artistic Text. Translated by Gail Lenhoff and Ronald Vroon. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977.

Norton, David. A History of the Bible as Literature. Vol. 2: From 1700 to the Present Day. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

O’Connell, Robert H. The Rhetoric of the Book of Judges. VTSup 63. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996.

Patrick, Dale and Allen Scult. Rhetoric and Biblical Interpretation. Sheffield: The Almond Press, 1990.

Pratt, Richard L. Jr. He Gave Us Stories: The Bible Student’s Guide to Interpreting Old Testament Narratives. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing, 1990.

Prickett, S. Words and the Word: Language Poetics and Biblical Interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987.

Rhoads, David and Donald Richie. Mark as Story: An Introduction to the Narrative of a Gospel. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982.

Ryken, Leland. How to Read the Bible as Literature. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.

________. Words of Delight: A Literary Introduction to the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1987.

Scholes, Robert. Approaches to the Novel. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1961.

Scholes, Robert and Robert Kellogg. The Nature of Narrative. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966.

Ska, Jean Louis. “Our Fathers Have Told Us”: Introduction to the Analysis of Hebrew Narratives. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1990.

Sternberg, Meir. Expositional Modes and Temporal Ordering. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978.

________. The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.

Uspensky, Boris. A Poetics of Composition. Translated by Valentina Zavarin and Susan Wittig. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.

Articles and Essays

Alter, Robert. “A Response to Critics.” JSOT 27 (1983): 113-17.

________. “Introduction to the Old Testament.” In The Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987.

________. “Sodom as Nexus: The Web of Design in Biblical Narrative.” In The Book and the Text: The Bible and Literary Theory. Edited by Regina Schwartz. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1990.

Bar-Efrat, Shimon. “Some Observations on the Analysis of Structure in Biblical Narrative.” VT 30 (1980): 154-173.

Berlin, Adele. “On the Bible as Literature.” Prooftexts 2 (1982): 323-27.

________. “Literary Exegesis of Biblical Narrative: Between Poetics and Hermeneutics.” In ‘Not In Heaven.’ Edited by Jason P. Rosenblatt and Joseph C. Sitterson, Jr. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.

Berlin, Adele and James Kugel. “On the Bible as Literature.” Prooftexts 2 (1982): 323-332.

Clines, D. J. A. “Story and Poem: The Old Testament as Literature and as Scripture.” Beyond Form Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism. SBTS 2. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992.

Crane, R. S. “The Concept of Plot and the Plot of ‘Tom Jones.’” In Critics and Criticism. Edited by R. S. Crane. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952.

Culler, Jonathan. “Defining Narrative Units.” In Style and Structure in Literature. Edited by Roger Fowler. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975.

Du Rand, J. A. “Plot and Point of View in the Gospel of John.” In A South African Perspective on the New Testament. Edited by J. H. Petzer and P. J. Hartin. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986.

Egan, Kieran. “What is a Plot?” New Literary History 9 (1978): 455-73.

Eslinger, Lyle. “Viewpoints and Point of View in 1 Samuel 8-12.” JSOT 26 (1983): 61-76.

Fewel, Danna Nolan, and David M. Gunn. “Tipping the Balance: Sternberg’s Reader and the Rape of Dinah.” JBL 110 (1991): 193-211.

Fokkelman, J. P. “Genesis.” In The Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987.

Garbini, Giovanni. “Hebrew Literature in the Persian Period.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Green, Barbara. “The Plot of the Biblical Story of Ruth.” in Beyond Form Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism. SBTS 2. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992.

Green, Douglas. “Ezra-Nehemiah.” In A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Leland Ryken and Tremper Longman III. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993.

Greenstein, Edward L. “Biblical Narratology.” Prooftexts 1 (1981): 201-208.

House, Paul R. “The Rise and Current Status of Literary Criticism of the Old Testament.” In Beyond Form Criticism: Essays in Old Testament Literary Criticism. SBTS 2. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992.

________. “Plot, Prophecy and Jeremiah.” JETS 36 (1993): 297-307.

Lanser, Susan S. “Plot.” In The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Edited by Alex Preminger and T. V. F. Brogan. New York: MJF Books, 1993.

Long, Philips V. “Toward a Better Theory and Understanding of Old Testament Narrative.” Presbyterion 13 (1987): 102-109.

Longman, Tremper III, “The Literary Approach to the Study of the Old Testament: Promise and Pitfalls.” JETS 28 (1985): 385-398.

________. “Biblical Narrative.” In A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Leland Ryken and Tremper Longman III. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993.

________. “Storytellers and Poets in the Bible: Can Literary Artifice Be True?” In Inerrancy and Hermeneutics. Edited by Harvie M. Conn. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1994.

________. “Literary Approaches to Old Testament Study.” In The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches. Edited by David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1999.

Magonet, Jonathan. “The Problem of Perspective in Biblical Narrative.” In Literary Structure and Rhetorical Strategies in the Hebrew Bible. Edited by L. J. de Regt, J. de Waard, and J. P. Fokkelman. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996.

Martin, W. J. “‘Dischronologized’ Narrative in the Old Testament.” VTSup 17 (1968): 179-86.

Matera, Frank J. “The Plot of Matthew’s Gospel.” CBQ 49 (1987): 233-53.

Mathewson, Steven D. “Guidelines for Understanding and Proclaiming Old Testament Narratives.” Bibliotheca Sacra 154 (1997): 410-35.

McKnight, Scot. “Literary Criticism of the Synoptic Gospels.” Trinity Journal 8 (1987): 57-68.

Muilenburg, James. “Form Criticism and Beyond.” JBL 88 (1969): 1-18.

Perry, Menakhem. “Literary Dynamics: How the Order of a Text Creates its Meaning.” Poetics Today 1, no. 1-2 (1979): 35-64, 311-61.

Pratt, Richard L. Jr. “Pictures, Windows, and Mirrors in Old Testament Exegesis.” WTJ 45 (1983): 156-167.

Ricoeur, Paul. “Interpretive Narrative.” In The Book and the Text: The Bible and Literary Theory. Translated by David Pellauer. Edited by Regina Schwartz. Cambridge, ME: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1990.

Ryken, Leland. “Literary Criticism of the Bible: Some Fallacies.” In Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives. Vol. 1. Edited by Kenneth R. R. Gros Louis. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1974.

________. “The Bible as Literature—Part 1” Bibliotheca Sacra 147 (1990): 3-15.

________. “The Bible as Literature—Part 2” Bibliotheca Sacra 147 (1990): 131-42.

________. “The Bible and Literary Study.” In The Discerning Reader: Christian Perspectives on Literature and Theory. Edited by David Barratt, Roger Pooley, and Leland Ryken. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1995.

Satterthwaite, Philip E. “Narrative Criticism: The Theological Implications of Narrative Techniques.” In Vol. 1 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by Willem A. VanGemeren. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997.

Schultz, Richard. “Integrating Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: Literary, Thematic, and Canonical Issues.” In Vol. 1 of New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by Willem A. VanGemeren. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997.

Sternberg, Meir. “Ordering the Unordered: Time, Space, and Descriptive Coherence.” Yale French Studies 61 (1981): 60-88.

________. “Deictic Sequence: World, Language and Convention.” In Essays on Deixis. Edited by Gisa Rauh. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1983.

________. “The Bible’s Art of Persuasion: Ideology, Rhetoric, and Poetics in Saul’s Fall.” HUCA 54 (1983): 45-82.

________. “Telling in Time (I): Chronology and Narrative Theory.” Poetics Today 11 (1990): 901-948.

________. “Time and Reader.” In The Uses of Adversity: Failure and Accommodation in Reader Response. Edited by Ellen Spolsky. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1990.

________. “Time and Space in Biblical (Hi)story Telling: The Grand Chronology.” In The Book and the Text: The Bible and Literary Theory. Edited by Regina Schwartz. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1990.

________. “Double Cave, Double Talk: The Indirections of Biblical Dialogue.” In ‘Not In Heaven.’ Edited by Jason P. Rosenblatt and Joseph C. Sitterson, Jr. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.

________. “Telling in Time (II): Chronology, Teleology, Narrativity.” Poetics Today 13 (1992): 463-541.

Talmon, Shemaryahu. “The Presentation of Synchroneity and Simultaneity in Biblical Narrative.” In Studies in Hebrew Narrative Art Throughout the Ages. Edited by Joseph Heinemann. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1978.

________. “Ezra and Nehemiah.” In The Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987.

Trawick, Buckner B. “Establishment of a Church State after the Exile.” In The Bible as Literature. 2d ed. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1970.

Van Aarde, A. G. “Plot as Mediated Through Point of View. MT 22:1-14 – A Case Study.” In A South African Perspective on the New Testament. Edited by J. H. Petzer and P. J. Hartin. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986.

Unpublished Works

Lehman, Mark L. “The Literary Study of Esther Showing Contributions to the Book’s Historicity and Theology.” Ph.D. diss, Bob Jones University, 1992.

Reynolds, Steve L. “A Literary Analysis of Nehemiah.” Ph.D. diss., Bob Jones University, 1994.

II. Theological Analysis

Old Testament Theology

Barth, Christopher. God With Us: A Theological Introduction to the Old Testament. Edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991.

Dumbrell, William J. The Faith of Israel: Its Expression in the Books of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.

Dyrness, William. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1979.

House, Paul R. Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998.

Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. Toward an Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

Lehman, Chester K. Biblical Theology: Old Testament. Vol. 1. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1971.

Martens, Elmer A. “Accessing Theological Readings of a Biblical Book.” Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 (1996): 223-237.

Oehler, Gustav. Theology of the Old Testament. Edited by George E. Day. 1883; reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, n.d.

Payne, J. Barton. The Theology of the Older Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1962.

Preuss, Horst Dietrich. Old Testament Theology. Vol. 2. Translated by Leo G. Perdue. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.

Sailhamer, John. Introduction to Old Testament Theology: A Canonical Approach. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1995.

von Rad, Gerhard. Old Testament Theology. Vol. 1. Translated by D. M. G. Stalker. London: Oliver and Boyd, 1962.

Zimmerli, Walther. Old Testament Theology in Outline. Translated by David E. Green. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978.

Commentaries and Monographs

Batten, Loring W. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1913.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Ezra-Nehemiah. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1988.

Breneman, Mervin. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. Vol. 10 of The New American Commentary. Edited by E. Ray Clendenen. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1993.

Brockington, L. H. Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther. New Century Bible London: Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd, 1969; reprint, Oliphants, 1977.

Coggins, R. J. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In The Cambridge Commentary Series. Edited by P. R. Ackroyd, A. R. C. Learney and J. W. Packer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.

Cundall, A. E. “Ezra and Nehemiah.” In The Eerdmans Bible Commentary. 3d ed. Edited by D. Guthrie and J. A. Motyer. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987.

Feinberg, Charles L. Jeremiah: A Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1982.

Fensham, F. Charles. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Edited by R. K. Harrison. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.

Grabbe, Lester L. Ezra-Nehemiah. Old Testament Readings. London: Routledge, 1998.

Hoglund, Kenneth G. Achaemenid Imperial Administration in Syria-Palestine and the Missions of Ezra and Nehemiah. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.

Holladay, William L. Jeremiah 2. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1989.

Holmgren, Fredrick Carlson. Israel Alive Again: A Commentary on the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In International Theological Commentary. Edited by George A. F. Knight and Fredrick Carlson Holmgren. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987.

Horn, S. H., and L. H. W7ood. The Chronology of Ezra 7. 2d. ed. Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1970.

Kapelrud, Arvid S. The Question of Authorship in the Ezra-Narrative: A Lexical Investigation. Oslo: I Kommisjon Jacob Dybwad, 1944.

Keil, C. F. Ezra. Translated by Sophia Taylor. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1866-91; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrikson Publishers, Inc., 1996.

Kidner, Derek. Ezra and Nehemiah. The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Edited by D. J. Wiseman. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1979.

McConville, J. G. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. The Daily Study Bible. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1985.

Mowinckel, Sigmund. Studien zu dem Buche Ezra-Nehemia 1. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1964.

Myers, Jacob M. Ezra-Nehemiah. Vol. 14 of The Anchor Bible. Edited by William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman. Garden City: Doubleday & Co., 1965.

Pope, W. B. “Ezra.” In Vol. 2 of Ellicott’s Commentary on the Whole Bible. Edited by Charles John Ellicott. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1959.

Rabinowitz, Yosef. The Book of Ezra. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1984.

Rawlinson, G. “Ezra.” In Vol. 7 of The Pulpit Commentary. Edited by H. D. M. Spence and Joseph S. Exell. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., n.d.; reprint, Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1950.

Rudolph, Wilhelm. Esra und Nehemia. Handbuch zum Alten Testament. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1949.

Ryle, Herbert Edward. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Edited by A. F. Kirkpatrick. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1923.

Scherman, Nosson, and Meir Zlotowitz, eds. Ezra. New York: Mesorah Publications, Ltd., 1984.

Schultz, F. U. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Translated and edited by Charles A. Briggs. In vol. 7 of Lange’s Commentary on the Holy Scriptures. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1871; reprint, Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, n.d.

Thompson, J. A. The Book of Jeremiah. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980.

Throntveit, Mark A. Ezra-Nehemiah. In Interpretation. Louisville: John Knox Press, 1992.

Williamson, H. G. M. Ezra, Nehemiah. Vol. 16 of Word Biblical Commentary. Edited by David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker. Waco: Word Books, Publisher, 1985.

Wilson, Charles R. “Joshua-Esther.” Vol. 1 part 2 of The Wesleyan Bible Commentary. Edited by Charles W. Carter. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1967.

Yamauchi, Edwin M. “Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Vol. 4 of The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1985.

Articles and Essays

Ackroyd, P. R. “The Temple Vessels – A Continuity Theme.” VTSup 23 (1972): 162-181.

________. “The Theology of the Chronicler.” Lexington Theological Quarterly 8 (1973): 101-116.

________. “God and People in the Chronicler’s Presentation of Ezra.” In La Notion biblique de Dieu. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1976.

________. “Chronicler as Exegete.” JSOT 2 (1977): 2-32.

________. “Archaeology, Politics and Religion: The Persian Period.” Iliff Review 39 (1982): 5-24.

________. “The Historical Literature.” In The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Edited by D. A. Knight and G. M. Tucker. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985.

Allen, Leslie C. “‘For He Is Good . . .’ Worship in Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Worship and the Hebrew Bible. Edited by M. Patrick Graham, Rick R. Marrs, and Steven L. McKenzie. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999.

Allrik, H. L. “The Lists of Zerubbabel (Nehemiah 7 and Ezra 2) and the Hebrew Numeral Notation.” BASOR 136 (1954): 21-27.

Andersen, F. I. “Who Built the Second Temple?” Australian Biblical Review 6 (1958): 1-35.

Andrews, D. K. “Yahweh the God of the Heavens.” In The Seed of Wisdom: Essays in Honour of T. J. Meek. Edited by W. S. McCullough. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964.

Applegate, John. “Jeremiah and the Seventy Years in the Hebrew Bible.” In The Book of Jeremiah and Its Reception. Edited by A. H. W. Curtis and T. Rmer. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1997.

Barton, Freeman. “Jeremiah 30-33 and the Restoration of the Jews.” Henceforth 5 (1976/77): 79-92.

Becking, Bob. “Ezra’s Re-enactment of the Exile.” In Leading Captivity Captive: ‘The Exile’ as History and Ideology. Edited by Lester L. Grabbe. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998.

________. “Ezra on the Move . . . Trends and Perspectives on the Character and His Book.” In Perspectives in the Study of the Old Testament & Early Judaism. Edited by Florentino Garca Martnez and Ed Noort. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998.

________. “Continuity and Community: The Belief System of the Book of Ezra.” In The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post Exilic Times. Edited by Bob Becking and Marjo C. A. Korpel. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.

Bickermann, Elias J. “The Edict of Cyrus in Ezra 1.” JBL 65 (1946): 249-275.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5-20.

________. “Temple and Society in Achaemenid Judah.” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

Bossman, David. “Ezra’s Marriage Reform: Israel Redefined.” Biblical Theology Bulletin 9 (1979): 32-38.

Bracke, John M. “ub ebt: A Reappraisal.” ZAW 97 (1985): 233-44.

Braun, Roddy L. “Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah: Theology and Literary History.” In Studies in the Historical Books of the Old Testament. Edited by J. A. Emerton. VTSup 30. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979.

Carroll, Robert P. “Textual Strategies and Ideology in the Second Temple Period.” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

Cohen, Shaye J. D. “From the Bible to the Talmud: The Prohibition of Intermarriage.” Hebrew Annual Review 7 (1983): 23-29.

Cooper, Alan. “On Reading the Bible Critically and Otherwise.” In The Future of Biblical Studies. Edited by Richard Elliott Friedman and H. G. M. Williamson. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.

Cross, Frank Moore. “A Reconstruction of the Judean Restoration” JBL 94 (1975): 4-18.

Davies, Philip R. “Sociology and the Second Temple.” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

________. “The Society of Biblical Israel.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Demsky, Aaron. “Who Came First, Ezra or Nehemiah? The Synchronistic Approach.” HUCA 65 (1994): 1-19.

Deuel, David C. “An Old Testament Pattern for Expository Preaching.” Master’s Seminary Journal 2 (1991): 125-138.

Dobson, Edward. “Divorce in the Old Testament.” Fundamentalist Journal 10 (1985): 28-29.

Duke, Rodney K. “A Model for a Theology of Biblical Historical Narratives Proposed and Demonstrated with the Books of Chronicles.” In History and Interpretation: Essays in Honour of John H. Hayes. Edited by M. Patrick Graham, William P. Brown, and Jeffrey K. Kuan. Sheffield: Sheffield Press, 1993.

Dumbrell, W. J. “Malachi and the Ezra-Nehemiah Reforms.” Reformed Theological Review 35 no. 2 (1976): 42-52.

________. “The Purpose of the Books of Chronicles.” JETS 27 (1983): 257-66.

________. “The Theological Intention of Ezra-Nehemiah.” Reformed Theological Review. 45 no. 3 (1986): 65-72.

Dyck, Jonathan E. “Ezra 2 in Ideological Critical Perspective.” In Rethinking Contexts, Rereading Texts: Contributions from the Social Sciences to Biblical Interpretation. Edited by M. Daniel Carroll R. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.

Eichhorst, William R. “Ezra’s Ethics on Intermarriage and Divorce.” Grace Journal (1969): 16-28.

Ellison, H. L. “The Importance of Ezra.” Evangelical Quarterly 53 no. 1 (1981): 48-53.

Emerton, J. A. “Did Ezra Go to Jerusalem in 428 B.C.?” JTS 17 (1966): 1-19.

Emery, D. L. “Ezra 4: is Josephus Right After All?” JNSL 13 (1987): 33-44.

Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn. “Current Perspectives on Ezra-Nehemiah and the Persian Period.” Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 1 (1993): 59-86.

________. “Torah and Narrative and Narrative as Torah.” In Old Testament Interpretation: Past, Present, and Future: Essays in Honor of Gene M. Tucker. Edited by James Luther Mays, David L. Petersen, and Kent Harold Richards. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995.

Eskenazi, Tamara C. and Eleanore P. Judd. “Marriage to a Stranger in Ezra 9-10.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994. pp. 266-85.

Fensham, F C. “Medina in Ezra and Nehemiah.” VT 25 (1975): 795-797.

________. “Some Theological and Religious Aspects in Ezra and Nehemiah.” JNSL 11 (1983): 59-68.

Galling, Kurt. “The ‘Gola-List’ According to Ezra 2//Nehemiah 7.” JBL 70 (1951): 149-158.

Gelston, A. “The Foundations of the Second Temple.” VT 16 (1966): 232-35.

Ginsberg, Harold Louis. “Ezra 1:4.” JBL 79 (1960): 167-169.

Grabbe, Lester L. “Reconstructing History from the Book of Ezra.” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

________. “What Was Ezra’s Mission?” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

________. “Triumph of the Pious or Failure of the Xenophobes? The Ezra-Nehemiah Reforms and their Nachgeschichte.” In Jewish Local Patriotism and Self-Identification in the Graeco-Roman Period. Edited by Sin Jones & Sarah Pearce. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998.

________. “Israel’s Historical Reality After the Exile.” In The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post Exilic Times. Edited by Bob Becking and Marjo C. A. Korpel. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.

Halpern, Baruch. “A Historiographic Commentary on Ezra 1-6: A Chronological Narrative and Dual Chronology in Israelite Historiography.” In The Hebrew Bible and Its Interpreters. Edited by William Henry Propp, Baruch Halpern, and David Noel Freedman. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990.

Hanson, Paul D. “Israelite Religion in the Early Postexilic Period.” In Ancient Israelite Religion. Edited by Patrick D. Miller, Jr., Paul D. Hanson, and S. Dean McBride. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987.

Hayes, Christine. “Intermarriage and Impurity in Ancient Jewish Sources.” HTR 92 (1999): 3-36.

Hengel, Martin. “The Scriptures and Their Interpretation in Second Temple Judaism.” In The Aramaic Bible: Targums in their Historical Context. Edited by D. R. G. Beattie and M. J. McNamara. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Hogg, W. E. “The Founding of the Second Temple.” PTR 25 (1927): 457-61.

Hoglund, Kenneth G. “The Achaemenid Context.” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

Horsley, Richard A. “Empire, Temple and Community—But No Bourgeoisie!” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

Hubbard, David A. “Hope in the Old Testament.” Tyndale Bulletin 34 (1983): 33-59.

Hunt, Harry B. “Attitudes Toward Divorce in Post-Exilic Judaism.” Biblical Illustrator (Summer 1996): 62-65.

Japhet, Sara. “People and Land in the Restoration Period.” In Das Land Israel in biblischer Zeit. Edited by Georg Strecker. Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981.

________. “Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel – Against the Background of the Historical and Religious Tendencies of Ezra-Nehemiah.” ZAW 94 (1982): 66-98.

________. “Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel: Against the Background of the Historical and Religious Tendencies of Ezra-Nehemiah. Pt 2.” ZAW 95 (1983): 218-229.

________. “Law and ‘The Law’ in Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Proceedings of the Ninth World Congress of Jewish Studies. Edited by Moshe Goshen-Gottstein. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1988.

________. “‘History’ and ‘Literature’ in the Persian Period: The Restoration of the Temple.” In Ah, Assyria . . . Scripta Hierosolymitana 23. Edited by Mordechai Cogan and Israel Eph‘al. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1991.

________. “The Relationship Between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991.

________. “The Temple in the Restoration Period: Reality and Ideology.” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 44 (1991): 195-251.

________. “Composition and Chronology in the Book of Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Jellicoe, Sidney. “Ezra-Nehemiah: A Reconstruction.” The Expository Times 59 (1947/8): 54.

Johnstone, William. “Guilt and Atonement: The Theme of 1 and 2 Chronicles.” In A Word in Season: Essays in Honour of William McKane. Edited by James D. Martin and Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986.

Kellermann, Von Ulrich. “Erwgungen zum Problem der Esradatierung.” ZAW 80 (1968): 55-87.

Koch, K. “Ezra and the Origins of Judaism.” JSS 19 (1974): 173-97.

Kraemer, David. “On the Relationship of the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.” JSOT 59 (1993): 73-92.

Kuhrt, Amlie. “The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy.” JSOT 25 (1983): 83-97.

________. “Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes.” In Vol. 4 of The Cambridge Ancient History. Edited by John Boardman, et al. 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Lang, Berhard. “A Neglected Method in Ezekiel Research.” VT 29 (1979): 42-43.

Leeseberg, Martin W. “Ezra and Nehemiah: A Review of the Return and Reform.” Concordia Theological Monthly 33 (1962): 79-90.

Maccoby, Hyam. “Holiness and Purity: The Holy People in Leviticus and Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Reading Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by John F. A. Sawyer. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.

Macleod, David. “The Problem of Divorce, Part 2.” The Emmaus Journal 2 (1993): 23-44.

Margalith, Othniel. “The Political Role of Ezra as Persian Governor.” ZAW 98 (1986): 110-112.

McCarthy, Dennis J. “Covenant and Law in Chronicles-Nehemiah.” CBQ 44 (1982): 25-44.

McConville, J. G. “Ezra-Nehemiah and the Fulfillment of Prophecy.” VT 36 (1986): 203-224.

________. “Renewal as Restoration in Jeremiah.” In Faces of Renewal: Studies in Honor of Stanley M. Horton Presented on His 70th Birthday. Edited by Paul Elbert. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1988.

McFall, Leslie. “Was Nehemiah Contemporary with Ezra in 458 BC?” WTJ 53 (1991): 263-293.

Merrill, Eugene, H. “A Theology of Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther.” In A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament. Edited by Roy B. Zuck. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Meyers, Eric M. “The Persian Period and the Judean Restoration: From Zerubbabel to Nehemiah.” In Ancient Israelite Religion. Edited by Patrick D. Miller, Jr., Paul D. Hanson, and S. Dean McBride. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987.

Morgan, Donn F. “The Beginnings of Biblical Theology.” In The Psalms and Other Studies on the Old Testament. Edited by Jack C. Knight and Lawrence A. Sinclair. Cincinnati: Forward Movement Publications, 1990.

Nicholson, E. W. “The Meaning of the Expression Jrah <u in the Old Testament.” JSS 10 (1965): 59-66.

Niehr, Herbert. “Religio-Historical Aspects of the ‘Early Post-Exilic’ Period.” In The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post Exilic Times. Edited by Bob Becking and Marjo C. A. Korpel. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.

Richards, Kent Harold. “Reshaping Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah Interpretation.” In Old Testament Interpretation: Past, Present, and Future: Essays in Honor of Gene M. Tucker. Edited by James Luther Mays, David L. Petersen, and Kent Harold Richards. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995.

Schultz, Carl. “The Political Tensions Reflected in Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Scripture in Context: Essays on the Comparative Method. Edited by Carl D. Evans, William W. Hallo, and John B. White. Pittsburgh: The Pickwick Press, 1980.

Shaver, Judson R. “Ezra and Nehemiah: On the Theological Significance of Making them Contemporaries.” In Priests, Prophets and Scribes: Essays on the Formation and Heritage of Second Temple Judaism in Honour of Joseph Blenkinsopp. Edited by Eugene Ulrich, et al. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.

Smith, Daniel L. “The Politics of Ezra: Sociological Indicators of Postexilic Judaean Society.” In Second Temple Studies: 1. Persian Period. Edited by Philip R. Davies. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.

Smith-Christopher, Daniel L. “The Mixed Marriage Crisis in Ezra 9-10 and Nehemiah 13: A Study of the Sociology of the Post-Exilic Judaean Community.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Snaith, N. H. “The Date of Ezra’s Arrival in Jerusalem.” ZAW 63 (1951): 53-66.

________. “Note on Ezra 8:35” JTS 22 (1971): 150-152.

Sprinkle, Joe M. “Old Testament Perspectives on Divorce and Remarriage.” JETS 40 (1997): 529-550.

Stern, Ephraim. “Religion in Palestine in the Assyrian and Persian Periods.” In The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post Exilic Times. Edited by Bob Becking and Marjo C. A. Korpel. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.

Talmon, Shemaryahu. “The Emergence of Jewish Sectarianism in the Early Second Temple Period.” In Ancient Israelite Religion. Edited by Patrick D. Miller, Jr., Paul D. Hanson, and S. Dean McBride. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987.

Thomson, A. “An Inquiry Concerning the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.” The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature (1931-32): 99-132.

Tuland, C. G. “Josephus, Antiquities Book XI: Correction of Confirmation of Biblical Post-Exilic Records?” Andrews University Seminary Studies 4 (1966): 176-92.

Ulrich, Eugene. “Ezra and Qoheleth Manuscripts from Qumran.” In Priests, Prophets and Scribes: Essays on the Formation and Heritage of Second Temple Judaism in Honour of Joseph Blenkinsopp. Edited by Eugene Ulrich, et al. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.

van Grol, Harm W. M. “Exegesis of the Exile – Exegesis of Scripture? Ezra 9:6-9.” In Intertextuality in Ugarit and Israel. Edited by Johannes C. de Moor. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998.

________. “Indeed, Servants We Are: Ezra 9, Neh. 9 and 2 Chron. 12 Compared.” In The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times. Edited by Bob Becking and Marjo C. A. Korpel. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.

Van Rooy, Harry V. “Prophet and Society in the Persian Period According to Chronicles.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

van Wyk, W. C. “The Enemies in Ezra 1-6: Interaction Between Text and Reader.” Journal for Semitics 8 (1996): 34-48.

VanderKam, James C. “Ezra–Nehemiah or Ezra and Nehemiah?” In Priests, Prophets and Scribes: Essays on the Formation and Heritage of Second Temple Judaism in Honour of Joseph Blenkinsopp. Edited by Eugene Ulrich, et al. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.

Vasholz, Robert I. “A Note on Ezra 10:34.” Presbyterion 25 (1999): 54.

Washington, Harold C. “The Strange Woman (hyrkn/hrz hva) of Proverbs 1-9 and Post-Exilic Judaean Society.” In Second Temple Studies: 2. Temple Community in the Persian Period. Edited by Tamara C. Eskenazi and Kent H. Richards. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Wesselius, Jan-Wim. “Discontinuity, Congruence and the Making of the Hebrew Bible.” Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 13 (1999): 24-75.

Williamson, H. G. M. “The Historical Value of Josephus’ Jewish Antiquities XI. 297-301.” JTS 28 (1977): 49-66.

________. “The Origin of the Twenty-Four Priestly Courses: A Study of 1 Chronicles xiii-xxviii.” In Studies in the Historical Books of the Old Testament. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979.

________. “The Composition of Ezra i-vi.” JTS 34 (1983): 30.

________. “Post-Exilic Historiography.” In The Future of Biblical Studies. Edited by Richard Elliott Friedman and H. G. M. Williamson. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.

Yamauchi, Edwin M. “The Reverse Order of Ezra/Nehemiah Reconsidered.” Themelios 5 no. 3 (1980): 7-13.

________. “The Archaeological Background of Ezra.” Bibliotheca Sacra 137 (1980): 195-211.

Young, T. Cuyler, Jr. “The Early History of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid Empire to the Death of Cambyses.” In Vol. 4 of The Cambridge Ancient History. Edited by John Boardman, et al. 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Zadok, Ran. “Remarks on Ezra and Nehemiah.” ZAW 94 (1982): 296-298.

General Works

Archer, Gleason L. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. rev. ed. Chicago: Moody Press, 1994.

Bright, John. A History of Israel. 2d ed. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1972.

Childs, Brevard. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979.

Craigie, Peter C. The Old Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1986.

de Vaux, Roland. The Bible and the Ancient Near East. Translated by Damian McHugh. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1971.

Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.

Genneweg, A. H. J. Understanding the Old Testament. Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978.

Gottwald, Norman K. The Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary Introduction. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985.

Gray, George Buchanan. A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913.

Harrelson, Walter. Interpreting the Old Testament. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Wiston, Inc., 1964.

Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1969.

Hengstenberg, E. W. History of the Kingdom of God. Vol. 2. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1872.

Hill, Andrew E. and John H. Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991.

House, Paul R. Old Testament Survey. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1992.

Kaiser, Walter C. Jr. A History of Israel. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1998.

Kaufmann, Yehezkel. “From the Babylonian Captivity to the End of Prophecy.” Translated by C. W. Efroymson. Vol. 4 of History of the Religion of Israel. New York: Ktav Publishing House, Inc., 1977.

Keegan, Terence J. Interpreting the Bible: A Popular Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics. New York: Paulist Press, 1985.

Lasor, William Sanford, David Allan Hubbard, and Frederic Wm. Bush. Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996.

Oesterley, W. O. E., and Theodore H. Robinson. A History of Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932.

Osborne, Grant R. The Hermeneutical Spiral. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1991.

Pfeiffer, Robert H. Introduction to the Old Testament. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1941.

Wood, Leon. A Survey of Israel’s History. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1970.

Young, Edward J. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, Co., 1950.

Miscellaneous Works

Ackroyd, Peter R. Exile and Restoration. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1968.

Albright, W. F. The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1963.

Barstad, Hans M. The Myth of the Empty Land: A Study in the History and Archaeology of Judah During the “Exilic” Period. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1996.

Epstein, Louis M. Marriage Laws in the Bible and the Talmud. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942; reprint, New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1968.

Fishbane, Michael. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985.

Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975.

Hasel, Gerhard F. The Remnant: The History and Theology of the Remnant Idea from Genesis to Isaiah. Berrien Springs: Andrews University Press, 1972.

Heth, William A. and Gordon J. Wenham. Jesus and Divorce: The Problem with the Evangelical Consensus. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1984.

Johnson, Marshall D. The Purpose of the Biblical Genealogies. 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. Hard Sayings of the Old Testament. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988.

Rawlinson, George. Ezra and Nehemiah: Their Lives and Times. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1890.

Rowley, H. H. The Servant of the Lord and Other Essays on the Old Testament. London: Lutterworth, 1952.

________. Men of God: Studies in Old Testament History and Prophecy. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1963.

Schaeder, Hans Heinrich. Iranische Beitrge I. Halle: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1930.

Smith, Daniel L. Religion of the Landless: The Social Context of the Babylonian Exile. Bloomington: Meyer-Stone Books, 1989.

Stern, Ephraim. Material Culture of the Land of the Bible in the Persian Period 538-332 B.C. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1982.

Weinberg, Joel. The Citizen-Temple Community. Translated by Daniel L. Smith-Christopher. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.

Wright, J. Stafford. The Date of Ezra’s Coming to Jerusalem. London: The Tyndale Press, 1958.

Unpublished Works

Linares, Jose. “A Methodology for Preaching Old Testament Narrative.” D. Min. diss., Bob Jones University, 2000.

Nykolaishen, Doug. “The Use of Jeremiah 31 in the Book of Ezra.” M.A. thesis, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 1991.

Sorgwe, Felisi. “The Canonical Shape of Ezra-Nehemiah and Its Theological and Hermeneutical Implications.” Ph.D. diss., Baylor University, 1991.

Suiter, David Eugene. “The Contribution of Chronological Studies for Understanding Ezra-Nehemiah.” Ph.D. diss., The Iliff School of Theology and University of Denver, 1992.

Abbreviations

AJSL

American Journal for Semitic Languages and Literature

ASV

American Standard Version

BHS

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia

CBQ

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

ESV

English Standard Version

HTR

Harvard Theological Review

HUCA

Hebrew Union College Annual

JBL

Journal of Biblical Literature

JETS

Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JNES

Journal of the Near Eastern Society

JNSL

Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages

JSOT

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSS

Journal of Semitic Studies

JTS

Journal of Theological Studies

KJV

King James Version

NAB

New American Bible

NASB

New American Standard Bible (1995)

NIDDOTTE

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis

NIV

New International Version

NJB

New Jerusalem Bible

NKJV

New King James Bible

NLT

New Living Translation

NRSV

New Revised Standard Version

PTR

The Princeton Theological Review

RSV

Revised Standard Version

TWOT

Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

VT

Vetus Testamentum

VTSup

Supplement to Vetus Testamentum

WTJ

Westminster Theological Journal

ZAW

Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

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