Revelation
The Book of Isaiah
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Related MediaDaily Life In The Time Of Jesus
Related MediaThe Time of Jesus1
The Date of Christ’s Birth
Before the calendar was changed to its current numbering according to the year of our Lord (A.D.) it was based on the founding of Rome as its starting point. So January 1, 754 (AVC [anno urbis conditae]) would be the equivalent of our 1 A.D.
To determine the exact date of the birth of Christ we have to consider several things.
1. Caesar Augustus was emperor from 44 B.C. to 14 A.D.
2. Herod the Great died between March 29 and April 11, 4 B.C. We know this because Josephus tells us there was an eclipse just before he died (March 12, 13), and there was a Passover just after his death (April 11). The point is that Jesus was born before this, because the wise men came to Herod to ask about the birth.
3. Quirinius was the governor of Syria from 3-2 B.C. and from 6-7 A.D. We are told in the account in Luke 2 that an order went out from Caesar to enroll the people in their hometowns for the purpose of taxation. This probably meant that the people would go regularly to be taxed in their home towns. Joseph and Mary being from Judah had to go to Bethlehem. This occurred before the death of Herod, before his empire was split up among his sons.
Josephus mentions a census in 6-7 A.D. But that is not this one--that was the one referred to in Acts 5:37. Luke is a historian and knows full well that is not this decree. Quirinius was governor twice, and there is some uncertainty about when his first tenure occurred. It was probably from 3-2 B.C. according to all the evidence. That seems to contradict the fact that Jesus was born before 4 B.C. But in the text the word translated “while” is prote (prwth), which should be translated “before” (see John 15:18 where it has that meaning: “they hated me before you”).
The census was ordered probably in 8/7 B.C. It would not have gotten organized for a couple of years in Palestine. It was a good time for the census to be taken, though, because Herod was old and dying, his kingdom was in turmoil with a power struggle for the throne, and Rome needed to k now what they had in Palestine. The census was probably underway between 6 and 4 B.C., “before” Quirinius was governor of Syria.
4. Matthew 2:16 records that Herod ordered the children under two years old to be slaughtered. Some have concluded that this meant Jesus was two when the Magi came to see him. But that would mean Jesus was born about 6 B.C., probably too early in view of other considerations. Herod was just playing it safe. After all, the Magi had traveled a long way, and had seen the star. Herod did not know when the child was born.
The sequence then would have been that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in 5 or 4 B.C. Almost immediately the Magi show up to worship him. When they return home without reporting to Herod, Herod orders the slaughter of the innocents. Joseph, being warned in a dream, got the family out of there and safely into Egypt. Almost immediately Herod died. Then, when news reached them in Egypt that Herod was dead, but Archelaus was king, they went to Nazareth.
5. Luke 3:23 tells us that Jesus was “about thirty” when he began his ministry. As we shall see, Luke tells us that was in the 15th year of the new emperor Tiberius, or, 29 A.D. From 4 B.C. to 29 A.D. is 33 years. But Luke said “about” thirty years, which allows some room.
6. The birth took place in midwinter. This is the old tradition, sealed with the selection of December 25. That may not be far off. Shepherds have their animals out in the fields all year round, so the presence of shepherds does not mean it was spring or summer. What shepherds do, though, is bring the sheep in closer in winter rather than out in the wild. Here the shepherds were in the fields near Bethlehem (within a mile).
So the evidence adds up to a date of December, 5 B.C., or January, 4 B.C. for the birth of Christ. At the age of 12 when he was lost in the temple precincts, that would have been Passover, 8 A.D.
The Commencement of Jesus’ Ministry
1. Luke tells us (in 3:1-3) several things about the beginning of Jesus’ ministry: Pilate was the procurator (26-37), Herod Antipas was ruler in Galilee (deposed in 39), Philip was tetrarch up north (he died in 34), and Caiaphas was the High Priest (18-37). We know nothing about Lysanias. But all these things fix the time of Jesus’ ministry between 26 and 36 A.D.
Now Luke tells us that John began his ministry in the 15th year of the emperor Tiberius. But how do we calculate what that was. If Luke was using Jewish reckoning, this would correspond to somewhere between 26 and 28. But it is unlikely Luke did that--he is a Gentile writing to Theophilus. He would have used the Julian calendar’s reckoning. The 15th Roman regnal year of Tiberius would have been between August, 28 A.D., and August 29 A.D.
We can say then that John the Baptist began his ministry in the fall of 29 A.D., and Jesus came to be baptized by John a few months after that.
2. The temple edifice was built 46 years before (John 2:13--3:21). The temple complex was started in 23/22 B.C., or perhaps even closer to 20. But Herod first had to build the massive retaining wall around the crown of the hill to make the platform (which was 34 acres). The reference here is most likely to the temple proper, the edifice, as the terms indicate. The sanctuary was done in 18/17 B.C. So, 46 years = 17 years + 29 years. 29 A.D. So, if Jesus went up to Passover in 30 A.D. and cleansed the temple the first time (the second time was during the passion week), they could say the temple took 46 years to build.
Again, this indicates that Jesus was baptized in the fall of 29, A.D., and in the spring of 30 A.D. was at the Passover when he spoke of the raising up the temple.
The Duration of Christ’s Ministry
From a study of the ministry of Christ, especially the different festivals that he appears to have attended in the Gospels, we would conclude that he had a ministry of three and a half years. The Gospels mention three Passovers in his public ministry, 30 A.D. (John 2:13), then another in John 6:4, and another in John 11:55, which would turn out to be his Last Supper. But most chronologists believe there was another Passover that the Gospels do not mention, one that would have come second, or in 31 A.D. Then the John 6:4 was 32, and John 11:55 was 33 A.D. This allows them to fit all the events into the chronology, especially with the references to the times of the year. He could not possibly have died in 30 A.D., because that would have meant a public ministry of less than a year--there is just too much to fit in.
The ministry of Jesus began in the fall of 29 A.D.; and it lasted three and a half years until his crucifixion in 33 A.D.
The Day of the Crucifixion
There are three general views proposed: Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of the Passion week.
1. The Wednesday view is an attempt to do justice (literal justice) to the statement in Matthew 12:40, “three days and three nights.” By our exact reckoning, that would be 72 hours. But if Jesus died on Wednesday, that would mean the resurrection was on Saturday, when the Gospels are unanimous that it was the first day of the week.
2. So some suggest a Thursday crucifixion. That would not be 72 hours. And, it would have a problem with the witness of the Gospels that Jesus died when it was the preparation for the Sabbath (John 19:31), the day before the Sabbath day (Mark 15:42). This view then assumes that it was a high Sabbath, and not the weekly Sabbath, that was meant (each festival was called “Sabbath of Sabbaths” in Leviticus 23).
3. The Friday crucifixion fits the details of the Gospels the best. This would mean that “three days and three nights” was idiomatic. And usage supports this. In the Old Testament the kings designated a part of a year as a year for their reign. Esther used the expression in her vow, but broke the vow off on the third day (5:1). And in the New Testament, even though Jesus said “three days and three nights” in the tomb, he predicted he would rise on the third day (Matthew 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22, passim). And. The Pharisees asked for a guard at the tomb “until” the third day. Moreover, according to Luke 24:13 the two men were on their way to Emmaus when they were joined by Jesus; they said, “it is now the third day.”
So we can say that any part of a day and a night would mean a day and a night. Jesus died at 3 p.m. on Friday and his body was laid in the tomb on the eve of the preparation for the Sabbath (Friday). The disciples and the women rested on the Sabbath (Saturday). The women returned to the tomb for the final treatment of the body early Sunday morning--and he was alive.
This harmonizes well with the biblical typology. The people would present their unblemished animals in the temple on the 10th of Nisan--Monday of Passion week, probably the day of the triumphal entry (and part of its purpose). On Nisan 14th the lamb was sacrificed; Paul declares that Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us (1 Cor. 5:7). On Nisan 16th, Sunday, he arose from the grave. Leviticus 23 says that the First fruit offering was to be offered “on the morning after the Sabbath after the Passover.” That is Sunday morning. So Paul declared that “Christ is risen from the dead, the first fruit of them that sleep” (1 Cor. 15:21). And then Paul draws out the analogy from agriculture--you bury the seed in the ground, but in time a more glorious body comes to life, and the first shoots are offered to God in gratitude, and those first shoots indicate a harvest is yet to come--a harvest of resurrected saint.
There is one further difficulty that must be mentioned. The synoptic Gospels indicate clearly that the Last Supper was a Passover meal. But John makes it clear that Jesus had to be removed from the cross because Passover was beginning (John 18:28 and 19:14). That has led some to conclude that the Last Supper was not a Passover meal, but a love feast. But all the evidence argues against this conclusion. The solution may be found in the calculation of the days. There is some evidence that some people counted the days from morning to evening, whereas the Judean Jews counted the day’s beginning at sundown. There is no strong evidence for this, but there are hints. Mishnah Pesahim 10:9 and Zebahim 5:8 instruct that the Passover meal had to be eaten by midnight. The Law said it had to be eaten on that day, Nisan 14th. And this would make excellent sense out of the passage. If Jesus and his disciples counted the day from the morning, then Thursday, Nisan 14th, began at dawn. The Law said the animal had to be sacrificed between 3 and 5 p.m. on Nisan 14th, so that would be Thursday afternoon. Then, they had to eat the meal that evening. But if the Jewish leaders counted the day from sundown, then Nisan 14th began Thursday at sundown. They had to wait till Friday at 3:00 p.m. to kill their animal. That day would also be the preparation for the Sabbath. So Jesus ate the Passover meal with his disciples; and then he became the Passover victim at 3:00 p.m. on Friday when he died.
The Year of Christ’s Death
Enough has been said already to conclude that the year was 33 A.D. We know that Passover fell on a Friday in the years 27 (too early), 30 (too early), 33, and 36 (probably too late). Jesus died at 3:00 p.m., April 3, 33 A.D.
This date fits the time of Passover on a Friday, it fits all the dates of Pilate, Herod, and Caiaphas; it harmonies with the date for the temple, and it allows for the three and a half years of ministry.
Addendum
This date finds some remarkable corroboration with secular history. Pilate, we know, was a terribly ruthless and cruel person (see Josephus). When Tiberius moved to Capri, he left the empire in the hands of Sejanus, who was terribly anti-Semitic. Pilate implemented Sejanus’ anti-Jewish policies in 26 A.D. with a vengeance. We read how he massacred Jews and established pagan emblems and rituals in the temple. But, Tiberius heard of this and the ambition of Sejanus (probably through Caligula), and so he returned to Rome. Sejanus was executed October 18, 31 A.D. In 32 Tiberius ordered the governors not to offend the Jews. Pilate was now forced to ingratiate himself to the emperor--he feared an uprising of the Jews, and so to placate the leaders he asked what he should do with Jesus. Two years earlier he would have never done that. Pilate could not afford to get into trouble with Tiberius--he would not be a “friend of Caesar.” And finally, his enemy Herod Antipas now became his friend. Rome wanted peace in the territories; and the client kings and governors had to comply.
Life in the Time of Jesus Resources
For this section I have provided a general outline of the book Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus by Joachim Jeremias (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1969). An outline is of course too brief to include all the helpful information in the book, but it will lay out the main ideas.
There are many other books that are equally helpful in different ways. One is the book Living in the Time of Jesus of Nazareth by Peter Connolly (Jerusalem: Steimatsky, 1983 [first published by Oxford University Press]). At first glance this looks like a child’s picture book, but it is very precise in its detailed drawings and diagrams as well as its narrative. The book is not always easy to get, but well worth any effort to get it. It will be tremendously helpful in teaching the Bible.
Another good resource is the book Labor, Crafts, and Commerce in Ancient Israel by Moshe Aberbach (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1994). This book surveys all the occupations that were prominent in the land of Israel during the rabbinic period, whether they were considered noble crafts or less than honorable ones. The focus is on the kinds of labor and crafts with which the rabbis were occupied, showing that they were not just interested in studying Torah and Talmud, but in being productive on their farms and in their shops.
There is also a work by Richard A. Horsley, Archaeology, History, and Society in Galilee (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996). This is a good resource for study of life in the region of Galilee, clarifying a good deal of general assumptions about the region. While there were a lot of Gentiles in the region, both living there and passing through, it was still very Jewish, and very concerned about following the traditions of the Jews.
Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus
I. Chapter One: Industries
A. Industries of Jerusalem
Typical industry: the craft (like Paul’s, tentmaker)
1. Domestic: woollens, weaving, fullers, leather works, and smiths
2. Foods: oil, oil presses, bakers and butchers, water seller, fishing
3. Luxuries: ointments, rose perfumes, arts and crafts (esp. due to the influence of Herod), “golden Jerusalem” a woman’s crown, scrivener (rolling up a book)
4. Building: heavy building under Herodians (enumerated) and the demands on workers of various trades, such as pavers, stone masons, stone cutters, miners, craftsmen in tapestry, sculpturing, and the like. Most builders used stone, so “carpenter” (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) for Joseph should be read as “builder” (the word is tektwn).
5. Maintenance: road sweepers, tomb guardians, and the like
6. Other trades: doctors were laborers, artists, leeches, bath attendants, circumcisers, and money changers
B. Organization
1. The layout of the city: upper and lower city (divided by the Tyropaean Valley) and two main market streets (cardo and dekamano)
2. Individual shops were distributed near the gates and along the main road, the cardo (related to Latin “heart”; we at times use “artery” for a road); each quarter of the city had its own bazaar.
3. Trades were organized so that the craftsmen settled together in sectors to apply pressure to buyers and keep their trade’s secrets.
4. Temple trades were organized so that craftsmen were central; the main edifice was 46 years in building (from 17 B.C. till 30 A.D.), and the whole complex never was finished. The temple cultus continued (until the temple was destroyed) with the service of bakers, temple doctors (sick priests from the cold floors) and the like.
C. Individuality of Jerusalem
Jerusalem was not on the major trade routes, and in fact was in a very poor location (no distinct trade put them on the map). It was known for political and religious values, with great revenues coming from pilgrimages and temple revenues. Multitudes were drawn to the city from all over the known world.
II. Chapter Two: Commerce
A. Survey of Commerce
1. Generally the merchants were respected (the High Priest was involved). The camel caravans were protected (as much as possible) with safeguards on their way. Taxes and duty were charged at the roads; market inspectors checked price fixing that occurred at the bazaars.
2. Foreign trade: There was heavy trade with Greece (seen in many Greek words) and other places--constant connections: wood from Lebanon, glass from Sidon, fish and slaves from Tyre, costly materials from Babylon, fabrics from India, spices from Arabia, and grain from Egypt were the major imports.
3. Local trade: grain from around Jerusalem (but the texts may refer to orchards) supplied only a small portion of the need, and so much of it came from Transjordan. Fruit and vegetables (olives, figs, dates, etc) were abundant in and around Jerusalem. Livestock was a flourishing trade, as well as raw materials from the land--stone and some wood.
B. Influence of Jerusalem on Commerce
Jerusalem was the center of the country, yet it was remote, upland, and more work to move things in and out. It was the center of commerce for southern Palestine. The temple was its most important factor; and also the demands of the king brought additional trade since the city was the political center. But the pilgrimages brought the most.
III. Chapter Three: Foreign Visitors
A. General Description of Travel to Jerusalem
1. The roads were bad, and most people traveled on foot, in caravans.
2. Accommodations were rare, and lodgings were scarce, so people brought their own tents. To keep the law (of being in Jerusalem at Passover) the city limits were extended.
3. Visitors came from almost every country (enumerated in this section with various countries discussed and documented).
4. Visitors came from the major regions of Palestine, and especially at the festivals (the number of pilgrims rose in the times of national agitation).
B. The Unique Character of Jerusalem
1. It was the old capital city, a spectacular place drawing people.
2. It was the location of the highest authority, the Sanhedrin, linking it to all the world of Jewry.
3. It was the place of origin of many religious groups, notably Christianity.
Excursus: The Number of Pilgrims
The book estimates about 125,000 pilgrims to the festivals. This study is based on the number of animals killed at a Passover (18,000), how many could eat of each animal (ca. 10), the number of people killed at wars during the festivals, and the number in the courts. The population of Jerusalem was about 50,000 (so the number rose to 125,000 in the festivals. This number is too high, probably; most would say a population of about 30,000 in Jerusalem, swelling to 80,000 or even more at the festivals.
IV. The Rich
A. Court: The splendor of the royal court dominated public life. Cousins (not relatives) and other friends were favored (usually staying in royal apartments). It was basically oriental (as seen by the harem, and the fact that the teaching in tractate Sanhedrin allowed eighteen wives). It was paid for by taxing, revenues, and mining mainly.
B. Wealthy Class: The wealthy segment of society were extravagant. This can be readily seen from their excessive wagers. There was a good deal of polygamy in the wealthy families, and the aristocratic women were very pampered.
Representative of this were the members of the Sanhedrin, the priestly aristocracy belonging to the wealthy class, people like Caiaphas and Annas.2 One priest carpeted the way from his door to the temple so his wife could walk on it to the services. One man, Eleazer b. Harsum had 1000 villages and ships.
V. Chapter Five: The Middle Class
A. These people were mostly the merchants, the retail traders, the innkeepers and tavern traders. They did their best business with the temple trade and with pilgrims (the Law said that another tenth of one’s income had to be spent in Jerusalem at the festivals).
B. The priests were mostly middle class, their income prescribed by the animal victims, first fruits and tithes. Due to the spiritual malady of the nation, many priests were poverty stricken.
VI. Chapter Six: The Poor
A. Day workers and slaves: there were more day workers than slaves, but there was slavery in Palestine too.
B. Subsidized work included scribes (but some of them had other sources of income). Begging was done in the Holy places. Towards the end there was rioting.
VII. Chapter Seven:
Factors Determining Economic Circumstances
A. Cost of living was higher in Jerusalem than in the rest of the country. In emergencies (famines, droughts) the prices rose, and there was much profiteering.
B. Political Factors: These were mainly war and taxation. The major support for the economics of the city came from the religious festivals and temple services.
VIII. Chapter Eight: The Clergy
A. The High Priest: Israel was really a pure theocracy, the priest being the most eminent.
1. Privileges: They could enter the Holy of Holies, take part in the cult any time (even as a mourner), and had the first choice of the holy things brought.
2. Responsibilities: These were mainly ceremonial for the festivals and the cult. Most important, though, was the fact that the High Priest had to carry out the seven-day regulations to assure purity before Yom Kipper, as well as watch our for the purity of his line of descent: he was only to marry a pure virgin, usually of the priestly families. Any instance of breaking marriage laws brought an outcry from the people.
3. The retired High Priest was still influential; he was listed on the records.
4. The historical circumstances surely changed with Herod who made the office dependant on political authority. There was much simony and nepotism--but still it was elevated above the people.
B. Chief Priests and Levites: There were several orders of priests after the anointed High Priest, the high priest, the priest anointed for war, etc.
1. The Captain of the Temple worked closely with the High Priest and watched him for purity. He was the deputy on the Day of Atonement, usually responsible for worship in the Temple.
2. Director of the weekly course, director of the daily course: the priests were divided into 24 courses by David so that each group only had to be in temple service one week out of 24, or roughly two weeks a year. Some were there all the time. The director of the weekly course was mostly in charge of rites for the purification of lepers and women and other physical difficulties. The director of the daily course was responsible for the times they were there to serve the people. At the other times of the year the priests lived in the priestly cities.
3. Temple overseer and temple treasurer: the overseers (seven of them) had the seven keys to the court in their hands and were in charge of external arrangements for the times they were there. The treasurers (at least 3) were over financial matters, the sale of birds, lambs, and goats. Many lists of the men in these offices document the material.
4. Common priests and Levites usually worked in other jobs to support themselves.
Excursus: The use of the label “high priest” is used 64 times in the Gospels and Acts. But it is often in the plural. It is properly used of the “chief priests” who were the men of the court, mostly the council.
C. Priestly Aristocracy
While there was a real aristocracy of the priesthood, there also was a social gulf in the priesthood. The study the aristocracy, Jeremias divides the time into three periods: first period was the Zadokites, second period the Hasmoneans, and the third period the Herodians.
Jeremias’ survey starts with the exodus and ends with 70 A.D. when the temple was destroyed. There were 83 high priests for the 1500 years. It is more interested in the period of Jesus the Christ, of course (as the title would indicate), where it discovers that only one, as well as perhaps the last one, were legitimate high priests (Ananel the first, and Pinhas the last). There were 25 illegitimate priests under the Herodians from four families (Boethus, Hannas, Phiabi, and Kamith). Boethus was the most powerful family. But all this means that three or four families held the power. In the Gospel Hannas (Annas), his five sons, and his son-in-law Caiaphas, are examples of this power.
Jeremias discusses Acts 4:5-6 on this issue of power--the council and their controlling power. In spite of their riches, their power, their nepotism, they were still illegitimate priests.
D. The Priesthood: There were the 24 courses of priests doing their tour of duty in the temple. But how many priests were there?
1. Number of Priests: The Talmud says 85,000 priests in one course--but that is obviously too high (24 times 85,000 to make a twelfth of the population?). Pseudo Aristeas said there were 750 priests in a course (750 times 24 times = 18,000). We may also study the public services to discover how many were involved: 50 for a daily course, so 300 per weekly course. Also, 300 priests were needed to immerse the temple curtain in water (300 times 24 = 7,200 priests, plus 9,600 Levites--which matches the proportion of priests and Levites in 1 Chronicles).
So then, one-tenth of the population were priests and Levites and their families--roughly 50,000, giving a population of 500,000 to 600,000 for Israel. This is the calculation of Jeremias; it may be a little low.
2. Work for the Priests: There was no work in Jerusalem, so the priests often did manual labor at home for ten or eleven months of the year (leaving the time of their course, plus the festivals). Some priests served in court, and some were scribes. But not all of them were that educated. There were many contrasts between the common priests and the aristocracy.
E. The Levites: The Levites were descendants of the priests deposed in Deuteronomy. They were involved in the temple in music and various forms of service, sometimes inferior jobs as humble servants, temple police, doorkeepers, and the like.
F. The Hereditary Character of the Priests
1. Laws: It was stipulated that the priests (a) should take great care in tracing their genealogies to ensure purity of the line, and (b) watch the rigid rules of marriage (examining the wife’s genealogy too).
2. Practice: The priests married priests’ daughters, otherwise the marriages would have been illegitimate and really only a concubinage.
IX. Chapter Nine: Lay Nobility
The Sanhedrin was made up of chief priests, scribes, and elders. This is the old hereditary nobility--priests and elders.
The elders are the heads of the ancient ruling families. It was a small, close circle (Vespasian carted them off in three boats). They were landowners who could supply the temple, they were men of means. They and the chief priests were largely Sadducees, holding to a literal interpretation of the Torah, and a sever penal code. They had an elaborate tradition of doctrine, conservatively close to Scripture.
The decline of the priests brought down the lay nobility too. Scribes became important.
X. Chapter Ten: The Scribes, the New Upper Class
A. Scribes in Jerusalem: The origin is varied, but the scribes probably existed as a class until 70 A.D. Many priests had the role of scribes. Scribes were often of obscure birth, poverty, and petty town folk.
B. Knowledge gave the scribes power. After years of study at the feet of some great teacher, the scribe would master the traditional material and the halakic material and method so that he was competent in decisions. He then became a non-ordained scholar, or wise scholar (talmid hakam). At the age of 40 he was ordained (hakam), and then really a judge, and could be called Rabbi. (The title “rabbi” was changing to this in the New Testament).
The Pharisaic party was filled with scribes; as they looked for justice the determination of Scripture was critical, and so scribes were often chosen for the posts.
C. Esoteric Writings: The apocalyptic writings of Judaism were not divulged to the masses. The halakah, the secret of God, was given from teacher to pupil. To combat the New Testament, it was finally written down (and so lost its secrecy). Even the Old Testament was in the sacred Hebrew; there was opposition to writing it in the commonplace Aramaic.
Socially the scribes were considered the heirs and successors of the prophets, because they had the knowledge of God. They may have been of doubtful origin, they may have been impoverished, but they were held in high esteem. Their tombs were surrounded with legend, venerated and guarded with superstitious awe.
XI. Chapter Eleven: The Pharisees
The expression “scribes and Pharisees” makes this chapter necessary. Since the Pharisees were “separated ones,” men of the people, they were held in high esteem also, upper class in practice--even though they had no education. But they were connected to the scribes.
A. Haburot: Early Pharisees were members of relative associations, since the second century B.C. small communities known as haburot. There were about 6000 Pharisees at the time of Herod the Great. The writer then studies the Essenes to see their communities and administrations.
B. Relationship to Scribes: Pharisees were attacked by Jesus for their hypocrisy, not their theological education. The leaders and influential members of the Pharisees and their small communities were the scribes. But not all scribes were Pharisees.
C. Pharisees were strong or powerful, with the people’s support. Sadducees were weak by comparison. The Pharisees had grown up in opposition to the Sadducees, and never backed away from confronting them.
XII. Chapter Twelve: The Structure of the National Community
In this brief chapter Jeremias offers a list in three versions of the classes of the people. The first part (priests, Levites, and pure Israelites) are unanimous on the lists--the rest not so. So the rest of the book looked at the rest of them, the Israelites who were illegitimate or blemished.
XIII. Chapter Thirteen: Pure Ancestry
A. Genealogies: The people had to prove pure ancestry for civil rights. Many claimed a Davidic or Benjamite line, because the Messianic line was the most common and the best preserved. They would seldom claim one of the “ten lost tribes” in their line. Often the lay genealogies would include priests.
B. Historicity of Lay Genealogies: Genealogies of the priests and leaders were probably authentic (at least for the most recent couple of centuries). But the lay genealogies may have been pure invention.
1. They used worthless plays on words and interpretations.
2. In critical evaluation, there was some falsification of history (with good purpose).
3. Historical value of the genealogy of Jesus: Jeremias observes that after the name David, Matthew and Luke differ, coming together on Shealtiel, and differing again. Matthew, he thinks, used material from another Davidic list. Luke and 1 Chronicles differ a bit, but they are authentic for the few generations before Jesus. The idea is that people would keep up the record of legitimate ancestry and sooner or later tie into an earlier list that was standardized. With so many descendants, family lines could be traced in a number of ways.
C. Civil Rights: A family (pure) could marry priestly women, hold public trusts and posts, participate in religious ceremonies, participate in the merits of the patriarchs and so were assured a share in the Messianic salvation (claimed to be the children of Abraham, John 8).
XIV. Chapter Fourteen: Despised Trades and Slaves
A. Despised Trades: A great number of trades on several lists give the same information. Any trades notorious for leading to dishonesty (physicians, shop keepers, etc) were on the lists. Other trades on the lists are those that brought no special sign of blessing (small cattle breeders, sellers of purple, cutters of trees, etc). Repugnant trades are those that dealt with smells or those that involved women (seen too much as an occasion for immorality).
B. Jewish Slaves:
The kinds of “slavery” or better “servitude” in Israel were:
1. Ex furto: could not pay for stolen goods
2. Ex concessu: sold himself voluntarily
3. Patria potestas: young Israelite girls contracted for marriage
Usually service carried a six year limit (unless one chose to stay on willingly). Legally, they were slaves to their masters, but it was more like privileged servants or hired servants until the debts were paid off--but the laws were abused.
XV. Chapter Fifteen: Illegitimate Israelites
A. Slight Blemishes
1. Children of priests and proselytes and freed slaves (deprived of ties with the priestly families and with the seats of honor). The first group refers to the illegitimate children of a priest, from an impure marriage (no lineage)--the child was profane.
2. Proselytes: They used the phrase “heathen has no father” to view the proselyte as limited. He could not marry into priestly circles (that would bring profanation), could not serve on the Sanhedrin, and had problems with inheritances.
3. Freed Slaves: Slaves were freed, but the chances of this were rather slim. They were the lowest of the group that still could be called pure.
B. Grave Blemishes
1. Bastards: The offspring of any forbidden marriage (opinions divided here on definition) were placed in this group. It was a large group of those conceived in adultery (as they defined it). The only right they had was to judge in decisions of civil law in a court of three.
2. Temple slaves, orphans, foundlings, and eunuchs--these were castes outside the Law.
XVI. Chapter Sixteen: Gentile Slaves
These were definitely not part of the community. They were bought or born as slaves, and were quite valuable possessions (price: 20 minas, or 2000 times the daily wage).
Their social position was absolute property of the master. They could be made to accept circumcision or baptism. In such cases he would no longer be a heathen--but he was not a Jew either.
They were to observe the religious duties in Israel if they were converts to the faith--keeping sabbath days, passover, and the like; and they could not be sold back to Gentiles.
XVII. Chapter Seventeen: Samaritans
They were looked on as Gentiles, so no marriage with them was possible (although there was some relaxation of the restrictions in the time of Herod, who married a Samaritan, and when the Samaritans were in the temple. But then there was hostility again and bitterness. They were seen as impure and causing impurity.
XVIII. Chapter Eighteen: Women’s Social Position
A. Position Socially: In the orient they had almost no part in public life and were to remain unobserved (preferably not to go out at all). But Queen Alexandra, Salome, and others broke these ideas and took leadership places. So one could not keep stern seclusion (especially for economic reasons, since many women worked with their husbands).
B. Betrothal: The woman really was receiving a new master, but one who might treat her better. The father could marry off the daughter when she was very young. In marriage the duties of the wife were primarily household and family duties. Polygamy was permissible in Israel (so a woman had to prepare to share). Divorce was largely the man’s right, although a woman could get it arranged. In marriage, it was meritorious to marry a niece, because protection by blood was more secure.
C. Religious Practices: The woman was restricted to certain courts of the temple, although there were exceptions. Women were not separated from men in the synagogues.
Many disdainful opinions of women were voiced by the teachers--but many glowing opinions were also expressed. On rare occasion a woman could rise to the level of a teacher, a rabbi.
On the whole the position of a woman was as a low class person, depending on the status of her husband. Jesus brought in a much higher estimation of women, and events connected with Jesus’ life show dramatic changes. For example, God used women to catechize the disciples about the resurrection of Jesus.
1 For more details of and complete evidence for all the chronologies, see Harold Hoehner, Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan).
2 The Herodian Villas in the Jewish Quarter of the old city is a good window into thewealth of the priestly families. These remains, discovered in the rebuilding of a section of thecity, preserve a lifestyle that ranked with the best of classical Rome and Greece--mosaic floors, ritual baths, ordinary bathtubs, reception halls, frescoes, imported Italian pottery and the like.
Related Topics: Gospels
The Divine Plan From Paradise to Paradise
Related MediaIt is not possible to do justice to this topic in one or even several discussions, or one or two courses; but an outline of the biblical material will bring the major points to mind and provide a general survey for the studies to follow. The best way to focus on the divine plan of creation that is restored through redemption is to incorporate the covenants that the LORD made down through the ages. After all, it is through solemn covenant promises that God has guaranteed his plan to restore all of creation to Paradise--but a greater and different Paradise than the one in the beginning.
Creation
General. God created a perfect universe where everything was in order.1 Everything came into existence by obedience to God’s word (Ps. 33).2 Human life was the crowning point and the focus of God’s creation.
Human Life. HumanlifeinGenesis1isthe“imageofGod.” The image is not shape or structure, but capacity.3 According to Genesis 2:7, the body plus the inbreathed breath of life produce a living soul, or better, a human being.4 With this inbreathing of the breath of life, the human being becomes God’s image, and it is passed on by procreation to every human being. So this breath of life constitutes the image of God;5 it gives to humans the moral and spiritual capacities to represent God (or, we would say, God gave humans the communicable attributes6). The “image of God” is a description of the capabilities of humans; it is a functional description, for the purpose of the capabilities is to represent the divine rule on earth.7
When God created humans with this capacity, he also made promises to them that required their responsible service--in other words, here was the divine plan for the “image of God”--people:
SEED: God blessed (enabled) them, and told them to be fruitful and multiply on the earth (in other words, share God’s work of creating life--eternal souls).8
DOMINION: God had enabled them to represent him, and so he commanded people to rule and have dominion in the earth--to serve as God’s vice-regents over all spiritual and natural forces.9
LAND: The human beings were to enjoy the bounty of creation, that Paradise, by obeying God’s commands and by worshiping and serving him.10 By obedience and service they would enjoy the Sabbath rest of God11 (the point of the message in Deut. 26).
The Fall
The Act. The woman was beguiled by Satan to disobey God. The temptation denied the word of God, doubted the goodness of God, and appealed to her desire to be like God, knowing good and evil.12
Adam sinned willfully when the woman gave him the fruit. Thus, Paul would say, “By one man sin entered the world, and death by sin.”
The Oracle. Immediately after Adam and Eve sinned, God came to question them and to announce the effect of their sin on themselves and one very human who would come after them.13 The main areas of God’s plan for the image of God were affected severely:
SEED: Death would now reign over the race, making fruitfulness urgent.14
DOMINION: Far from being like God and ruling over creation, they had fallen prey to the serpent (and thus to another of God’s creation--Satan), and so were expelled from Paradise to work the ground from which they were taken.
LAND: They were barred from the beautiful garden and had to work by the sweat of the brow and with pain to survive.15 The land would be cursed--thorns and thistles and dust would be their lot.
And what happened to the IMAGE of GOD? The Bible says that the presence of sin in ordinary humans (unbelievers) means they are spiritually dead, even though physically living, that their spiritual understanding is darkened, and their consciences are seared and not working right. It will take a new creation to restore the image. And we call that regeneration.
Signs of Redemption. There was grace from God for the confessing sinners (they did confess, after blaming others)--the LORD God clothed them with animal skins.16 And there was faith from the confessing sinners: Adam named his wife Eve, and Eve named her son Cain as expressions of their faith.17
Judgment And Re-Creation
The narrative in Genesis continues this cycle of creation--failure--judgment--redemption. In fact, this continues through the Bible—it is the story of the Bible. The work of God’s redemption begins to take on the form of re-creation.
Rebellion. As the story progresses, sin gets worse and worse, until by the time of the Flood the knowledge of evil consumes the intentions of the human race.18 Apparently demon-possessed human despots overstepped their bounds in their quest for immortality through what is clearly immorality.19 What the nature of wickedness we have here, God sawthatitwasserious enoughto stop withajudgment on all flesh.
Judgment. The judgment was on all creation, all nature and all flesh. God would use a flood, because it would purge the world, and it would also be a new beginning, for in Genesis 1 everything was under water. This severe judgment shows the magnitude of the sin and the extent to which God will go to preserve righteousness in the world--and he will do it again at the end of the ages.20
Redemption and Re-Creation. Genesis 6:8 tells us that Noah found “grace”(unmerited favor) in the eyes of the LORD. Then, as a recipient of grace, he walks with the LORD in righteousness, and becomes a preacher of righteousness and a true worshiper.
Noah will be the new ADAM, given the same commandments and the same responsibilities. When the Flood ended, dry land began to appear, just as in the creation. Noah then could leave the ark and start a new race. But he was by duty bound to preserve the human race.
And so God instituted a covenant, the NOACHIAN21 COVENANT. It was an unconditional and unilateral covenant in which God bound himself to safeguard life. He would never again destroy the world this way. But he would hold murderers responsible for shedding blood. This covenant was designed to show that God was a covenant God, a God of grace. Covenants are not needed by God, for his word is sure and reliable. But God used covenants for our sake, that we might be convinced that when he swore on his own life that he would keep his promises. Even though people might be unfaithful, he remains faithful for he cannot deny himself--it is his nature to speak the truth and fulfill his promises.
Noah, with a chance to rule over the earth as the second Adam, the ability to be fruitful and multiply, and the commission to do God’s work on earth, lay naked and drunk in his tent, bringing about the curse of his descendants,22 the Canaanites.23
Rebellion Again. Commanded to spread out and populate the earth, the human race banded together to make a name for themselves lest they be scattered.24 Their sin was pride and rebellion; out of it came the beginnings of pagan worship with the ziggurat (the step-tower). Throughout the Bible “Babylon” is the symbol of pride and rebellion. The Babylonians said it has been made in heaven and brought down to earth; Genesis 11 says that it was made on earth by humans. But the Book of Revelation says God will destroy Babylon, and then the heavenly Jerusalem will descend from heaven.
Judgment Again. God scattered the race by confusing their language. In God’s view, international strife and misunderstanding is better than collective apostasy (Genesis 10 shows the results of Genesis 11; by seeing the results first the reader is more curious to know what happened). The human race was now hopelessly scattered and not united. There was no nation or tribe that God could use to restore blessing. He would have to make one.
Re-creation Again. So God started over by creating a new SEED from one man whom he elected, gave him a promised LAND, and promised that through him DOMINION would come to this troubled world.
The Abrahamic Covenant
The Faith of Abraham. The covenant would have to be made with a true believer. And so Genesis 12 records the call of Abram with divine promises. And Genesis 15:6 tells us that he “believed in the LORD, and he [the LORD] reckoned to him righteousness.” Abram had left Ur by faith; the covenant was made with Abram the believer. Here was the beginning of the restoration of the IMAGE of God.
The Plan of God. God planned to create a people who would serve him and be the means of bringing blessing to the world. This is seen in the two-fold command of God for Abram: “Get you out” and “be a blessing.” God promised Abram fame and family and land if he got out; and God promised that Abram would be protected and blessed and ultimately be a blessing to the world if he himself was a blessing. So Abram got out (first command) and then Abram was a blessing (second command) by making proselytes in Haran and by proclaiming who the LORD was at the altar.25
The Covenant of God. God cut the Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 15 (not 12). The covenant was unconditional and unilateral (God made it by himself; it was not a bi-lateral agreement--Abram was asleep and God swore by himself).
N.B. The promises of the Abrahamic Covenant are therefore certain and unconditional--they will be fulfilled. But, participation in the blessings of the covenant is conditioned upon faith and obedience.26
God would build a nation to be his image, his representatives on earth. And his promises would focus on restoring the plan of creation:
SEED: God promises to make the seed like the sand of the seashore.
LAND: God promised a land that would be as bountiful as Eden.
DOMINION: God promised that kings would come from their line (Gen. 17) until the one comes to whom the scepter belongs (Gen. 49:10).27 The Abrahamic Covenant never was completely fulfilled in the history of Israel, not in the sense of a faithful people living securely in a land of abundance and enjoying dominion as God’s vice-regents over all creation. Why not? On the human side Paul tells the Romans it was because of sin; on the divine side the writer to the Hebrews says it was not God’s intention to fulfill the promises without us.
The Covenant At Sinai
A Holy Nation, A Kingdom of Priests. At Mount Sinai God established a covenant with Israel (Exod. 24) that formed them into the nation, the people of God. The purpose was to form a nation that would be holy, so that it could be a priestly nation (Exod. 19). This recalls the intent of the Abrahamic Covenant promises that the seed would be the means of blessing to the world (Gen. 12:1-3).
The Sinaitic Covenant was not a replacement of the Abrahamic Covenant; rather, it was the first expansion or development of it. Its focus was on the “seed,” the people—who were they, and what were they to do. So the emphases from creation and the Abrahamic Covenant are reiterated here:
SEED: The “seed” is Israel, the nation, that flourished in Egypt; now they would be directed on how to live so that they could fulfill the purpose of the promise.
LAND: While the promise of the land is not the main focus of the Sinaitic Covenant, it is assumed as one of the goals of the SEED. They would be led to the land by the LORD--but they had to conquer it by faith.28
DOMINION: The promise of dominion for the time being focuses on the fact that Israel was to be a theocracy--God rules over his people. God would use humans to administer his theocracy, and in time a monarchy would administer the theocracy. But each form of administrators failed, and so the dominion awaited a faithful ruler.
The Law of Moses. Because the nation was a theocracy, then God’s word was Law--hence, the LAW. The Law was never given as--never intended to be--a means of salvation. Spiritual salvation has always been by God’s grace through faith, and not by works.29 The Law was given to a nation of believers (largely) who had come out of Egypt by faith through the application of the blood of the lamb. No one was ever redeemed by the works of the Law.
The Law of Moses was given to the people of God to direct them in the way of obedience so that they could enjoy the blessings of God on their life and fulfill their calling to be a kingdom of priests. To do this the Law regulated the life and the ritual of the people, and in the process it revealed sin as it revealed the holiness of the LORD who was the king. Ultimately, it was God’s intent that the Law be a tutor, a pedagogue (Gal. 3) to bring us to Christ.30
The Theocracy. God’s program through the nation of Israel could be described as the universal reign of God. At different times it found different expressions or forms, with different administrations on earth. With Israel it was to be a simple theocracy--God ruled. This called for several things to be in place:
The Holy Place. The central sanctuary represented God’s dwelling place among his people--the central government as it were.31 And the structure of the sanctuary revealed the way to get to God-decision at the gate, atonement at the altar, washing at the laver, light for the way, provision for the way, intercession before the presence, and once a year entrance through the mediator. All this was necessary because the presence of a holy God required cleansing and atonement. And it all was not only teaching the way to approach the LORD, but setting out the order of worship—because worship is to reflect clearly the way to get to God.
The Holy Offerings. Purification was effected by sacrificial ritual so that the believing people could maintain their relationship to God as a holy nation. The sacrifices were the outward expression of the spiritual reality of personal surrender and submission or life and substance to God. Some of the sacrifices spoke to this directly, and other sacrifices were for the celebration of worship with a communal meal. Truly the promised SEED was no ordinary nation.
The holy Calendar. God laid claim to the hours, days, weeks, months, seasons, and years by the festivals and appointed feasts. If the people wanted the blessings of God on their land, they would have to show their allegiance with these things. But the holy calendar went beyond that to reveal the plan of redemption: freedom from bondage through the blood of the lamb (Passover), resurrection to life from the dead (First fruits), the beginning of the people of God (Pentecost32), the in gathering of the people (Trumpets for New Years), the removal of all sin from the people (Atonement), and the fulfillment of all promises in the land (Tabernacles, Sabbath Year and Jubilee).
Holy Administrators. The theocracy would be administered by the Lawgiver and Mediator, then the Priests, Prophets, and Kings. They were all to lead the nation to righteousness and service, for the nation was to be a kingdom of priests.
The Palestinian Covenant
General. This covenant is not really a totally new covenant, and it is not called the Palestinian Covenant--in fact, the word Palestine was only used here because it conveniently made the point of the covenant with reference to the land--but it was not the land of Palestine in those days. The point is that there was a second giving of the law, so to speak, what we call Deuteronomy (“second law”). This was the re-statement of the Law of Moses for the generation about to enter the land; it was cast in the form of prophetic sermons and exhortations as well as legal precepts.
It continues the emphasis on how the SEED should live to be a holy nation, blessed and used by God. But it clearly adds a greater emphasis on the LAND. The end of Deuteronomy has a number of admonitions for the people standing on the edge of “the land”--a land flowing with milk and honey, a rich and good land of rivers and trees and mountains, all kind of fruit and crops, copper in the hills, and on and on. The sermons actually are cast in the setting of the garden of Eden: See, I have set before you blessing and cursing, good and evil--if you obey, you will enjoy the land, if you disobey, you will be driven out of the land.
So the Sinaitic Covenant dwells more on the responsibilities and blessings of the SEED. The Palestinian Covenant (or re-giving of the law to the generation entering the land) reiterates much of that, but clearly emphasis the blessing of the LAND.
The Davidic Covenant
General Circumstances. From God’s plan it had always been the will of God that His theocracy would be centered in Jerusalem and be administered by His king who would be known as His Son.33 The plan of creation, reiterated by the covenants, promised a SEED and a LAND and DOMINION. The Davidic Covenant would now take the promise of dominion and ratify that with a covenant.
The people rushed the plan of God by demanding a king like the other nations--and so he gave them one, Saul. Ultimately, because of the people’s unbelief, the monarchy failed as the administration of the theocracy. People could rule over the nation, but could not rule themselves. They were eventually run out of the land and lost dominion and kingship with the exile.
But instead of Saul, God had chosen David, a man after his own heart.34 David had the kind of faith that God wanted, the kind of commitment to the Law, the kind of prayer and worship that would lead the nation, and the kind of humility that the servant of the LORD needs. And so he made a covenant with David; the aspects of the covenant form a royal ideology:
Dynasty: The family (house) of David would be an eternal dynasty. This was unconditional and unilateral when God swore to it. An eternal dynasty means every king has to have a son, or, one of them has to live forever. Thus Paul starts Romans by affirming that Jesus is declared to be the son of David and Son of God by the resurrection.
Participation. While the promise of an eternal dynasty was sure, individual participation in it required faith and obedience. Kings who did not believe, or who were wicked, were either removed or damned. Those who obeyed were blessed.
Kingship: The promised kingdom was one of eternal righteousness and peace (see Ps. 72, 89, Isa. 9, 11), extending from sea to sea, filled with the blessing and knowledge of the LORD, with all nations subjected to the King. Each king probably thought when being coronated that he might be the one--but after a few sins and wars he would realize that they looked for another, or as the last words of David say, “Not so was my kingdom” (2 Sam).
The failure of the monarchy over the theocracy is well documented by the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles, as well as the prophets. Rebellion, Judgment, and Re-creation are the continued themes throughout the Old Testament period. Finally the judgment was the exile to Babylon--but this did not end the covenants or the covenant promises--it ended the participation in the blessings of those covenants for the majority of the people.
LAND: Because of sin they were exiled from the land.
SEED: Because of sin the nation was destroyed in the war and exile; only a remnant of believers held to the promises of God.
DOMINION: Because of sin the kings and the people became subject to the pagan nations and their kings. This is what Daniel called “the times of the Gentiles,” and it will continue till Christ comes.
But, in Israel’s darkest hour the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel (and earlier Isaiah and others) began to lay out a New Covenant that God would make with Israel and Judah. Here was the grace of God at work, in spite of the failure of the people.
The New Covenant
Judgment. As the nation sank more and more into idolatry and unrighteousness, the message of judgment through captivity became more pronounced, until the blow came and all the promises of God seemed to come to an end. God used the wicked nations to judge Israel, ultimately to purge the nation of idolatry and rebellion. Never again did the nation embrace idolatry on such a scale as it had before the exile.
The remnant of true believers, like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, had to suffer for the sins of the nation. But their sufferings and eventual deaths were different—they would lie down in peace--not so the wicked.
Re-creation. The prophets spoke of a glorious renewal of God’s plan with another generation that would come out of the exile. Hosea and Joel had spoken of it, as had Isaiah (see Isa. 54 particularly); but Jeremiah (31) and Ezekiel (36) gave the most details for this “new” covenant. It would be more of a renewal of the old covenant promises than a completely different covenant.
But it must be stressed that this “New Covenant” was for Israel and Judah. The SEED would be re-gathered to the LAND and once again serve as a KINGDOM of priests. Paul will make it clear in Romans 11 that we who are Gentiles have been grafted in to Israel’s New Covenant.
The Promises. So what were the promises laid out in the oracles about this new covenant? They are as follows:
1. Israel would be restored to the Promised Land and remain forever.
2. Israel would dwell in peace and safety in their land, without fear of danger or terror from anyone.
3. All of nature would be renovated so that all signs of the curse would be forgotten as all nature fulfilled its destiny undisturbed.
4. God would purify the nation so that their sins would be removed.
5. God would write His Law on their hearts so that they would be a holy people.
6. God would pour out his Holy Spirit, not only on Israel to make the bones live (Ezek. 37), but also on all nations.
7. Everyone would know the LORD, so that no one would have to evangelize.
8. The temple and city of Jerusalem would be re-built of the finest elements of creation.
9. Nations would come to worship the LORD in Jerusalem and bring their tribute, their gifts.
10. A righteous, powerful, divine king would rule in Jerusalem and over all the world.
The listing of these promises of the New Covenant are not in a chronological order. In fact, many of them will overlap in the timing of their fulfillment. But what is clear is that bits and pieces of the promises have been partially fulfilled over the ages, but it will take the second coming of Christ before all of it will be fulfilled to the divine intent.
For example, when the people came back from captivity, they had a re-gathering to the land. But there was no lasting peace and prosperity, and so they knew they had but a down payment or token (whichever metaphor works best) on an ultimate fulfillment. The old man Simeon in Luke 2 was waiting for it.
Or, they returned and built the temple, but it was not even as good as Solomon’s, and it certainly did not fulfill Isaiah’s and Ezekiel’s pictures. So it too was a partial fulfillment of something far greater to come.
When Christ came into the world, he died on the cross to pay for sins. The provision was in place, but not all of Israel came to faith. Many did, but that was simply a foretaste of what is yet to come.
God sent the Holy Spirit on Pentecost so that the Law could be written on our hearts, as Paul says. But this has not yet been poured out on all flesh. There is more to come.
Christ has been exalted to the right hand of the Majesty on High, and so he reigns over his people. But he has yet to come to put down all rebellion and establish a kingdom or righteousness and peace around the world. In other words, we have received tokens, pledges of things to come. It is the way Jesus did his miracles: Isaiah said Jesus would heal the sick, make the blind to see, set the prisoners free, among other things; and Jesus did just enough to declare he is the Messiah, but the complete fulfillment awaits the coming in glory.
The Fullness of Time. At a pre-determined time God sent forth His Son into the world, to be born of a woman, to fulfill the Law and the Prophets, and to redeem the world. The prophets were precise: the child is born, the Son is given (Isa. 9). There was a birth in Bethlehem, the child was born to Mary. But the Son was sent into the world; He was from above, He was not of this world. The incarnation fulfilled many passages of Scripture, not the least of which is the dedication Psalm 40: “Here I come to do your will … a body you have prepared for me … in the roll of the book it is prescribed for me.” This second Adam was completely obedient and so was able to gain victory over Satan, sin, and death, undoing all that the first Adam had introduced into the world. Jesus the Messiah restored God’s plan through His obedience: the human race had lost its way, but Jesus declared, “I am the way”; the race had believed a lie, and Jesus announced, “I am the truth”; and the race had entered into death through their sins, yet Jesus said, “I am the life.”
The cycle of judgment and re-creation was now finalized: the judgment for sin was placed on Him as the innocent substitute who became the curse; and the re-creation of new life comes through His resurrection, and ours.
The New Covenant. Jesus inaugurated the New Covenant in the Upper Room with the elements of what we now call Eucharist, or Holy Communion. In his words Jesus connected Exodus24:8, Jeremiah 31, and Isaiah 53 to show that the New Covenant subsumed and fulfilled the old. Then with His blood on the cross he sealed the covenant, as the Book of Hebrews says. And yet, all the promises of the New Covenant--which are “yes” in Him, Paul says--will be completely fulfilled at the second coming. Those who now enter into the New Covenant by faith in Jesus Christ--and there is no other way since he is God in the flesh--will doubtless have a share in the fulfillment of all the promises to come.
The promises of the New Covenant began to be fulfilled with Christ. In the Upper Room He breathed on the disciples (cf. Gen. 2:7) and said, “Receive the Holy Spirit” (Jn. 20:22). He then died on the cross to pay for our sins, making the salvation through the forgiveness of sins available. He then sent the Holy Spirit to indwell believers permanently as a pledge of eternal life and as an enablement to live righteously in this world. Today, believers, both Jews and Gentiles, enter into this new covenant by the grace of God through faith--prematurely, as Paul said, being grafted in to the covenant now before its fulfillment. Christ will come again to complete all the promises of the New Covenant--which means all the promises of all the covenants that came together in the New Covenant. Most of these promises will be fulfilled in a far more glorious way than we could even imagine.
The Promises of the Covenants. And how does the plan of God take form in the final outworking of the promises?
SEED: The promise of a “seed” for Abraham through which the families of the earth will be blessed finds fulfillment in Christ. But then all of us who are “in Christ” are also the “seed of Abraham.”35 In salvation the promise of a seed will be fulfilled. Christ will present the redeemed in glory, saying, “Here I am and the children/seed you have given me” (from Hebrews from Isaiah 8). He will bring many sons/children to the kingdom to sit down with Abraham.
LAND: Many scholars argue that the land promises do not apply in salvation, for we are going to be in heaven. However, several hints suggest otherwise. Revelation 5 tells us that we are going to reign with Christ on earth. The same book reiterates from Isaiah that there will be a new heaven and earth, a new creation. And, Daniel and Revelation indicate that the saints will be from every tribe and nation and language on earth--they keep their unique identities in glory, but will be perfected, or glorified. The clue is that Jesus after the resurrection, although glorified, is still the man Jesus, albeit the God-man, Jesus the Son of God. The scores of passages about the age to come locate spiritual Israel in the Promised Land. And why not? Why should the promises not be fulfilled, albeit in a renewed creation? This is part of the study of the nature of the heavenly Jerusalem in Revelation, and the prophecies of the renovation of the holy land in Ezekiel, Isaiah and Zechariah.
It is unlikely that all the redeemed of the ages will be in exactly the same place without variation or movement. The believers in Christ have their citizenship in heaven, but will administer angels on earth. The eternal state seems to have a whole hierarchy of responsible positions and services based on service now; and perhaps the Jews will be given that land in the new earth where they will realize their inheritance and calling.
DOMINION: In and with Christ the seed will reign with Christ on earth. Jesus will reign as king, even though we do not now see everything under his feet. But according to Hebrews 1, when the Father again brings the firstborn into the world, all the angels will bow, and everyone will bow and proclaim Him Lord. And as Christ’s representatives, we will rule over cities and judge angels.
The Davidic King. The fulfillment of all the covenant promises in the Bible hang on one thing--the person of the Messiah. There is no participation in the New Covenant apart from faith in Him. If indeed the Messiah is God manifested in the flesh, and there is only one God, then how could there be salvation apart from Him?
Jesus, of course, was born into the family of David, in the city of David, to fulfill the royal ideology.
Jesus was declared to be the Son of David according to the flesh, and the Son of God by the resurrection.
Jesus ascended on high and was seated on the right hand of the Majesty on High (Ps. 110) until the Father makes His enemies the footstool for Him. When Jesus rose from the dead, the Father declared, “You are my Son; this day I have begotten you”[Ps.2:7;fromthedead--Rev.1:5]. It was His coronation day, but not His receiving of the kingdom. In some future point of time, the Father will say to the Son, “Ask of me and I will give you the nations as your inheritance” (Ps. 2:8). Then He will bring His firstborn again into the world (Heb. 1--the second coming) and He will reign with righteousness and justice forever.
Jesus will come with power and glory to judge the world and to fulfill all promises. As a survey of the Messianic promises will reveal, there will be great and amazing aspects of His coming. For these we shall have to look at the next section of the material, the Messianic Prophecies.
1 Genesis 1 presents the initial picture of God’s perfect work. Other passages will also treat the subject. Job 38 and following tells how great this work was; and in Job 38 God tells us that it was accompanied by the sons of God--angels--singing for joy. In Revelation 4 and 5 the angels still have not gotten over creation, and sing of the greatness of God.
2 The emphasis in Genesis 1 is clearly in the commands of God. Thus, the chapter forms a fitting prologue to the Torah, the Law. Everything is here because it obeyed God’s word. Thus, obedience to the word of God brings this kind of beauty, order, and fulness. Deuteronomy 30:15-20 provides a good exposition of this truth, with many allusions to Paradise.
3 Both male and female will be the image of God, not just male, and not just male and female united. Human beings are the image of God because they have been given moral, spiritual and intellectual capacities.
4 The Hebrew word translated “soul” is nephesh. It is the whole person, the being--the soul in the body. In Hebrew one would not say that he had a soul--he is a soul.
5 The word for “breath” used in Genesis 2:7 is neshamah. Its use shows that the breath brings life, spiritual understanding, and a functioning conscience. So it is far more than a breathing set of lungs. It is the whole spiritual nature..
6 Some of God’s attributes were not shared or given (communicated) to humans--eternality, infinity, omniscience, omnipresence, omnipotence; but others were shared, and even though we have only a tiny share of the divine attribute, we do have compassion, mercy, love, faithfulness, wisdom, goodness, and the like.
7 Gerhard von Rad in his Old Testament Theology points out the probably background of the expression Moses used: the pharaohs would put up images of themselves to mark out their dominion. To destroy one of those images was to challenge the pharaoh’s sovereignty.
8 Genesis 5:1, 2 shows that this “image” or capacity is passed on seminally. And, according to Genesis 9, all humans are still the image of God--even though they are spiritually dead and have seared consciences and lack true spiritual understanding. That can be changed with regeneration.
9 One of the terms for dominion means treading underfoot opposition--this suggests the anticipation of rebellion and spiritual opposition.
10 The first commandment was that they not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. And the expression in Genesis 2:15 that God put them in the garden “for serving and keeping” probably refers to worship and service, because that is what the words mean through the Torah, and because prior to the curse there would be no need for gardeners (only after sin are they expelled to work the ground), and because throughout the Bible God is about the business of restoring a kingdom of priests.
11 The Hebrew word shabat has been translated “to rest,” and its noun shabbat as “sabbath rest.” Its main point is to cease; but it carries the idea of an enjoyment and celebration of what has been accomplished. God was not worn out after creation and in need of rest--he wanted to enjoy it. And the sabbath day was supposed to be that way for people, an entering into the goodness and bounty and joy of the creator--that is, before the legalists got hold of it and made it a burden. Genesis 2:15 says God put them in the garden, but the verb is “set to rest” (another word for “rest,” nuach). Here is the beginning of the theology of the sabbath: when they sinned, they broke the sabbath, and God had to go back to work to restore creation’s purpose and joy. When Jesus was doing miracles on the sabbath day, he defended his efforts by saying that “Hitherto my father works, and I must work also.” When he died on Friday of the Passion Week, he declared that the work of re-generation/recreation was finished, and then he rested from his work in the grave. But on the first day of the week, as if in response to God’s “Let there be light, the Light of the world came out of the tomb. Now, each of us who believe in him have entered into that sabbath rest, according to the Book of Hebrews. And yet, there remains a sabbath rest for the whole world which is groaning for it.
12 Wisdom literature will teach that becoming like God is not accomplished by challenging God. They wanted to be wise, but in their disobedience became afraid and hid themselves. Proverbs will teach that wisdom begins with the fear of God, which leads to obedience, which brings about true godliness.
13 Thus it is a little too simplistic to call Genesis 3 a curse. The humans are not cursed; rather, God announces what life will be like now that they have introduced sin into it--and so the oracles include both the bad (results of sin) and the bad (there would ultimately be victory.
14 “Death” is separation, essentially. Physical death is separation from this life, from the land of the living. Spiritual death is separation from God, and all that is spiritual. Eternal death is eternal separation from God and all who live in him (glorified new creation).
15 Likewise in Genesis 4 Cain was banished from the fertile soil and had to be a ceaseless wanderer in the world (like the “outback”).
16 God clearly deprived an animal of its life to clothe the sinner. Thus, Cain and Abel knew from the beginning how to make sacrifices. And Leviticus tells us that all the animal skins of the sacrifices went to the priests for clothing.
17 Their naming statements express faith and hope. Under the punishment of death, and having been expelled from the garden, he named his wife “mother of all LIVING,” and she named her son “Cain” because she had produced him with the LORD’s help. They truly were believers in the LORD.
18 There could hardly be a stronger statement about sin: “the thoughts of their hearts were only evil continually” so the LORD regretted having made them (a bold human expression simply to say how much the sin grieved him). And the fact that Noah “found grace” means that he was no better than the rest of them. It defies the meaning of “grace” to say Noah was a righteous man and so God decided to extent grace to him. No, Genesis 6:9 come after Genesis 6:8.
19 The “sons of God” in Genesis 6 is a term that refers to angels/demons, but here they co-habit with human women. Thus, we must have powerful humans controlled by demons beginning to build harems of all the women they wanted. The demonic influence produced grotesque beings, giants in the land, ancient heroes who thought they were gods or demi-gods. But God announced they were but flesh, and in about a hundred years would die in the flood. There is much more going on here than people normally see. These are the angels who left their habitation and almost perverted the human race; they are preserved in prison until the judgment day. Thus, when Jesus says that people were marrying and giving in marriage, it is an allusion to great hubris, not to normal harmless life. See my commentary, Creation and Blessing, on Genesis 6.
20 The Flood was truly an “eschatological event,” for the end of mankind had come on the earth. Jesus likewise uses the times of Noah as a sign of the coming judgment. It will be as in the days of Noah, the wicked will be taken away, and the righteous will enter a new order. That coming judgment will not be by water, but by fire.
21 We call it the “Noachian” covenant because the name “Noah” in Hebrew is actually pronounced No-ack, which was Anglicized to a laryngal h, “Noah.”
22 The attempts to make Ham’s act a homosexual act are contrived. Ham saw his father’s nakedness, and having no respect for his father, told his brothers. They covered up the father because they respected him and wanted to preserve his dignity. To read more into the event is unwarranted. But on the basis of these character traits, Noah prophesies the nature and acts of their descendants.
23 It was Canaan who was cursed, not Ham the culprit, and not Ham’s little boy Canaan. This was a prophetic oracle of future peoples.
24 The people at Babel in Genesis 11 were motivated by both fear and pride, much like modern nations in their arms buildups.
25 See the exact expression in Exodus 34:5-7 where we have the content of the proclamation given there by the LORD to Moses.
26 A lot of people think that when Israel failed and followed other gods, then the covenant was nullified. No, it does not work that way. The unbelievers removed themselves from the covenant hopes, but the promises remained in place, and will be fulfilled eventually. Hosea could say to his wicked generation, God says, “I am not your God, and you are not my people.” Thus, Paul could explain to the church at Rome that “not all Israel was Israel.” But then Hosea said there would be a future re-gathering, and the God would say “You are my people and I am your God.” The promises of God are sure; participation in them requires faith.
27 Many English Bibles leave the word as a name, “Shiloh”--until Shiloh comes. The Hebrew word is a combination of little short words; translated it means “who to him.” In other words there would be kings in Judah until the one comes to whom the scepter belongs--the Messiah.
28 The biblical books of Joshua and Ephesians are twin books--they each develop the themes of election, inheritance, and spiritual warfare.
29 In Romans 4 Paul makes this point by showing that Abraham was justified by faith long before the Law was even revealed. An Israelite came to faith the same way we do--believing the word of God, trusting in God’s provision of forgiveness and atonement, and demonstrating his faith by living a righteous life. He just did not know how it was all going to work out--who would eventually pay for the sins once and for all. But God could grant them forgiveness and eternal life on the basis of the blood of Christ, for God knew how the sins were to be paid, from the foundations of the world.
30 This means that when Christ came God did not have to teach people what atonement was, for they had been taught this for 1400 years in the Law and the drama of the ritual. Likewise, propitiation, redemption, sanctification, righteousness and numerous other concepts had been taught for centuries, so that people knew exactly what it all meant when the apostles explained why Christ died.
31 His presence was actually there, for the holy place was the one spot on earth where heaven and earth touched, the gate of heaven as it were. So in Isaiah 6 the young prophet could peer into the holy of holies in his vision and see the pre-incarnate Christ on his glorious throne in heave (Jn. 12).
32 We shall return to study each of these festivals later; but the day of Pentecost was in Israel the time when the loaves were presented--what the harvested grain produced, or what the resurrection produced. It was also a time to commemorate the giving of the law at Sinai.
33 The title “Son” was introduced into the Davidic Covenant in 2 Samuel 7, and would apply to every king of Judah that God ordained. But ultimately one would come for whom the designation “son” meant much more, i.e., that he shared the divine nature of the Father. Kingship would then be focused on Him in a greater way than David, Solomon, or any of the others.
34 This expression simply means “the one God wanted.”
35 The “seed of Abraham” can refer to the natural descendants of Abraham, Hebrews, and that would be the physical seed. It can refer to Israelites who believe, and they are the physical and spiritual seed. It can also refer to non-Israelites who are in the covenant, and they--we--are the spiritual seed/descendants of Abraham, but not the physical descendants.
Related Topics: Old Testament, Spiritual Life