3. The Five Pillars
We began our “Understanding Islam” study with a brief overview of its history, beginning with Muhammad becoming a prophet and receiving his angelic revelations in the 7th century AD. Those revelations were written down and collected by his followers into the book known as the Quran, which they revere as the very words of God dictated to the world through Muhammad. We looked at some of the basic content of the Quran, as well as a few of the divisions and schools of thought within the Islamic world.
Almost all presentations of Islam include what they call their “Five Pillars.” The five pillars of Islam are mentioned in a saying of the prophet Muhammad in the Hadith collection, in which he says that Islam is based on these five things. These five core commitments or acts constitute the basis of what Muslims consider their basic duty to God. One can see that in some ways these religious duties may overlap with those of Christians or other religions, but the unique way in which they are carried out become the very essence of what it means to practice Islam.
I. First Pillar: Profession of Faith (cf. Deut. 6:6-9).
Called Shahadah, this creed is a simple sentence: La ilaha ill Allah; Muhammad ar Rasul Allah—“There is no god but God (Allah), and Muhammad is the messenger (prophet) of God.” In the first line we see the strong commitment of Islam to monotheism and the worship of God/Allah alone. The second line stresses the belief that Muhammad brought the message of God to the world. Muhammad’s name is so revered that a devout Muslim will always say the phrase “peace be upon him” after uttering his name, and this even appears in printed books with the abbreviation “pbuh” (and similar expressions are used for all the prophets as well). Repeating and sincerely believing the Shahadah is the first step in being a Muslim. It is the first thing whispered into a baby’s ear when born, and the last thing whispered into the ear of a person at death.
II. Second Pillar: Prayer (cf. Matthew 6:5-8).
Muslims are called to pray (salat) five times every day—just before sunrise, just after noon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset, and one hour after sunset/night time. An optional sixth time during mid-morning may be observed for personal devotional concerns. Men are encouraged to pray at a mosque, especially on Fridays when they generally gather for other religious activities as well (women are not required to go to mosque, but they may go, and are kept separate from the men in a different room). Daily prayers may be performed anywhere. The calls to prayer have traditionally gone out from the minarets on mosques in Islamic areas, though today they typically use p.a. systems. The call to prayer begins with the phrase, Allahu Akbar, “God is the greatest.”
Muslims are required to perform ritual washings before prayers, known as wudu. The face and hands are washed, including a rinsing of the nose and mouth. Prayers are directed toward Mecca, with shoes off. The posture of prayer includes bodily gestures while uttering or thinking certain prescribed prayers, and begins by standing, then raising hands to the ears, placing hands on the chest, then bowing down, standing again, then prostrating oneself on the floor or ground, which is to be covered with a prayer mat or carpet, then sitting upright with knees bent and palms on knees, before rising again.
III. Third Pillar: Almsgiving (cf. Matthew 6:2-4).
Zakah is a contribution that is intended for the poor. It is given once a year, and is paid at the rate of 2.5% of one’s cash, savings, gold and silver. There are also separate rates for other forms of wealth or net worth.
IV. Fourth Pillar: Fasting (cf. Matthew 6:16-18).
Fasting (Sawm) is required during the month of Ramadan. Devout Muslims abstain from eating, drinking, smoking and sex during the daylight hours. Other fasts may be observed according to one’s own devotional life.
V. Fifth Pillar: Pilgrimage (any Christian counterpart?).
The Hajj is a journey to the great mosque, called Al-Kabah, in Mecca, to be performed by everyone who can afford it at least once during one’s life. There are a number of rituals associated with the hajj, including the wearing of a simple dress made of two sheets of unsewn cloth. Millions of Muslims gather in Arabia for the annual hajj, and it is a powerful experience for them. After returning home, certain differences in clothing or hats are worn, and that person is thereafter referred to as “Haji…”.
VI. Other duties
Jihad is the Muslim term for “struggle.” According to mainstream Islam, Muslims are to struggle against their own evil impulses, and seek to live an upright life. It can also extend to society, in which there is an exertion of energy to establish the Islamic way of life. When Muslims come into conflict with other societies, that can also be described as jihad, a term which has become familiar in recent years due to the clash of cultures between Western society and some of the Middle East. Most Muslims do not see themselves engaged in jihad against the West, but a sizeable and radical element have taken to violent jihad in this manner.
Diet and dress—Muslims are required to eat only food considered halal, or approved. This is very similar to Jewish kosher rules, especially pork, but also includes alcohol. The dress code for women requires that a woman not call attention to herself. This is interpreted in various ways, but usually requires the wearing of a headdress or veil, or in more strict countries, a complete body covering.
In comparison to Christianity, one might observe that Islam can seem quite focused on religious behavior. Seen from the perspective of grace, this can seem rather legalistic. But one can hardly help but admire their deep commitment to a way of life that can be quite intense, and governs all of one’s thoughts and actions.
4. Interaction with Muslims as Neighbors And a Baptist-Muslim Dialogue
Our overview of Islam has indeed been brief, when one considers the size and diversity of this religion. As important as it may be to understand some of what Muslims believe, it is also important for Christians to consider how we are called to love our neighbors. With increasing globalization, nations are neighbors on a world stage, while individuals and families are also increasingly becoming neighbors within local communities. Within a few blocks of our own church there is the modest North Penn Mosque, with its local community of several hundred Muslims (most of whom are Bengali immigrants, although there are representative Muslims here from many nations of the world).
We might look at our interactions with Muslims on a couple of levels. On the one hand, Christians believe in sharing our faith in the hopes that others may come to know God through Jesus Christ. It should be noted that Muslims share a similar missionary conviction, hoping that non-Muslims might come to share their own faith. So while evangelical Christians may desire to see the conversion of our non-Christian neighbors, we must also realistically understand that we have commitments before God to love our neighbors regardless of whether they are members of our own faith or not. If we can learn to genuinely promote peace with Muslims, we will be doing humanity a great service, including the generations that follow us on an increasingly crowded and fragile planet.
I. The Development of a Baptist-Muslim Dialogue.
The massive strain that has existed between Westerners in general and Muslims throughout the world has been highlighted and exacerbated by terrorist attacks and numerous wars in the Middle East. Since most people of faith oppose most violence and wars of aggression, it is distressing that acts of violence or wars are often fought in the very name of religion. It can hardly be escaped that many terrorist acts have been motivated by particularly radical kinds of religious beliefs, and while Western nations attempt to distinguish their motives as secular, large constituencies of Christians undergird governments involved in large-scale cultural clashes.
In the midst of this volatile religious situation, it is heartening that in recent years an overture from the intellectual and religious leaders of Islam was sent to Christian leaders throughout the world. On October 13, 2007 and “Open Letter and Call from Muslim Religious Leaders,” entitled “A Common Word Between Us and You” was signed by 138 prominent Islamic leaders from all parts of the globe. This open letter was a call to further dialogue, and based on common ground between Christians and Muslims on the great commandments of loving God and neighbor.
The Baptist World Alliance responded to this letter, as did numerous other Christian bodies, with a welcome for its peaceful, irenic tone. Acknowledgements have been made that both the Bible and the Quran repeatedly call for loving God and neighbor. The BWA also highlighted the need for discussion about what religious freedom might actually mean, in terms of not only being free to practice the religion of one’s birth, but also to change religions if one feels called by God to do so.
In response to these calls for further discussion, Dr. Roy Medley, General Secretary of our ABC-USA denomination, helped to initiate Baptist-Muslim dialogues here in North America. He was spurred on by visits to Lebanon where Baptists urged him to help brothers and sisters in the Middle East by finding ways to promote peace with Muslims, as well as a trip to the Republic of Georgia where he was challenged to work for as good a relationship with Muslims as the Baptists enjoy with their neighbors in that country.
In January of 2009 a group of 80 Baptist and Muslim leaders met at Andover-Newton Seminary in Massachusetts to engage in dialogue and observe each other’s worship services. Several papers written by Muslims and Baptists for that conference, along with the “Open Letter,” the BWA response, and Dr. Medley’s introduction have been published in the American Baptist Quarterly volume 28, no. 1, spring 2009 edition.
II. Hindrances to Peaceful Interaction
Clearly there are significant differences between Islam and Christianity, and a focus on those differences will highlight how far apart we may be. But sometimes Christians engage in rhetoric that Muslims find offensive, and if we were to hear it with their ears we might appreciate how misguided such language can be. For instance, Christian leaders from America (often televangelists and the like) have sometimes characterized Islam as an “evil” religion, or Muhammad as being demon-possessed, or even as a pedophile. These kinds of statements are taken by the other side as slanderous, and signs that these Christians do not respect them or have peaceful intentions. Often these pronouncements are made from ignorance or stereotyping, and have the effect of glossing over positive attempts being made by the other side at overcoming very real problems within the world community.
III. Biblical Bases for Peaceful Interaction
Matthew 22:34-40 give us what Jesus regarded as the “Greatest Commandment”: “Love the Lord you God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.” He said the second commandment is like it: “Love your neighbor as yourself.” While differences in understanding love for God remain, it was decided in the aforementioned Baptist-Muslim dialogues to start with the second command, where common ground might more easily be seen. Christians also point to the “Golden Rule,” in Matthew 7:12 Muslims point to a very similar saying of Muhammad, “None of you has faith until you love for your brother what you love for yourself.” When speaking about our neighbors, one might also consider one of the 10 Commandments, “You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor” (Exodus 20:16). One might even ask in today’s geopolitical situation if the command not to covet what belongs to our neighbor might even include petroleum? Additionally, Jesus commands Christians to love our enemies in Matthew 5:43-48, and Paul likewise urged peaceful living with enemies in Romans 12:14-21. See the interesting article, “Loving Bin Laden” from Mission Frontiers (March-April 2010).
5. Sharing Our Faith with Muslims
We have briefly explored some of the history and main beliefs of Islam, including a bit about the Quran and the “Five Pillars of Islam.” Last week we examined a Baptist-Muslim dialogue and discussed the need for working toward peace in getting along with our Muslim neighbors. This week we will look at how it might look to share our Christian faith with our Muslim neighbors in an authentic way.
A helpful booklet was passed along to me entitled “Islam and Christianity: Reaching Out to Muslims, Answering Misunderstandings,” by Bruce Green. In comparing Islam and Christianity, this pamphlet is written for Christians to help us overcome misunderstandings of Christianity that Muslims may have, even as Christians may often have misunderstandings of Islam. The main categories printed here include:
I. Religious History.
Islamic culture has been at odds with Western European Culture for centuries. Today’s conflicts are often seen by them as another chapter in holy wars and Crusades. It may be important to point out that almost all Christians today believe the “Christian” Crusades of the Middle Ages were not a good expression of Christianity, and that wars are more often the result of political and economic forces. Behind violence and war lies Satan and evil, and common ground might be reached with a Muslim against a common enemy of sin.
II. Who is God?
The Trinity is a sticking point for Islam, and Muslims tend to view Christians as polytheists who worship 3 gods, something strongly condemned in the Quran. It may be important to reinforce that the actual Christian teaching is one God in three persons, that there is only one divine essence or being, but this God is revealed to us in three relational persons. While this will likely still not be satisfactory, we can at least deflect the charge that we are not monotheistic. Also, Islam honors Jesus as a prophet, who was virgin born, performed miracles, and will return again. Some Muslims might be willing to read the accounts of Jesus in the Gospels to compare how Christians understand him in our Bible.
III. Holy Scriptures
Muslims are taught that Jews and Christians corrupted the Bible, therefore it disagrees with the Quran. However, the science of textual criticism has demonstrated the basic reliability of the text of the Bible, especially the New Testament. The Dead Sea Scrolls date from the first century AD (500 years before Muhammad), and also show that the Hebrew Scriptures were preserved remarkably well. Since Muslims revere the character of God, and they believe the main biblical characters were prophets, then it seems reasonable that the record of their words in the Bible could also be considered reliable.
IV. The Prophet Muhammad
Since Muslims so revere Muhammad, it is important not to insult him or be directly confrontational against Islam unless you want the conversation to be cut off and to be considered a blasphemer. It may be more important to lift up and exalt Jesus than to tear down Muhammad.
V. Practices and Rituals
As we discussed earlier, Muslims find the essence of their religious practice in their “Five Pillars.” Christians also have important religious practices, some of them overlapping (giving, praying, fasting). We also observe baptism and the Lord’s Supper, read our Scriptures, attend worship with other believers, etc. All of these are intended to cultivate a spiritual life and sincere heart before God, something valued in Islam. By living a dedicated Christian life, we will gain the respect of Muslims who are trying to be devout themselves. But since the Christian practices are less legalistic and come from inner motivation, the genuineness may be appealing.
VI. Salvation and Paradise
Judgment day looms large in Islam, and the hope of entering paradise is a strong motivation for Muslims. But since their judgment is basically works-based, one never knows how good one may have to be, and there is always fear of God and insecurity. Christians can offer a gracious view of salvation in which Christ, our substitute, kept God’s law for us and offers forgiveness for all of our sins. God as a loving Father is also of great appeal to many Muslims who have become Christians.
VII. Religion and Culture
Muslims believe Western culture is corrupted by sex, drugs and alcohol. Muslims believe women are to be modest, and Western women are thought to have loose morals based on the way we dress and the images seen in media. It may be useful to point out that Christians also disapprove of many of the cultural images that are so widespread in society, and these do not represent Christianity but rather the secular culture in which most Christians find themselves living. While we may not wish to adopt the strict Islamic culture, we might appreciate their willingness to live in a counter-cultural way in the midst of the moral decay surrounding us.
VIII. List of “Do’s and Don’ts”
Do—live a righteous lifestyle, build relationships, practice hospitality, ask questions as a learner, explain your beliefs, talk about Jesus, pray with and for Muslim friends, treat your Bible with respect, be gender sensitive, observe body language, practice modesty
Don’t—assume Muslims know what Christians believe, be surprised if you are rejected or treated suspiciously, treat them as hostile or strange, insult the prophet Muhammad, argue, use your left (unclean) hand, get into compromising situations with a member of the opposite sex, assume Muslims are thinking the same way as you do.
1. Jesus’ Dates
The Dating of Jesus’ Life
Dating in the Ancient World.
Josephus, Ant 15.380
Josephus, Ant 16.136
Year of Jesus’ Birth.
Josephus, Ant 17. 342-44; 17.354; 18.1-10.
Josephus, Ant 15.62-87
Josephus, Ant 15.161-73, 15.218-31, Ant 17.180-81, 88-92
Start and Length of Ministry.
Velleius Paterculus 2.121
Suetonius, Tiberius 21
1 Macc 1:20
1 Macc 4:52
A Complicating Factor.
Josephus, Ant 15.421
Josephus, War 1.401
Josephus, Ant 15.380
The Year of Jesus’ Death.
Josephus, Ant 18.106; 224; War 2.180
Josephus, Ag. Appian (Civil War 2.149),
Plutarch (Caesar 62-67),
Suetonius (Caesar 81.2; Augustus 100.2)
Dio Cassius 106.3
Philo, Leg 159-61
Josephus, Ant 15.55-59; War 2.169-74
Josephus, Ant 18.60-62; War 2.175-77
Philo, Leg 299-305
Related Topics: Incarnation
2. Extra-Biblical Evidence for Jesus: Signs of His Presence from Outside Scripture
The Evidence from Roman or Roman Empire Sources
Suetonius, Claudias 25.4. De Vita Caesarum
Life of Nero 16.2
Tacitus, Annals xv.44.
Pliny the Younger, Epistles x.96-97.
Julius Africanus on Thallus
Lucian of Samasota, The Passing of Peregrinus.
Source from a Syrian Philosopher
Mara bar Sarapion.
Josephus, Antiquities 18.116-19
Josephus, Antiquities 20.200,
Josephus, Antiquities 20.200
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 1.1.7-8
Eusebius, Demonstration of the Gospel 3.5.105-06
Origen, Against Celsus 1.47
Origen, Commentary on Matthew 10.17.
Rabbinic Sources and Evidence of Debate with the Church Fathers
b Sanh 43a and 107b
b ‘Abodah Zerah 27b, 16b-17a
Tosefta, Shehitat Hullin
‘Abodah Zerah 16b-17a
‘Abodah Zerah 27b
Justin, Dialogue 69:7
Justin, First Apology 30
Justin, Dialogue 108
Origen, Contra Celsum 1:68.
Justin’s Dialogue 69:7
Related Topics: Incarnation
3. Historical Backgrounds to the Gospels
The Historical Background to Judaism from the Babylonian Exile to Roman Occupation: Understanding the Complexity of Judaism in Jesus’ Time
The Sources for Understanding Jewish History and Second Temple Judaism
The Old Testament (LXX)
The Apocrypha
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.
The Dead Sea Scrolls, e.g., 4Q175
Josephus, Antiquities,
Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Against Apion, The Life of Flavius Josephus
Philo of Alexandria
Midrashim.
Midrash Rabbah,
Mishnah.
Talmud.
The Historical Backdrop to Second Temple Judaism and the Life of Jesus
Homer’s Illiad
The Septuagint (LXX)
The Letter of Aristeas 47-51; 307-311
1 Maccabees 1:14-15
2 Maccabees 4:10-17
Sirach 50:1-21
2 Maccabees 5:15-26
1 Maccabees 1:25-28
Livy, History of Rome XLV. 12
1 Maccabees 1:41-64
1 Maccabees 4:36-61
2 Maccabees 10:1-8
1 Maccabees 13:41
1 Maccabees 14:41
Josephus, Antiquities 13.299
Josephus, Antiquities 13.288-298
Josephus, Jewish Wars 1.65
Josephus, Antiquities 13.372-73
Josephus, Antiquities 14.401
Josephus, Antiquities 14.430
Josephus, Antiquities 14.4-7
Josephus, Antiquities14.8-13
Josephus, Antiquities 14.19-21
Josephus, Antiquities 14.41-46
Josephus, Antiquities 14.48-53
Josephus, Antiquities 14.72
Psalms of Solomon 2:1-21
Josephus, Antiquities 14.77
Josephus, Antiquities 14.73
Josephus, Antiquities 14. 82-83, 101-103
Josephus, Antiquities 14.140-55
Psalms of Solomon 2:22-35
Dio Cassius 42.5
Josephus, Antiquities 14.158-184
Josephus, Antiquities 14.281
Josephus, Antiquities 14.301-313
Josephus, Antiquities 14.326
Josephus, Antiquities 14.365-366
Josephus, Antiquities 14.366
Josephus, Antiquities 14.369
Josephus, Antiquities 14.377-385
Josephus, Antiquities 14.477-491
Josephus, Antiquities 15.8
Josephus, Antiquities 14.491
Josephus, Jewish Wars 1.240-241
Josephus, Antiquities 15.55
Josephus, Antiquities 15.62-63
Josephus, Antiquities 15.75-76
Josephus, Antiquities 15.161
Josephus, Antiquities 15.189-93
Josephus, Antiquities 15.331-341
Josephus, Jewish Wars 1.414
Josephus, Antiquities 16.136-41
Josephus, Antiquities 15.267-268
Josephus, Antiquities 17.314
Josephus, Antiquities 17.317-318
Josephus, Antiquities 17.342-344
Josephus, Antiquities 18.28
Josephus, Antiquities 17.354; 18.1-10
Josephus, Antiquities 18.26, 35
Josephus, Antiquities 18.55
Josephus, Antiquities 18.57-59
Philo, Embassy to Gaius 38 299-305
Josephus, Antiquities 18.85-89
4. Social-Cultural Life
Key Elements to the Social-Cultural Background of Jesus’ Time: Appreciating the World and Life of Israel and Galilee under the Romans
Population
Sibylline Oracles, 3.271
Josephus, War 2.398
Josephus, War 7.43
Strabo
Josephus, Antiquities14.115
Philo, Flaccus 7.46
Philo, Flaccus, 6.43
Josephus, Contra Apion, 1.197
Geography-Agriculture-Travel
Values, Literacy, Life Expectancy
Wisdom 7:1-2
Philo, Special Laws 3.169-71, 178
Sirach 42:12-14
m. Aboth 5.21
m Sotah 3.4
Family and Home
m Kethuboth 4.4-5
Pesahim 3.7
Ketuboth 5.2
Shebiith 7.4
Halla 2.7
Politics and Power
Economics
m Nedarim 6.4
Josephus, Antiquities 16.153-155
Josephus, Antiquities 14.203
Religion
1 Maccabees
Psalms of Solomon
1 Maccabees 1:12-15
1 Maccabees 1:15
1 Maccabees 1:20-21
Jubilees 2:17-22
Jubilees 50:6-13
CD 10-12
m Shabbath 7.2
m Tohoroth
Josephus, Antiquities 15.380, 420-421
Josephus, Antiquities 20.219
Ag. Apion 2.102-105
Josephus, Jewish War 6.126
Josephus, Jewish War 5.199
m Middot 2.5
m. Tamid 1.4
Josephus, Jewish War 5.219
Josephus, Ag. Apion 2.108
Josephus, Antiquities 7.365
m. Sukkah 5.6
m Tamid 4
Josephus, Antiquities 3.230-232
Philo, Special Laws 1.226; 235
Josephus, Antiquities 17.214
Josephus, Antiquities 3.248-249
Jubilees 49:16, 18, 20-21
Philo, Special Laws 2.145-149
Philo, Questions on Exodus 1.10
Josephus, Antiquities 14.260
Josephus, Antiquities 15.50
m Sukkah 5.4
Josephus, Antiquities 3.264
m Yoma 8.1
m. Yoma 3.8
Sirach 50:14-21
1 Maccabees 4:36-59
Josephus, Antiquities 18.16.17
Psalms of Solomon 17–18
Testament of Reuben 6:7-8
Testament of Judah 21:1-5
Testament of Dan 5:10-11
Testament of Joseph 19:5-11
The Messianic Rule=1QSa; see esp. 2:20
4QpIsa 8–10:23
CD 6:11; 12:22-23; 13:20-22; 14:18-19; 19:9-11; 19:34-20:1
1 Enoch 39–71, esp. 46:1-5; 48:2-7; 62:3-14; 63:11; 69:27–70:1; 71:17;
4 Ezra (= 2 Esdras) 13
1 Maccabees 14:41
Testament of Levi 8:14-15
Philo, Special Laws 1.11 [64-65]
4QTest; 1QS 9:11
Sirach 48:1-11
Key Sects
Josephus, Antiquities, 18.16-17.
Josephus, Jewish War 2.164-165).
Josephus, Antiquities 13.171
Josephus, Antiquities 13.288-298
Josephus, Antiquities 18.12-15
Josephus, Jewish War 2.162-163
Josephus, Life 2.12
Josephus, Antiquities 17.141-142
Josephus, Jewish War 1.648
Josephus, Jewish War 1.78-81
Josephus, Antiquities 13.311-313
Philo, Good Man 76-77
Philo, Hypothetica 11.8-9
Philo, Every Good Man 86-87
Philo, Hypothetica 11.10-11
Josephus, Jewish War 2.122-125
Josephus, Antiquities 18.20
Josephus, Jewish War 2.128
Josephus, Antiquities 18.18-22
Josephus, Antiquities 14.450
Josephus, Jewish War 1.326
Josephus, Antiquities 18.23-25
Josephus, Antiquities 18.7-8
Related Topics: Bibliology (The Written Word)
5. Critical Methodology and the Gospels
The Historical-Literary Approach to the Gospels: Understanding Critical Methods Scholars Use to Study the Gospels
The Discussion about the Order of the Gospels and Source Criticism
Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses III.1.1
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History III.39.14-17
Justin, Dialogue with Trypho 106.9-10
Clement of Alexandria, Adumbrationes in epistolas canonicas
Tertullian, Treatise against Marcion IV.5.3
Old Latin Prologue to Mark
Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses III.1.1
Tertullian, Treatise against Marcion IV.5.3
Muratorian Canon lines 1-4
Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses II.1.1
Muratorian Canon line 9
Old Latin Prologue, Recension 2
Tertullian, Treatise against Marcion IV.2.1-5
The Anti-Marcionite Prologue to Luke
Old Latin Prologue
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History V.8.1-5; III.24-25.
Papias, Interpretations of the Lord’s Logia
Augustine, De Consensu Evangelistarum (The Harmony of the Gospels), I.1-4; I.3.6; I.4.7; IV.10.11)
The Issue of Differences of Wording (Ipsissima Verba and Ipsissima Vox) and Redaction Criticism
Gospel of the Ebionites
Looking for the Essence of Jesus and the Three Quests for Historical Jesus
Gospel of Thomas
Related Topics: Bible Study Methods, Gospels
6. Birth and Childhood
The Birth and Childhood of Jesus: The Hope of Promise (Matthew 1–2; Luke 1–2)
1. The Prologue of Luke (Luke 1:1-4; Aland # 1; Orchard # 1; Huck-Greeven # 5)
2 Maccabees 2:19-31
Josephus’ Antiquities Preface 1-4,
The Letter to Aristeas 1-8
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War1:21-22
2. The Genealogy of Matthew (Matthew 1:1-17; Aland # 6; Orchard # 4; Huck-Greeven # 1)
Josephus Vita 1
3. The Announcement of John the Baptist’s Birth (Luke 1:5-25; Aland # 2; Orchard # 9; Huck-Greeven # 6)
Jewish midrash on Genesis 38.14 (23c)
m Tamid 5–7
Origen, Contra Celsus 1.28
Letter of Aristeas 95
4. The Birth Announcement to Mary (Luke 1:36-38; Aland # 3; Orchard # 10; Huck-Greeven # 7)
Psalms of Solomon 17–18
Justin Martyr, Trypho 43, 45, 100
Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book III, xxi.5
Tertullian, Against the Jews, 9
Ascension of Isaiah 10.2
Gospel of the Nativity of Mary 1.1
5. Mary’s Visit to Elizabeth (Luke 1:39-56; Aland # 4; Orchard # 11; Huck-Greeven # 8)
6. The Birth of John the Baptist and Praise for His Arrival (Aland # 5; Orchard # 12; Huck-Greeven # 9)
7. Joseph’s Concern over Mary’s Condition and the Announcement to Him (Matthew 1:18-25; Aland # 7; Orchard # 5; Huck-Greeven # 2)
m. Sota 1:1, 5; 5:1
Psalms of Solomon 17–18
8. The Birth of Jesus in Bethlehem (Luke 2:1-7; Aland # 7; Orchard # 13a; Huck-Greeven # 10a)
9. The Adoration by the Shepherds (Luke 2:8-20; Aland # 8; Orchard # 13b; Huck-Greeven # 10b)
1QH 4:32-33; 11:9
The Eighteen Benedictions, Shemoneh Esreh, no. 17
10. A Word to Obedient Parents at the Temple (Luke 2:21-38; Aland # 9; Orchard # 14; Huck-Greeven # 11a)
11. The Visit of the Wise Men to Bethelehem (Matthew 2:1-12; Aland # 8: Orchard # 6; Huck-Greeven # 3)
12. A Reenactment of Israel’s Journey: Jesus to Israel and Back alongside Unjust Suffering (Matthew 2:13-21; Aland # 10; Orchard # 7-8a; Huck-Greeven # 4)
13. To Nazareth in Galilee (Matthew 2:22-23; Luke 2:39-40; Aland # 11; Orchard # 8b, 15; Huck-Greeven # 4b, 11b)
Josephus, Antiquities 17.11.1-5.299-323
14. Jesus at the Temple; Luke 2:41-52; Aland # 12; Orchard # 16; Huck-Greeven # 12)
Related Topics: Incarnation
7. Backdrop to Ministry
The Backdrop to Jesus’ Ministry: John the Baptist, Jesus’ Baptism and Temptations (Matthew 3:1–4:11; Mark 1:1-13; Luke 3:1–4:13)
15. The Introduction to Mark (Mark 1:1; Aland # 1; Orchard # 2: Huck-Greeven # 13a)
Proverbs 1:1 LXX
Ecclesiastes 1:1 LXX
Song of Songs 1:1 LXX
Justin Martyr, Apology 1.66.
16. John the Baptist and Scripture (Mark 1:2-6; Matthew 3:1-6; Luke 3:1-6; Aland # 13; Orchard # 17; Huck-Greeven # 13b)
Sirach 48:10
1QS 8:12-16; 9:17-20
Josephus, Jewish War, 2.259-261
Josephus, Antiquities, 18.116-119
17. John’s Preaching of Repentance (Matthew 3:7-10; Luke 3:7-9; Aland # 14; Orchard # 18; Huck-Greeven #14)
18. What Then Shall We Do? (Luke 3:10-14; Aland # 15; Orchard # 19; Huck-Greeven #15)
Josephus, Antiquities 12.4.2-9 160-220
Suetonius, Tiberius 32
Dio Cassius, Roman History 57.10.5
Sirach 4:1, 4, 8; 7:32; 10:23; 11:12; 34:21.
19. The One Mightier to Come (Matthew 3:11-12; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:15-18; Aland # 16; Orchard # 20; Huck-Greeven # 16)
Mekilta de Rabbi Ishmael, Nezakin 1 on Exodus 21:2
Jubilees 9:15; 36:10;
1 Enoch 10:6; 54:6; 90: 24-27
2 Esdras 7:36-38; 13:4;
Psalms of Solomon 15:4-7
1QH 3:28-31; 1QS 2:8, 15; 4:13
20. John’s Imprisonment (Luke 3:19-20; noted later in Matthew 14:3-4; Mark 6:17-18; Aland # 17; Orchard # 21; Huch-Greeven # 17)
Josephus, Antiquities 18.109-115
Josephus, Antiquities 18.116-119
Josephus, Antiquities 16.42; 7.338, 342, 356, 374, 384; 9.236
Josephus, War 2.139
21. Jesus’ Baptism (Matthew 3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21-22: Aland # 18; Orchard # 22; Huck-Greeven # 18)
Jerome, Against Pelagius III.2.
22. The Genealogy of Jesus (Luke 3:23-38; Aland # 19; Orchard # 23; Huck-Greeven # 19)
23. The Temptations of Jesus (Matthew 4:1-11; Mark 1:12-13; Luke 4:10-13; Aland # 20; Orchard # 24; Huck-Greeven # 20)
Testament of Naphtali 8:4
Related Topics: Christology