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8. The God Who Seeks the Lost (Titus 3:3-7)

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This message by Tom Sorensen was preached at Littleton Bible Chapel on August 8, 2011 in this expositional series through the book of Titus.

Related Topics: Character of God, Soteriology (Salvation)

9. The Whole Gospel for the Whole Person (Titus 3:8-15)

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8/14/11

I. Announcements

II. Introduction and Recap

a. We are in our final passage on Titus where Paul concludes his letter and repeats some of his major themes he has been emphasizing throughout.

i. Outline of the book:

1. Instructions for godliness in the Church (1)

2. Instructions for godliness in the Home (2)

3. Instructions for godliness in the World (3)

b. In Paul’s mind there is a clear connection between doctrine and application.

i. He strives to show how the knowledge of the truth accords with godliness.

ii. Recap:

1. Paul is interested in how the knowledge of the truth affects our day to day lives. Remember, the apostle is a practical man. He is interested in how the gospel affects our day to day lives. He isn’t just interested in theory, he is interested in godliness, and he knows that a right knowledge of the truth leads to godliness.

2. Has the message of the gospel affected every part of your life?

c. Paul has a high view of two things:

i. Correct Doctrine.

ii. Correct Living.

iii. Doctrine and Duty go together.

d. Outline of this message:

i. Paul’s Logical Conclusion- The Gospel Leads to Godliness (3:8)

ii. Paul’s Warning about Speech- Avoid Fruitless Discussions (3:9)

iii. Paul’s Warning about Division- Avoid False Teachers (3:10-11)

iv. Paul’s Final Instructions (3:12-15)

III. Paul’s Logical Conclusion- The Gospel Leads to Godliness (3:8)

a. “The saying is trustworthy…”

i. There are five trustworthy sayings in the Pastoral Epistle’s.

b. “Insist on these things”

i. What are “these things?”

ii. Insist on these things!

c. “so that”

i. Paul’s gospel has a “so that”

ii. There is a therefore.

iii. There must be a therefore in your life.

iv. I have heard the gospel, therefore—action!

v. God has been kind to me and shown me grace and generated a work in my heart, therefore.

vi. This conclusion is stated clearly throughout this letter.

1. 1:1- the knowledge of truth accords with godliness.

2. 2:11- the grace of God has appeared…training us to renounce ungodliness, training us to be self-controlled.

3. 3:8- the gospel has taken root…so that those who have believed in God may devote themselves to good works.

d. “Be careful to devote themselves to good works”

i. What kind of good works does Paul have in mind?

ii. Lincoln story (from two weeks ago).

e. Christians who have understood the gospel are to be godly and devote themselves to good works.

i. Paul is guarding against hypocrisy!

ii. Paul wants a whole Christian. He isn’t interested in someone who just believes certain truths, he wants those truths to affect the whole person.

f. Let me explain this in more detail…

i. The Gospel that Paul proclaimed and was delivered to Him from God, affects the whole person—Mind, Heart, and Will.

ii. This is what He does in Titus 3:8.

iii. Paul is after a WHOLE Christian!

IV. Paul’s Warning about Speech- Avoid Fruitless Discussions (3:9)

a. Avoid four things:

i. Foolish controversies.

ii. Genealogies

iii. Dissensions

iv. Quarrels about the Law.

v. Priorities in our speech.

b. Paul is calling for priorities in our speech with each other.

i. We are to guard our speech.

ii. Our speech is to be profitable.

V. Paul’s Warning about Division- Avoid False Teachers (3:10-11)

a. The False teachers were divisive.

i. Remember in chapter 1 there are “many” of them and they are twisted, insubordinate, empty-talkers, deceivers.

ii. Warn him once, then twice, then avoid him.

iii. The person is to have multiple opportunities to repent.

iv. False teaching is damaging.

v. The worst attacks come from within.

vi. They are trying to deceive (26).

vii. God uses false teachers to purge the church.

b. The Lesson: Don’t be divisive.

i. Examples.

i. Stop divisive behavior!

VI. Paul’s Final Instructions (3:12-15)

a. Paul gives his instructions and travel plans, then makes another comment on good works (3:14)

i. V. 14

ii. We need not comment on this further, but you get the idea.

b. “Grace be with you all”

i. Don’t forget that God is for you not against you!

ii. Don’t forget that God has favored you!

VII. Application: The big take away from Titus is that the gospel affects the whole person.

a. Apply the gospel to the whole person.

i. Mind

ii. Heart

iii. Will

Related Topics: Christian Life, Soteriology (Salvation)

7. Resistance to Boundaries

Article contributed by Probe Ministries
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Editor's Note: an audio version of this message is not available. We apologize for this inconvenience.

Boundary-setting is hard because IT'S WAR. There will be skirmishes and battles. There will be disputes. There will be losses.

The battles fall into two categories: outside resistance (from others) and inside resistance (from ourselves).

Outside resistance, from others

Angry Reactions

The most common resistance you get from other people is anger. People who get angry at others for setting boundaries have a character problem. They are self-centered. They think the world should revolve around them and their comfort. They see others as extensions of themselves.

Proverbs 19:19 A hot-tempered man must pay the penalty; if you rescue him, you will have to do it again.

The chronically angry person has a character problem. If you reinforce this character problem, it will return tomorrow and the next day in other situations. It is not the situation that's making the person angry, but the feeling that they are entitled to things from others.

Some lessons about dealing with an angry person:

1. The person who is mad at you for setting boundaries is the one with the problem. If you don't realize this, you may think YOU'RE the one with the problem. Maintaining your boundaries is good for other people; it will help them learn life lessons they should have learned from their original family.

2. You must view anger realistically. Anger is only a feeling inside the other person. It cannot jump across the room and hurt you. It cannot "get inside" you unless you allow it. Staying separate from another person's anger is vitally important. Let the anger be in the other person. If you either rescue him from his anger, or take it on yourself, the angry person will not get better and you will be in bondage.

Two companies were working together on a project. The president of one company got very angry with 3 men from the other company because they wouldn't do something he wanted them to do. 2 of the 3 partners lost sleep, worried and fretted about it. They wondered what they would do if the president didn't like them anymore. They finally called a meeting with #3 guy to talk strategy. They were prepared to change all their plans to appease Mr. Angry. When the two told the third partner of their plans to give away the store, he just looked at them and said, "What's the big deal? So he's angry. What else is on the agenda?"

They all began to laugh as they saw how silly they were being. They were acting like kids with an angry parent, as if their psychological survival depended on this president's being happy. The two both came from homes where anger was used to control, where they were children dependent on an angry parent whose anger frightened them. The third guy saw it from an adult's perspective, and he knew that if this man couldn't get his act together, they could move on. So they had him meet with the president. He confronted the man, saying that if he was able to get over his anger and wanted to work with them, fine. But if not, they would go somewhere else.

3. Don't let anger be a cue for you to do something. People without boundaries respond automatically to the anger of others. They rescue, they seek approval, or they get angry themselves. There is great power in doing nothing. Don't let an out-of-control person be the cue for you to change your course. Just let them be angry and decide for yourself what you need to do.

2-year-olds with temper tantrums expect that their anger will push their parents' buttons and the parents will capitulate and give them what they want. It's best to think, "Your anger is about YOU. Get over it. I ain't giving in." Sometimes grownups with anger problems are 2-year-olds in big bodies, but the best reaction is the same.

4. Be sure to have your support system in place. If you're going to set limits with a person with an anger problem, talk to the people in your support system first and make a plan. Know what you'll say. Anticipate the other person's anger. "Here comes the anger, just as I expected" takes (some of) the sting out it. Role-play the situation.

5. Don't allow the angry person to get you angry. Keep a loving position while speaking the truth in love. Don't let their fleshly anger be contagious and infect YOU.

6. Be prepared to use physical distance and other limits that enforce consequences. One woman's life was changed when she realized she could say, "I will not allow myself to be yelled at. I will go into the other room until you decide you can talk about this without attacking me. When you can do that, I will talk to you."

These are serious steps, and they don't need to be taken with anger. You can empathize lovingly and stay in the conversation, without giving in or being controlled. "I understand that you are upset that I will not do that for you. I'm sorry you feel that way. How can I help?"

Just remember that helping does not include changing your NO to a YES. Offer other options.

If you keep your boundaries, those who are angry at you will have to learn self-control for the first time, instead of "other control." When they discover they can't control you any more, they will find a different way to relate. But, as long as they can control you with their anger, they will not change.

The reason we get ourselves in the place where we can be controlled by another person's anger is that we are dependent on that person. Lots of women are financially dependent on their husbands, so the husband can control them. The one with the power is the one with the control. But sometimes we are controlled because we have unhealthy relationships with other people.

We confuse people with God. What is healthy with people is unhealthy with God. What is unhealthy with people is healthy with God. Healthy human relationships: "I care for you, but I don't need you to survive." Healthy relationship with God: "I need you desperately." Unhealthy human relationship: "I need you desperately." Unhealthy relationship with God: "I care for you, but I don't need you to survive."

Sometimes, the hard truth is that they will not talk to you anymore, or they will leave the relationship if they can't control you anymore. This is a true risk. God does this every day. He says He will only do things the right way and that He will not participate in evil. And when people choose their own ways, He lets them go. Sometimes we have to do the same.

Reminder: people who get angry when others set boundaries have a character problem. This could be you. If you realize this, confess it as sin and invite the Lord to transform your heart. If you feel "How dare you!" whenever anyone sets a boundary with you. . . you have a character problem.

Guilt Messages

A man called his mother, and she answered the phone very weakly, with hardly any voice at all. The man thought she was sick and asked, "Mom, what's wrong?"

"I guess my voice doesn't work very well anymore. . . No one ever calls me since you children left home. . . "

No weapon in the arsenal of the controlling person is as strong as the guilt messages. People with poor boundaries almost always internalize guilt messages leveled at them; they obey guilt-inducing statements that try to make them feel bad.

  • "How could you do this to me after all I've done for you?"
  • "It seems that you could think about someone other than yourself for once."
  • "If you really loved me, you would make this telephone call for me."
  • "It seems like you would care enough about the family to do this one thing."
  • "How can you abandon the family like this?"
  • "You know how it's turned out in the past when you haven't listened to me."
  • "After all, you never had to lift a finger around here. It seems like it's time you did."
  • "You know that if I had it, I would give it to you."
  • "You have no idea how much we sacrificed for you."
  • "Maybe after I'm dead and gone, you'll be sorry."

Sometimes guilt manipulation comes dressed up in God talk:

  • "How can you call yourself a Christian?"
  • "Doesn't the Bible say 'Honor your parents'?"
  • "You're not being very submissive. I'm sure that grieves the Lord."
  • "I thought Christians were supposed to think of others."
  • "What kind of religion would teach you to abandon your own family?"
  • "You must really have a spiritual problem to be acting this way."

People who say these things are trying to make you feel guilty about your choices. They are trying to make you feel bad:

  • about deciding how you will spend your own time or resources
  • about growing up and separating from your parents
  • about having a life separate from a friend or spiritual leader.

Dealing with Guilt

1. Recognize guilt messages. They are not sent for your growth and your good. They are given to manipulate and control.

2. Guilt messages are really anger in disguise. The guilt senders are failing to openly admit their anger at you for what you're doing, probably because that would expose how controlling they really are.

3. Guilt messages hide sadness and hurt. Instead of expressing and owning these feelings, people try to steer the focus onto you and what you're doing. Recognize that guilt messages are sometimes an expression of a person's sadness, hurt, or need. The guy who called his mother

4. If guilt works on you, recognize that this is your problem and not theirs. If you continue to blame other people for "making" you feel guilty, they still have power over you, and you are saying that you will only feel good if they stop doing that. You are giving them control over your life. Stop blaming other people. Think of guilt messages as slime. "Ooooh, I got slimed again." Don't let it stay there, wash it off. How? Call it what it is: She's using guilt on me and I choose to not let it stick.

Another powerful defense against being slimed by guilt messages is to remember the appropriate response to "all that I've done for you": GRATITUDE. Period.

5. Don't explain or justify. Only guilty children do that. You don't owe guilt senders an explanation. Just tell them what you have chosen to do. If you freely chose to tell them WHY you made a certain decision, that's OK. But you don't owe them an explanation. Notice how God doesn't think He owes us an explanation for His actions.

Mary and Martha both played the guilt card on Jesus when Lazarus died: "Lord, if You had been here, my brother would not have died." Jesus didn't accept the guilt message.

To Martha: "Your brother will rise again."
To Mary: "Where have you laid him?"

6. Be assertive and interpret their messages as being about THEIR feelings.

  • "It sounds like you are angry that I chose to. . ."
  • "It understand that you are very unhappy about what I have decided to do. I'm sorry you feel that way."
  • "I realize this is disappointing to you. How can I help?"
  • "It's hard for you when I have other things to do, isn't it?"

The main principle is this: Empathize with the distress people are feeling, but make it clear that it is THEIR distress.

Remember, if you react, you have lost your boundaries.

"Like a city whose walls are broken down is a man without self-control." Prov. 25:28

Curt: "Every time I made you mad, I won."

If other people have the power to get you to react, they are inside your walls, inside your boundaries. Stop reacting. Be proactive. Give empathy. "Sounds like life is hard right now. Tell me about it." Sometimes people who give guilt messages just want to tell someone how hard it is. Be a listener, but don't take the blame.

Remember the mother who tried to make her son feel guilty? A man with good boundaries would empathize with his mother: "Sounds like you're feeling lonely, Mom." Look for the heart issue underlying the guilt message, and respond to THAT.

Consequences and Countermoves

Controlling parents will often react to boundary setting by cutting off resources. They will lavish goodies on siblings to punish the one who is setting limits. They will be available to others who play according to their rules, but not the limit-setter.

The consequences of setting boundaries will be countermoves by controlling people. They will react to your boundary-setting.

1. Figure out what it is you're getting for your lack of boundaries and what you stand to lose by setting boundaries. It may be money. It may be a relationship.

You face a risk in setting boundaries and gaining control of your life. In most instances, the results are not drastic. . . as soon as the other person finds out you're serious, they start to change. They find the limit-setting to be something good for them. As Jesus says, you have "won them."

Prov 27:6 Faithful are the wounds of a friend, But deceitful are the kisses of an enemy.

The rebuke of a friend turns out to be good medicine.

Good, honest people need discipline, and they respond to limits. Even if reluctantly. Others have what psychologists call "Character disorders"; they don't want to take responsibility for their own lives and actions. When their friends and spouses and family members refuse to take responsibility for them, they move on to find other "marks."

When you count the cost of the consequences, as difficult or as costly as they seem, they hardly compare to the loss of your "very self." The message of the Bible is clear: Know the risk and prepare.

2. Decide if you are willing to risk loss. For some, the price is too high. Intervention specialists caution the family to think hard about whether they are ready to enforce the consequences they agreed on if the alcoholic does not get treatment. You must decide if you are willing to enforce the consequences before you set the boundaries.

3. Be diligent about making up for what you have lost. You may have to find a way to make money a different way. You may need to find new child care arrangements, make new friends, or learn to deal with loneliness.

4. Do it. When you have a plan, be like Peter: Get out of the boat and make your way to Jesus. The first step will be the hardest.

5. Realize that the hard part is just beginning. Setting the limit is not the end of the battle, but the beginning. Go back to your support group and allow them to nourish you spiritually and emotionally. Don't be a Lone Ranger.

Physical Resistance

  • Find other people to help you set limits on the abuse.
  • Find a counselor who has dealt with abusive spouses before.
  • Arrange to call people in your church if your spouse or friend gets violent. One pastor has his elder visit an abusive man and say, "Usually after a confrontation like this, the abuser makes his spouse suffer. I will be calling your wife tomorrow to find out how you acted after I left."
  • Arrange for a place to stay overnight if you are threatened, no matter what the hour.
  • Call the police and get an attorney.
  • Get a restraining order on the person if he won't respect any other limit.
  • Do it for yourself and for your children.
  • Don't allow this to go on. Seek help.

Pain of Others

When we begin to set boundaries with people we love, a really hard thing happens: they hurt. They may feel a hole where you used to plug up their aloneness, their disorganization, or their financial irresponsibility. Whatever it is, they will feel a loss.

If you love them, this will be hard to watch. Remember that your boundaries are both NECESSARY for you and HELPFUL for them. If you have been enabling them to be irresponsible, your limit-setting may nudge them toward responsibility.

Blamers

Blamers will act as though your saying no is killing them, and they will react with a "How could you do this to me?" message. They are like to cry, pout, or get angry.

Remember that blamers have a character problem. If they make it sound as though their misery is because you are not giving something to them, they are blaming and demanding what is yours.

This is very different from a humble person asking for what they need. Listen to what the other person is saying; if they're trying to blame you for something they should take responsibility for, confront them.

People often hit up siblings for a "loan." "You're lucky and I'm unlucky, so you need to help me out." (My luck looks like hard work and responsibility to me!) When someone says no, their blaming message can sound like, "I can't get a job without a car and it's your fault. I can't get dates without a decent car, so my loneliness is your fault. It's all because of you."

Response: "I'm sorry your career isn't going well but your career is your problem. I hope things work out for you."

Related Topics: Boundaries, Messages, Spiritual Life, Women

Bible Teacher's Guide: Building Foundations For A Godly Marriage: A Pre-Marriage, Marriage Counseling Study

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Building Foundations for a Godly Marriage can be used as an eight-week small group study on marriage, a pre-marital or marital counseling curriculum, or simply to help one have a deeper understanding of marriage. It is good for pre-married couples, married couples, and singles studying the topic in a small group.

The focus of this study will be biblical premarital counseling, but the principles taught will be great for married couples as well. Unlike many premarital courses, we will not be focusing on psychology but on the Bible. We will do this because we believe in the sufficiency of Scripture. Second Timothy 3:16-17 says: “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.”

The “good work” Scripture will prepare you for through this study is marriage. God made marriage (Gen 1:27). He ordained it; it is meant to reflect him (cf. 1 Cor 11:3, Eph 5:22-27), and he gives instructions in his Word on how it should be developed and maintained.

In this study, we will consider eight foundations for a godly marriage: God’s plan, gender roles, commitment, communication, conflict resolution, training children, finances, and intimacy. Like the foundation of any building, if there are cracks structurally, the house will have problems and may not last. As mentioned, each of these foundations will be built or restored using the Word of God. In speaking about the Christian’s life, Christ said the house built on the rock of his Word will stand (Matt 7:24-25). Certainly, this is true of marriages as well.

This book is also available for purchase here on Amazon.

Related Topics: Marriage

1. Introduction—How, Then, Shall We Live? (Luke 22:31-38)

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Something historic has been taking place in our nation. Two Supreme Court decisions which have occurred in my lifetime have signaled a significant change, not only in our culture, but in our laws. Roe v. Wade (1973) legalized the killing of the innocent and defenseless unborn. In Obergefell v. Hodges (June 26, 2015) same sex marriage was declared to be legal in every state of the union. People have much to say on the subject, Christians among them. Sadly, a great deal of Christian reaction is sub-par when compared to the Scriptures. This is a time when Christians need to think, act, and speak biblically. This message will commence a series of messages on the Christian mindset and lifestyle which God requires of His people, particularly in times of opposition and persecution. This lesson focuses on our Lord’s words to His disciples shortly before His death, and it could not be more relevant to Christians today. Let us listen well to our Lord and to His inspired and inerrant words, so that we may “gird up the loins of our minds” (1 Peter 1:13, KJV, NKJV) and manifest God’s holiness to a godless world (1 Peter 1:14-16).

Our text for this introductory article is found in Luke 22:31-38, but it is set against the backdrop of our Lord’s commission to His disciples at the outset of His earthly ministry. This earlier commission is found in Luke 9:1-9:

1 After Jesus called the twelve together, he gave them power and authority over all demons and to cure diseases, 2 and he sent them out to proclaim the kingdom of God and to heal the sick.

3 He said to them, “Take nothing for your journey– no staff, no bag, no bread, no money, and do not take an extra tunic. 4 Whatever house you enter, stay there until you leave the area.

5 Wherever they do not receive you, as you leave that town, shake the dust off your feet as a testimony against them.” 6 Then they departed and went throughout the villages, proclaiming the good news and healing people everywhere. 7 Now Herod the tetrarch heard about everything that was happening, and he was thoroughly perplexed, because some people were saying that John had been raised from the dead, 8 while others were saying that Elijah had appeared, and still others that one of the prophets of long ago had risen. 9 Herod said, “I had John beheaded, but who is this about whom I hear such things?” So Herod wanted to learn about Jesus (Luke 9:1-9).1

Here, Jesus is sending out the 12, who are given authority over all demons, and who also are granted the power to heal diseases. This power is given so that their message will be received as authoritative. Their message, as indicated in Matthew 10:7 is, “the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” The disciples, like John the Baptist, were preparing the way of the Lord (Mark 1:1-3).

When Jesus sends out the twelve, He sends them without the supplies that one would normally take on such a mission. In part, this was to teach the disciples to depend upon the Lord to supply their every need, and thus to develop and strengthen their faith (Luke 22:35). But in this mission, God’s provision would not come through miraculous means (e.g. Matthew 17:27), it would come through the people to whom they ministered. This was a test of sorts, an indication of the acceptance or rejection of the disciples and their ministry by those to whom they came. Did they welcome the Lord’s messengers and their message? Were they looking to Jesus as the One who would bring in the kingdom of God? If so, they would receive the Lord’s messengers into their homes, and provide for their needs. If not, the disciples would simply move on to those who were receptive (Matthew 10:11-15).

It is interesting to note Herod’s response here to Jesus and His ministry (as extended by His disciples). Just as Herod had been fascinated by John the Baptist and his ministry, he was likewise interested in Jesus. Perhaps a guilty conscience led him to wonder if Jesus was John raised from the dead. But at this point in our Lord’s ministry, people were eager to hear more about Jesus, and to be the recipients of His healing power. Herod, too, wanted to meet Jesus. Jesus was a popular personality, and thus He could send out the twelve without provisions.

All of this is essential background for our text in Luke chapter 22, for Jesus will refer to the early days of His ministry, when He sent out the twelve without provisions.

31 “Simon, Simon, pay attention! Satan has demanded to have you all, to sift you like wheat, 32but I have prayed for you, Simon, that your faith may not fail. When you have turned back, strengthen your brothers.” 33 But Peter said to him, “Lord, I am ready to go with you both to prison and to death!” 34 Jesus replied, “I tell you, Peter, the rooster will not crow today until you have denied three times that you know me.” 35 Then Jesus said to them, “When I sent you out with no money bag, or traveler’s bag, or sandals, you didn’t lack anything, did you?” They replied, “Nothing.” 36 He said to them, “But now, the one who has a money bag must take it, and likewise a traveler’s bag too. And the one who has no sword must sell his cloak and buy one. 37 For I tell you that this scripture must be fulfilled in me, ‘And he was counted with the transgressors.’ For what is written about me is being fulfilled.” 38 So they said, “Look, Lord, here are two swords.” Then he told them, “It is enough” (Luke 22:31-38).

To grasp what is taking place here, we need to look back and review the preceding verses in this chapter. Here is a summary of the events leading up to our Lord’s new commission:

The Passover is at hand, and the popularity of Jesus is alarming to the Jewish religious leaders (verse 1). They now believed they had no alternative but to kill Jesus, and quickly. We see this resolve boldly stated a few days earlier, in response to our Lord’s raising Lazarus from the dead:

46 But some of them went to the Pharisees and reported to them what Jesus had done. 47 So the chief priests and the Pharisees called the council together and said, “What are we doing? For this man is performing many miraculous signs. 48 If we allow him to go on in this way, everyone will believe in him, and the Romans will come and take away our sanctuary and our nation.” 49 Then one of them, Caiaphas, who was high priest that year, said, “You know nothing at all! 50 You do not realize that it is more to your advantage to have one man die for the people than for the whole nation to perish” (John 11:46-50).

The opponents of our Lord faced a daunting problem. Jesus’ popularity was at an all-time high among the people. The crowds would not tolerate the arrest and murder of Jesus; indeed, they may very well riot. That would be a disaster. And so they resolved to arrest and kill Jesus at a time other than Passover, and in a way other than public stoning, away from the crowds:

1 When Jesus had finished saying all these things, he told his disciples, 2”You know that after two days the Passover is coming, and the Son of Man will be handed over to be crucified.”

3 Then the chief priests and the elders of the people met together in the palace of the high priest, who was named Caiaphas. 4They planned to arrest Jesus by stealth and kill him. 5But they said, “Not during the feast, so that there won’t be a riot among the people” (Matthew 26:1-5).

Judas was the answer to the Jewish leaders’ prayers (so to speak). To carry out their plans they needed the help of someone from among Jesus’ closest followers, who could inform them of Jesus’ activities, and of his whereabouts. Judas, having resolved to betray the Lord Jesus for money (John 12:1-8; Matthew 26:1-16), went to these leaders and offered them a deal they could not refuse: he would give them the opportunity to arrest Jesus at a time and place when it would not be observed by the crowds. It was a bargain made in hell (Satan had entered into Judas’ heart, Luke 22:3).

Our Lord’s plans and previous prophecies required Jesus to be crucified during Passover, as the Passover Lamb. This was the same time that the chief priests and elder did not wish to kill Jesus. Doing so might provoke a riot among the people, something Rome would not like. Jesus took action in such a way as to foil the efforts of Judas (and the religious leaders), and to bring about His death during the feast. First, Jesus kept Judas from knowing where He would observe Passover with His disciples. Even the two sent to make preparations for it did not know until the Lord’s pre-arrangements were made known to them. And when the disciples, including Judas, did gather to celebrate Passover, Jesus caught Judas completely off guard. He told all of His disciples that He was about to be betrayed by one of them (Luke 22:21-22). And then He made it clear to Judas that He knew he was the one who would betray Him.

21 When he had said these things, Jesus was greatly distressed in spirit, and testified, “I tell you the solemn truth, one of you will betray me.” 22The disciples began to look at one another, worried and perplexed to know which of them he was talking about. 23One of his disciples, the one Jesus loved, was at the table to the right of Jesus in a place of honor. 24So Simon Peter gestured to this disciple to ask Jesus who it was he was referring to. 25Then the disciple whom Jesus loved leaned back against Jesus’ chest and asked him, “Lord, who is it?” 26Jesus replied, “It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread after I have dipped it in the dish.” Then he dipped the piece of bread in the dish and gave it to Judas Iscariot, Simon’s son. 27And after Judas took the piece of bread, Satan entered into him. Jesus said to him, “What you are about to do, do quickly.” 28(Now none of those present at the table understood why Jesus said this to Judas. 29Some thought that, because Judas had the money box, Jesus was telling him to buy whatever they needed for the feast, or to give something to the poor.) 30Judas took the piece of bread and went out immediately. (Now it was night.) (John 13:21-30).

Can you imagine the panic which overcame Judas at this moment?

The wicked person flees when there is no one pursuing,
but the righteous person is as confident as a lion (Proverbs 28:1).

Imagine the thoughts racing through Judas’ head. “Did Peter hear what Jesus just said to me? He’ll kill me if he did.” Jesus told Judas he was the betrayer, in front of the rest of the disciples. He could never return to this intimate circle again. And so he fled, never to return, except to betray Jesus. If Jesus were to be captured and killed, it would not be the way the religious leaders – or Judas – wanted it.

But the disciples were oblivious to the conversation between Judas and Jesus. They were too occupied with their own efforts to discern who the culprit was. Their conversation quickly deteriorated, turning from identifying the betrayer to a debate over which of them was the greatest (Luke 22:23-24).2 (After all, the betrayer could not be the greatest, so the greatest among these men could not be the one Jesus spoke of.) Jesus then reminded them that Christian leadership was about serving, while Gentile leadership was about “lording it over” others (Luke 22:25-27). Gentile leadership is about being in control. Christian leadership is about serving with humility (Philippians 2:5ff.).

Jesus then promised His disciples that they would be rewarded for their faithfulness. When He established His kingdom, they would sit on twelve thrones, judging the tribes of Israel (Luke 22:28-30). How this must have set the disciples’ minds to pondering what their future would look like, a future that they believed to be immanent. Based upon his remembrance of our Lord’s words to him in Matthew 16:17-19, Peter must have been feeling optimistic and confident. Good things were in store for him, and soon.

But our Lord’s response to Peter must have hit him like a slap in the face. What a shock it must have been to hear Jesus warn him of his imminent denial, rather than assure him of good times ahead:

31 “Simon, Simon, pay attention! Satan has demanded to have you all, to sift you like wheat,

32 but I have prayed for you, Simon, that your faith may not fail. When you have turned back, strengthen your brothers” (Luke 22:31-32).

Our Lord’s words were shocking. Did Peter (or the others) discern the difference between “betrayal” (Judas) and “denial” (Peter)? Peter was quick to assure Jesus of his devotion, a devotion that would endure even if prison and death were to be the outcome (Luke 22:33-34).

Jesus’ words may sound strange to the reader, just as they did to the apostles. But I think His instruction lies at the heart of the issue, both for Peter, and for Christians today. Peter’s faith in Jesus, and his commitment to follow Him, was based on a mistaken view of what was soon to come. You might even say that Peter and his fellow disciples were following what might be called a “prosperity gospel.” This is not what Jesus taught, but it was what they took away from His words.3 They would soon learn that there would not be an immediate inauguration of the kingdom. Rather than peace and prosperity, suffering and persecution lay ahead for all the disciples. Peter’s first epistle would be dominated by the subject of suffering and persecution.

The disciples had gotten accustomed to being popular and well-received. They saw this as a kind of “first fruits” of what was to come. And they were wrong! Our Lord’s, “But now” in verse 36 introduces a new day that is about to come with our Lord’s arrest, trial, and crucifixion. Because He will be regarded as a criminal, so will His disciples. The “good old days” are soon to be gone, and difficult days lie ahead.

Men’s response to Jesus will likewise determine their response to His messengers (John 15:20-21). But now Jesus’ message and ministry is becoming unpopular, even to the masses. They want a different kind of Messiah, one much more like Barabbas than Jesus. Rather than to daydream of the good things which lie ahead, the disciples must brace up for the difficulties which will surely come their way. They must think and act differently than they have in the past. Instead of expecting a warm welcome they must expect resistance and opposition. Paul’s experience illustrates this:

11 To the present hour we are hungry and thirsty, poorly clothed, brutally treated, and without a roof over our heads. 12We do hard work, toiling with our own hands. When we are verbally abused, we respond with a blessing, when persecuted, we endure, 13when people lie about us, we answer in a friendly manner. We are the world’s dirt and scum, even now (1Corinthians 4:11-13).

Rather than to go their way, expecting to be supported, the disciples must now be prepared to meet their own needs (Luke 22:36-37). Beyond this, Jesus says something even more shocking:

36 He said to them, “But now, the one who has a money bag must take it, and likewise a traveler’s bag too. And the one who has no sword must sell his cloak and buy one. 37For I tell you that this scripture must be fulfilled in me, ‘And he was counted with the transgressors.’ For what is written about me is being fulfilled” (Luke 22:36-37).

Should we take these words about a sword literally? It is quite evident that the disciples did, at least at first. Our Lord’s response, “It is enough” (verse 38) sounds to me like, “Enough of this for now; you don’t really get it yet.” We know that when Peter employed his sword in an effort to prevent Jesus’ arrest our Lord rebuked him:

52 Then Jesus said to him, “Put your sword back in its place! For all who take hold of the sword will die by the sword. 53Or do you think that I cannot call on my Father, and that he would send me more than twelve legions of angels right now? 54How then would the scriptures that say it must happen this way be fulfilled?” (Matthew 26:52-54).

Jesus sheds further light on this matter when He says to Pilate,

36 Jesus replied, “My kingdom is not from this world. If my kingdom were from this world, my servants would be fighting to keep me from being handed over to the Jewish authorities. But as it is, my kingdom is not from here” (John 18:36).

As a rule I don’t think Jesus is speaking literally about getting a sword, but rather He is speaking metaphorically, as He often does.4 The disciples needed to be prepared for the hatred and opposition that was soon to come. Having said this, I would not entirely rule out a more literal interpretation in some extreme cases. There are those in hostile places in this world who may be in charge of an orphanage, or overseeing a hospital. If such a person was informed that hostile forces were approaching with the intent of kidnapping children and killing the rest, he or she might well be inclined to take Jesus’ words more literally, and I would not be eager to find fault with them.

Here is the essence of our Lord’s words to Peter and the others: “You will no longer be welcomed with open arms. This is due to the fact that the world hates Me, and thus it will hate you as well. This will require you to rethink your mission and ministry, so that you can survive (and even thrive) in a hostile environment. I find it most interesting to see that it is Peter who will have so much to say to Christians about persecution and suffering in his first epistle.

Recent events should cause our Lord’s words to Peter and the other disciples to sound very familiar to us. We are in exactly the same place that Peter and the others were. We in the west have enjoyed a “most favored” status in our world. Christian principles were acknowledged, if not obeyed. America was thought of as a Christian nation. No more. We are now entering a new chapter in American history; one that I doubt will be remedied by future elections. What the Supreme Court declared to be the law of the land is what most of the states, and a large number of Americans believe: same sex marriage is to be accepted as the new normal.

Fred Smith, a good friend who is now with the Lord, once said this to a fellow at a dinner party in New York City: “Your problem is that you don’t acknowledge the difference between sin and crime. There are a lot of crimes that aren’t sin, and there are a lot of sins that aren’t crime.” How true! We are now living in a day when what God’s Word calls sin is no longer considered a crime. And if we persist in calling it sin, the world is going to become hostile toward us, and toward the gospel.

We in America have been living in a kind of bubble, while the rest of the world (and the church throughout its history) has experienced the norm: suffering for Christ’s sake. Jesus and His apostles made it clear that suffering and persecution would be the new norm:

20 “Remember what I told you, ‘A slave is not greater than his master.’ If they persecuted me, they will also persecute you. If they obeyed my word, they will obey yours too. 21But they will do all these things to you on account of my name, because they do not know the one who sent me” (John 15:20-21).

21 After they had proclaimed the good news in that city and made many disciples, they returned to Lystra, to Iconium, and to Antioch. 22They strengthened the souls of the disciples and encouraged them to continue in the faith, saying, “We must enter the kingdom of God through many persecutions” (Acts 14:21-22).

10 You, however, have followed my teaching, my way of life, my purpose, my faith, my patience, my love, my endurance, 11as well as the persecutions and sufferings that happened to me in Antioch, in Iconium, and in Lystra. I endured these persecutions and the Lord delivered me from them all. 12Now in fact all who want to live godly lives in Christ Jesus will be persecuted (2 Timothy 3:10-12).

12 Dear friends, do not be astonished that a trial by fire is occurring among you, as though something strange were happening to you. 13But rejoice in the degree that you have shared in the sufferings of Christ, so that when his glory is revealed you may also rejoice and be glad. 14If you are insulted for the name of Christ, you are blessed, because the Spirit of glory, who is the Spirit of God, rests on you (1Peter 4:12-14).

32 But remember the former days when you endured a harsh conflict of suffering after you were enlightened. 33At times you were publicly exposed to abuse and afflictions, and at other times you came to share with others who were treated in that way. 34For in fact you shared the sufferings of those in prison, and you accepted the confiscation of your belongings with joy, because you knew that you certainly had a better and lasting possession (Hebrews 10:32-34).

Jesus tells us that hard times are coming, and the apostles bear witness that hard times have come. We can no longer continue to believe and live out the gospel as we once did – with favor. We must rethink our mission and ministry in the light of Jesus’ words to His disciples. We must think defensively, as well as offensively. As Peter puts it, “We must gird up the loins of our mind, and purpose to be holy in a godless world” (see 1 Peter chapter 1). The lessons which follow in this series will seek to promote a biblical mindset, so that we can live out the gospel and carry out the Great Commission in a hostile world.


1 Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotes will be from the NET Bible.

2 If time permitted, it would be worthwhile to consider how typical this is of Christians. We easily and often are side-tracked by focusing on self-centered matters, rather than on the critical issues at hand.

3 See Acts 1:6.

4 The disciples seemed to have no problem taking Jesus’ words literally, but they had great difficulty taking them metaphorically (see Matthew 16:6-12).

Related Topics: Christian Life, Cultural Issues

2. For King Or Country: Where Does Our Hope Lie? (Psalm 47 )

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“In God We Trust.” That’s what we find written on our coins and currency. Christians are well aware that this statement no longer represents the perspective of many Americans. The real question is, “Does this statement accurately represent the firm conviction of many evangelical Christians in America?” This question is especially pertinent after an election that hasn’t put our candidate into office, or after an executive order or Supreme Court decision that is directly opposed to biblical values and principles.

Jeff Horch has a word for us that we really need to hear. This message was initially delivered on November 4, 2012, a couple of days before the 2012 Presidential Election. It is just as applicable to us today, as we watch all branches of our government turn from scriptural principles and values. Jeff has a crucial message for us: God is King! He is sovereign, and He has not lost control of this world. This is a word that will keep us from wringing our hands as though everything is out of control. This will turn us from our fears to faith in the all-powerful, all-knowing God. This is the mindset that will sustain every Christian. I urge you to read this message from Psalm 47.

Click here for the audio version

Click here to read For King or Country: Where Does Our Hope Lie? (Psalm 47)

Related Topics: Christian Life, Cultural Issues, Faith

3. The Success of Sinners and Suffering of the Saints (Psalm 73)

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1 Surely God is good to Israel,
To those who are pure in heart!

2 But as for me, my feet came close to stumbling,
My steps had almost slipped.

3 For I was envious of the arrogant
As I saw the prosperity of the wicked.

4 For there are no pains in their death,
And their body is fat.

5 They are not in trouble as other men,
Nor are they plagued like mankind.

6 Therefore pride is their necklace;
The garment of violence covers them.

7 Their eye bulges from fatness;
The imaginations of their heart run riot.

8 They mock and wickedly speak of oppression;
They speak from on high.

9 They have set their mouth against the heavens,
And their tongue parades through the earth.

10 Therefore his people return to this place,
And waters of abundance are drunk by them.

11 They say, “How does God know?
And is there knowledge with the Most High?”

12 Behold, these are the wicked;
And always at ease, they have increased in wealth.

13 Surely in vain I have kept my heart pure
And washed my hands in innocence;

14 For I have been stricken all day long
And chastened every morning.

15 If I had said, “I will speak thus,”
Behold, I would have betrayed the generation of Your children.

16 When I pondered to understand this,
It was troublesome in my sight

17 Until I came into the sanctuary of God;
Then I perceived their end.

18 Surely You set them in slippery places;
You cast them down to destruction.

19 How they are destroyed in a moment!
They are utterly swept away by sudden terrors!

20 Like a dream when one awakes, O Lord, when aroused,
You will despise their form.

21 When my heart was embittered
And I was pierced within,

22 Then I was senseless and ignorant;
I was like a beast before You.

23 Nevertheless I am continually with You;
You have taken hold of my right hand.

24 With Your counsel You will guide me,
And afterward receive me to glory.

25 Whom have I in heaven but You?
And besides You, I desire nothing on earth.

26 My flesh and my heart may fail,
But God is the strength of my heart and my portion forever.

27 For, behold, those who are far from You will perish;
You have destroyed all those who are unfaithful to You.

28 But as for me, the nearness of God is my good;
I have made the Lord GOD my refuge,
That I may tell of all Your works (Psalm 73:1-28, NAU).

Some may think of the psalmists and their words as “long ago and far away,” but it doesn’t take a great deal of effort to see the relevance of Psalm 73 to Christians today, and more specifically to American Christians in times like these. Let’s begin by taking a “bird’s eye” view of the entire Psalm, and then consider the message God has for us in these inspired words. Verse one is Asaph’s affirmation of faith in God’s goodness.  In a sense, it serves as both Asaph’s introduction and as his conclusion. It indicates where Asaph is headed in this psalm,1 and it is where Asaph will end up when all is said and done. From verses 2-14 Asaph confesses his sin (of envying the wicked) by describing how he viewed his circumstances from a merely human point of view. In verses 15-17 we see the point to which his observations led him – the temptation to give up his pursuit of God to live a sinful lifestyle that seemingly led to prosperity – and the turning point that set him straight in his thinking. In verses 18—26 Asaph is now able to view life through different eyes, and thus to articulate a divine perspective on the very things that had once troubled him. This led him to a greater love for God. Verses 27 and 28 summarize the outcome of his transformed thinking regarding living in a fallen world, where the wicked appear to be the winners and the righteous appear to be the losers.

Asaph2 is the psalmist here, and he confesses that at one point in time he was very unhappy with what he saw going on about him in Israel: the wicked appeared to be blessed, while the “righteous” seemed destined for suffering:

3 For I was envious of the arrogant
As I saw the prosperity of the wicked.

4 For there are no pains in their death,
And their body is fat.

5 They are not in trouble as other men,
Nor are they plagued like mankind (Psalm 73:3-5).

Parenthetically, let me say that it is very difficult to see life clearly when seeking to do so through the tear-filled eyes of self-pity. Asaph overstates (all right, he exaggerates) the prosperity and ease of the wicked, and the suffering of the righteous as well. Nevertheless, his words accurately convey the way he once viewed life.

Asaph is right about one thing: from a merely human perspective, the wicked do seem to be succeeding in their sinful pursuits. Worse yet, they are emboldened by their apparent success. They flaunt their opulence, and they are more than willing to resort to violence. Through Asaph’s eyes, they take great pleasure in doing so. Indeed, they are inspired by their “success” to devise even more wicked schemes.

6 Therefore pride is their necklace;
The garment of violence covers them.
7 Their eye bulges from fatness;
The imaginations of their heart run riot (Psalm 73:6-7).

The success of the wicked makes them arrogant toward their fellow men; they even become arrogant toward God:

8 They mock and wickedly speak of oppression;
They speak from on high.
9 They have set their mouth against the heavens,
And their tongue parades through the earth.
10 Therefore his people return to this place,
And waters of abundance are drunk by them.
11 They say, “How does God know?
And is there knowledge with the Most High?” (Psalm 73:8-11)

Asaph notes that the wicked seem to have concluded either that God is ignorant of their sin, or (worse yet) that He is indifferent toward it.

Before I become too critical of Asaph here, it would be good to consider some of the reasons for his mental and spiritual torment. Asaph knew that God is righteous, that He hates sin, and that He punishes the wicked. He also believed that God had promised to bless the righteous. This assurance of God’s hatred of sin, judgment of the wicked, and blessing of the righteous is based upon God’s words in the giving of the Law of Moses:

15 “See, I have set before you today life and prosperity, and death and adversity; 16 in that I command you today to love the LORD your God, to walk in His ways and to keep His commandments and His statutes and His judgments, that you may live and multiply, and that the LORD your God may bless you in the land where you are entering to possess it. 17 “But if your heart turns away and you will not obey, but are drawn away and worship other gods and serve them, 18 I declare to you today that you shall surely perish. You will not prolong your days in the land where you are crossing the Jordan to enter and possess it. 19 “I call heaven and earth to witness against you today, that I have set before you life and death, the blessing and the curse. So choose life in order that you may live, you and your descendants, 20 by loving the LORD your God, by obeying His voice, and by holding fast to Him; for this is your life and the length of your days, that you may live in the land which the LORD swore to your fathers, to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to give them” (Deuteronomy 30:15-20; see also Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28).

In Asaph’s mind, God seemed to be doing just the opposite. God appeared to be blessing the wicked, while at the same time He was punishing the righteous. God’s actions were perceived as inconsistent with His promises.

Looking back on his agony of soul, Asaph admits that his motivation and thinking were sinful:

1 Surely God is good to Israel,
To those who are pure in heart!
2 But as for me, my feet came close to stumbling,
My steps had almost slipped.
3 For I was envious of the arrogant
As I saw the prosperity of the wicked (Psalm 73:1-3).

Asaph was envious of the wicked. Expressed in different words, Asaph had more affection for the gold (God’s material blessings) than he did for God. As I look at God’s commandments in the Law I see great emphasis on loving God, which motivates one to obey His commands. God is more emphatic about loving Him and thus obeying His commands than He is about the material benefits of obedience. Notice how a love for God should motivate our obedience to God, resulting in blessing, while turning from God (to other gods) leads to disobedience and judgment.

13 “It shall come about, if you listen obediently to my commandments which I am commanding you today, to love the LORD your God and to serve Him with all your heart and all your soul, 14 that He will give the rain for your land in its season, the early and late rain, that you may gather in your grain and your new wine and your oil. 15 “He will give grass in your fields for your cattle, and you will eat and be satisfied. 16Beware that your hearts are not deceived, and that you do not turn away and serve other gods and worship them. 17 “Or the anger of the LORD will be kindled against you, and He will shut up the heavens so that there will be no rain and the ground will not yield its fruit; and you will perish quickly from the good land which the LORD is giving you (Deuteronomy 11:13-17, emphasis mine).

I can understand why the psalmist would be perplexed. Didn’t God promise to bless His people for their obedience to His law, and to punish those who disobeyed? We should remember that Asaph had written these words in Psalm 50:

14 “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving
And pay your vows to the Most High;

15 Call upon Me in the day of trouble;
I shall rescue you, and you will honor Me.”

16 But to the wicked God says, “What right have you to tell of My statutes
And to take My covenant in your mouth?

17 “For you hate discipline,
And you cast My words behind you.

18 “When you see a thief, you are pleased with him,
And you associate with adulterers.

19 “You let your mouth loose in evil
And your tongue frames deceit.

20 “You sit and speak against your brother;
You slander your own mother’s son.

21 “These things you have done and I kept silence;
You thought that I was just like you;
I will reprove you and state the case in order before your eyes.

22 “Now consider this, you who forget God,
Or I will tear you in pieces, and there will be none to deliver.

23 “He who offers a sacrifice of thanksgiving honors Me;
And to him who orders his way aright
I shall show the salvation of God” (Psalm 50:14-23).

Asaph’s earlier words in Psalm 50 certainly seem to promise salvation and blessings to the righteous, and judgment to the wicked. No wonder that Asaph is perplexed by what he sees. It would appear that God is not playing by the rules or, worse yet, that He is unaware or unconcerned by what is going on. Asaph is troubled to the point of considering giving up on persevering in the face of adversity.

If Asaph’s first confession is that of his envy of the material prosperity of the wicked, his second confession is that he began to think of his faith and obedience as a useless waste of energy:

13 Surely in vain I have kept my heart pure
And washed my hands in innocence;

14 For I have been stricken all day long
And chastened every morning.

15 If I had said, “I will speak thus,”
Behold, I would have betrayed the generation of Your children (Psalm 73:13-15).

This kind of thinking tempted Asaph to cast his faith aside and join the wicked in their evil pursuits (and thus to join them in their prosperity).

A Change in the Psalmist’s Perspective Leads to His Repentance and Restoration

Psalm 73:15-26

15 If I had said, “I will speak thus,”
Behold, I would have betrayed the generation of Your children.

16 When I pondered to understand this,
It was troublesome in my sight

17 Until I came into the sanctuary of God;
Then I perceived their end.

18 Surely You set them in slippery places;
You cast them down to destruction.

19 How they are destroyed in a moment!
They are utterly swept away by sudden terrors!

20 Like a dream when one awakes, O Lord, when aroused,
You will despise their form.

21 When my heart was embittered
And I was pierced within,

22 Then I was senseless and ignorant;
I was like a beast before You.

23 Nevertheless I am continually with You;
You have taken hold of my right hand.

24 With Your counsel You will guide me,
And afterward receive me to glory.

25 Whom have I in heaven but You?
And besides You, I desire nothing on earth.

26 My flesh and my heart may fail,
But God is the strength of my heart and my portion forever (Psalm 73:1-26).

The turning point in Asaph’s relationship with God was brought about by a change in his perspective. The psalmist says his perspective changed when he “came into the sanctuary of God” (verse 17). I believe Asaph means by these words that he came into the tabernacle3 (the temple was later constructed by Solomon), and doing so changed his perspective.

How can going into the Tabernacle, the sanctuary of God, produce such a dramatic change in Asaph’s perspective? The tabernacle (and later the temple) were symbols that were an earthly picture of heaven. I get this from the writer to the Hebrews:

1 Now the main point in what has been said is this: we have such a high priest, who has taken His seat at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens, 2 a minister in the sanctuary and in the true tabernacle, which the Lord pitched, not man. 3 For every high priest is appointed to offer both gifts and sacrifices; so it is necessary that this high priest also have something to offer. 4 Now if He were on earth, He would not be a priest at all, since there are those who offer the gifts according to the Law; 5 who serve a copy and shadow of the heavenly things, just as Moses was warned by God when he was about to erect the tabernacle; for, SEE, He says, THAT YOU MAKE all things ACCORDING TO THE PATTERN WHICH WAS SHOWN YOU ON THE MOUNTAIN” (Hebrews 8:1-5, emphasis mine).

The earthly tabernacle (and temple) were but copies of the heavenly reality. Thus, when Asaph (or anyone else qualified to do so) entered the tabernacle, he was immediately reminded of the heavenly realities not yet seen by man. From this heavenly perspective Asaph now views the temporary “success” of the wicked as just that, a very short-lived period of apparent blessing, to be followed by an eternity of judgment.

17 Until I came into the sanctuary of God;
Then I perceived their end.

18 Surely You set them in slippery places;
You cast them down to destruction.

19 How they are destroyed in a moment!
They are utterly swept away by sudden terrors!

20 Like a dream when one awakes, O Lord, when aroused,
You will despise their form (Psalm 73:17-20).

27 For, behold, those who are far from You will perish;
You have destroyed all those who are unfaithful to You (Psalm 73:27).

An eternal perspective enables Asaph to see his spiritual condition, his present circumstances, and his future destiny clearly:

21 When my heart was embittered
And I was pierced within,

22 Then I was senseless and ignorant;
I was like a beast before You.

23 Nevertheless I am continually with You;
You have taken hold of my right hand.

4 With Your counsel You will guide me,
And afterward receive me to glory (Psalm 73:21-24).

Asaph’s envy of the wicked and his anger toward God was beastly: His earthly perspective failed to grasp spiritual and eternal realities. It was not God who was in the wrong; it was Asaph. The prosperity of the wicked did not turn them toward God; it turned them from God. Asaph’s suffering drew him closer to God. Not only was he assured of spending eternity in the presence of God; he was assured of God’s presence with him in the midst of his earthly adversities. His present distress made him more aware of the nearness of God.

Asaph’s problem boiled down to a proper definition of “good.” Initially, he thought that “good” meant material prosperity and a trouble-free life. Then, when his perspective changed, so did Asaph’s definition of “good” and “evil”:

27 For, behold, those who are far from You will perish;

You have destroyed all those who are unfaithful to You.

28 But as for me, the nearness of God is my good;

I have made the Lord GOD my refuge,

That I may tell of all Your works (Psalm 73:28).

If “nearness to God” is our good, then whatever draws us to Him is good, and whatever draws us away from Him is not good. The prosperity of the wicked lures them away from God. The suffering of the righteous is intended to draw them into closer fellowship with God. When we look at life from a divine and eternal perspective, we can see that.

Application

So, how do Asaph’s spiritual struggles impact us? Let me suggest three vital areas of application.

A Warning to those Outside the Faith

Asaph’s words should serve as a warning to the wicked. By “wicked” I am not referring to a small group of violent and evil folks, but to that broader group of “the wicked” who take pride in their success and who don’t love God or think that they need Him. The wicked would also include those who are religious. Asaph himself came close to being wicked; indeed, he would confess that his thoughts and motives were wicked. He envied the wealth and ease of the wicked. He even considered casting his faith aside to join them, in order to prosper as they did.

When we come to the New Testament we find that many of the Jewish religious leaders were wicked. Take the Pharisees for example:

14 Now the Pharisees, who were lovers of money, were listening to all these things and were scoffing at Him. 15 And He said to them, “You are those who justify yourselves in the sight of men, but God knows your hearts; for that which is highly esteemed among men is detestable in the sight of God (Luke 16:14-15).4

The assumptions of the Pharisees were very much like those of Asaph when he failed to see things rightly. Of course they loved money because of what it would do for them. But they also loved money because of what they thought their prosperity proved – piety. In their minds, the pious prospered while the wicked suffered. Their wealth proved their piety, to themselves at least. And the poverty of others proved that they were under divine judgment (and thus they need not help the poor, because that would be working against God’s judgment in their lives).

Jesus rocked their world and challenged their thinking when He taught:

20 And turning His gaze toward His disciples, He began to say, “Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. 21 “Blessed are you who hunger now, for you shall be satisfied. Blessed are you who weep now, for you shall laugh (Luke 6:20-21).

But the great shock must have come when Jesus told the story of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31). The rich man died and went to hell, while a poor beggar – Lazarus – died and went to heaven. How could this be?

Even the disciples were influenced by the thinking of the Pharisees. When they came upon a man who was born blind, they assumed that his blindness was God’s punishment for sin, either his sin or that of his parents (John 9:1-3).

I fear that the prosperity, comfort, and peace that most Americans5 have experienced has somehow lulled many into a false sense of security. Either they sense that God is blessing them, indicating that they are O.K. with Him, or they believe that He is uninterested and unconcerned regarding their rejection of Him (Read 2 Peter 3:1-10).

My dear friend, having a comfortable life here and now is no indication that you will be comfortable for all eternity. That is what the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31) is all about. There is only one way to be comfortable throughout all eternity, and that is through faith in the person and work of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible tells us that Jesus Christ was truly God and truly man, and that He lived a sinless life in perfect obedience to God. It likewise informs us that while Jesus is without sin, we are not (Read Romans 3:9-20). The solution for our sins is Jesus Christ, who willingly died in the sinner’s place, so that all who acknowledge their sin and place their trust in Jesus may be forgiven of their sins and assured of eternal life in the presence of God (Read John 14:6; Romans 3:21-26; 10:9-11; 1 John 5:10-12). The good news is that even the very wicked who trust in Him will be saved (see Luke 23:39-43; 1 Timothy 1:12-15). Do not be deceived by thinking your current comfort and prosperity assures you of being right with God. Don’t let your prosperity turn you from God.

A Word of Exhortation to Christians

Over the years I have consistently warned of the error of those who preach a “prosperity gospel.” But while I have recognized the dangers of the more extreme forms of this teaching, it has been this study of Psalm 73 which has awakened me to the possibility that many of us (American Christians) have become infected with a strain of this kind of false teaching.

Is it not possible that those of us who are Christians in America have come to view our ease and prosperity as an evidence of God’s favor, and thus as a kind of proof of our piety? Are we really affluent and comfortable because we have been so godly? Do we even realize how affluent we are, compared to others? Are those saints who are suffering in hostile countries suffering because of their sin, or because of their godliness? Have we come to the place where we feel entitled to our prosperity, and worthy of it? Then I would suggest that we have become like Asaph by feeling entitled to peace and prosperity.

I don’t find the saints being assured of peace and prosperity in this life. Rather, I find many indications that the saints will suffer in this ungodly world, while the wicked may seem to prosper.

18 “If the world hates you, you know that it has hated Me before it hated you. 19 “If you were of the world, the world would love its own; but because you are not of the world, but I chose you out of the world, because of this the world hates you. 20 “Remember the word that I said to you, ‘A slave is not greater than his master.’ If they persecuted Me, they will also persecute you; if they kept My word, they will keep yours also. 21 “But all these things they will do to you for My name’s sake, because they do not know the One who sent Me” (John 15:18-21).

21 After they had preached the gospel to that city and had made many disciples, they returned to Lystra and to Iconium and to Antioch, 22 strengthening the souls of the disciples, encouraging them to continue in the faith, and saying, “Through many tribulations we must enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:21-22).

29 For to you it has been granted for Christ’s sake, not only to believe in Him, but also to suffer for His sake (Philippians 1:29).

10 that I may know Him and the power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His sufferings, being conformed to His death (Philippians 3:10).

3 For consider Him who has endured such hostility by sinners against Himself, so that you will not grow weary and lose heart. 4 You have not yet resisted to the point of shedding blood in your striving against sin (Hebrews 12:3-4).

18 Servants, be submissive to your masters with all respect, not only to those who are good and gentle, but also to those who are unreasonable. 19 For this finds favor, if for the sake of conscience toward God a person bears up under sorrows when suffering unjustly. 20 For what credit is there if, when you sin and are harshly treated, you endure it with patience? But if when you do what is right and suffer for it you patiently endure it, this finds favor with God. 21 For you have been called for this purpose, since Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example for you to follow in His steps, 22 WHO COMMITTED NO SIN, NOR WAS ANY DECEIT FOUND IN HIS MOUTH; 23 and while being reviled, He did not revile in return; while suffering, He uttered no threats, but kept entrusting Himself to Him who judges righteously; 24 and He Himself bore our sins in His body on the cross, so that we might die to sin and live to righteousness; for by His wounds you were healed. 25 For you were continually straying like sheep, but now you have returned to the Shepherd and Guardian of your souls (1 Peter 2:18-25).

12 Beloved, do not be surprised at the fiery ordeal among you, which comes upon you for your testing, as though some strange thing were happening to you; 13 but to the degree that you share the sufferings of Christ, keep on rejoicing, so that also at the revelation of His glory you may rejoice with exultation. 14 If you are reviled for the name of Christ, you are blessed, because the Spirit of glory and of God rests on you. 15 Make sure that none of you suffers as a murderer, or thief, or evildoer, or a troublesome meddler; 16 but if anyone suffers as a Christian, he is not to be ashamed, but is to glorify God in this name (1 Peter 4:12-16).

Jesus never proclaimed a path of ease and comfort. He called those who would follow Him to a life of sacrifice and self-denial:

32 “Therefore everyone who confesses Me before men, I will also confess him before My Father who is in heaven. 33 “But whoever denies Me before men, I will also deny him before My Father who is in heaven. 34 “Do not think that I came to bring peace on the earth; I did not come to bring peace, but a sword. 35 “For I came to SET A MAN AGAINST HIS FATHER, AND A DAUGHTER AGAINST HER MOTHER, AND A DAUGHTER-IN-LAW AGAINST HER MOTHER-IN-LAW; 36 and A MANS ENEMIES WILL BE THE MEMBERS OF HIS HOUSEHOLD. 37 “He who loves father or mother more than Me is not worthy of Me; and he who loves son or daughter more than Me is not worthy of Me. 38 “And he who does not take his cross and follow after Me is not worthy of Me” (Matthew 10:32-38).

24 Then Jesus said to His disciples, “If anyone wishes to come after Me, he must deny himself, and take up his cross and follow Me. 25 “For whoever wishes to save his life will lose it; but whoever loses his life for My sake will find it” (Matthew 16:24-25).

57 As they were going along the road, someone said to Him, “I will follow You wherever You go.” 58 And Jesus said to him, “The foxes have holes and the birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay His head.” 59 And He said to another, “Follow Me.” But he said, “Lord, permit me first to go and bury my father.” 60 But He said to him, “Allow the dead to bury their own dead; but as for you, go and proclaim everywhere the kingdom of God.” 61 Another also said, “I will follow You, Lord; but first permit me to say good-bye to those at home.” 62 But Jesus said to him, “No one, after putting his hand to the plow and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God” (Luke 9:57-62).

Christians need to toughen up. We need to expect men to reject us for their faith, and to be opposed and persecuted, just as Jesus was. We need to get over the false notion that becoming a Christian is the pathway to an easy and comfortable life. And, we need to realize that what is truly good is intimacy with God, not the possession of goods.

15 Then He said to them, “Beware, and be on your guard against every form of greed; for not even when one has an abundance does his life consist of his possessions” (Luke 12:15).

We Christians Need to Gird Up the Loins of Our Minds

Asaph’s difficulties were rooted in a false perception of what constitutes “good.” It was not until he entered the sanctuary of God that he came to see things from a divine and eternal perspective. We need to have this same perspective. I believe that is what Peter and other New Testament writers are challenging us to do – to get our minds thinking straight, so that we see things from God’s perspective.

13 Therefore, prepare your minds for action, keep sober in spirit, fix your hope completely on the grace to be brought to you at the revelation of Jesus Christ. 14 As obedient children, do not be conformed to the former lusts which were yours in your ignorance, 15 but like the Holy One who called you, be holy yourselves also in all your behavior; 16 because it is written, “YOU SHALL BE HOLY, FOR I AM HOLY” (1 Peter 1:13-16; see Romans 12:1-2; Ephesians 4:17-24; Philippians 4:17-21; Colossians 3:1-2).

We do not have an earthly tabernacle or temple to go to, in order to transform our thinking, but we have something far better.

  1. We now have Christ dwelling within us, so that we have ongoing personal communion with God (John 14:16-20, 23; 15:4, 11).
  2. We have the Word of God, so that we can renew our minds (John 15:7; Romans 12:1-2; Colossians 3:16).
  3. We are members of our Lord’s church, and thus we have the blessing of fellowship with His Saints (Ephesians 5:17-19; Hebrews 10:19-25).
  4. Our suffering in this life enhances our hunger for heaven (2 Corinthians 4).

Let us take advantage of all these blessings, so that we will view our current lives through the eyes of our Lord.


1 This is not the way I initially read verse one. At first I thought that verse one was the basis for Asaph’s complaint. I thought that the psalmist was asserting God’s “goodness” to Israel as the reason for his complaint: If God is truly “good” to Israel, how can He be prospering the wicked and punishing the righteous? I now see this statement as the outcome of Asaph’s struggles; it is telling us where Asaph is headed in the psalm. Surely God is good to Israel, and specifically to those who are pure in heart. The key to understanding God’s “goodness” is to rightly understand what is “good.” Seeing his circumstances from God’s eternal perspective, Asaph realizes that peace and prosperity are not necessarily good, but the nearness of God (verse 28) is.

2 Asaph was one of David’s musicians, who participated in Israel’s worship (1 Chronicles 15:16-18; 16:4-7). Asaph was one of the musicians who ministered before the ark of the covenant (1 Chronicles 16:37). He is designated as the human author of Psalms 50, 73-83.

3 See Exodus 25:8; Leviticus 4:6; 21:12; Numbers 3:28ff.

4 Look at Jesus’ indictment of the scribes and Pharisees in Matthew 23:13-36.

5 I say most Americans because even those living on welfare are vastly better off than most of those living in the rest of the world.

Related Topics: Christian Life, Cultural Issues, Suffering, Trials, Persecution

The Worthy Life

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Basically the worthiness of a person or thing lies in the judgment of others. As defined in Webster’s dictionary, worth is “that quality of a person or thing that lends importance, value, merit, etc. and that is measurable by the esteem in which a person or thing is held.” In addition an action or activity may be viewed as to its worthiness. Thus Stanhope remarked, “Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well.”1 This is an old saying that my father rendered to me as, “If something is worthy doing, do it right.” Some persons are rightly held in high esteem by others while those of questionable character and actions are disdained. Thus Confucius wrote, “When we see men of worth, we should not think of equaling them; when we see men of a contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves.”2

In the following study we shall examine the scriptural teaching as to the subject of worth with particular regard for personal worthiness. We shall close with applications for living a worthy life.

Examples of Worthiness

Ultimately God himself is most worthy of all. As the psalmist writes, “The LORD is great and certainly worthy of praise” (Ps 48:1). As for human examples, perhaps one of the best known biblical texts for commending worthiness is the author of Proverbs observations as to the supreme value of a dedicated, godly wife:

Who can find a wife of noble character?
Her value [or worth] is far more than rubies. (Prov. 31:10)3

He goes on to praise his wife as a supreme example of just such a worthy woman:

Many daughters have done valiantly
But you surpass them all. (Prov. 31:29)

As the NET text note indicates, the word translated “valiantly” is the same as that rendered “noble” in verse 10. Thus the truly valiant woman is she of “noble character.” The Hebrew word itself is connected with the concept of strength, in this case strength of character.4 Moreover this wife is so because of her godly character (v. 30). The author concludes his praise of his wife by saying, “Let her works praise her on the city gates” (v. 31b). As Waltke points out,

She is so precious because she uses her strength, ability, wisdom and valor so totally and selflessly for others. Such a wife is a gift from God (19:14) and must in part be sought by faithful prayer (15:29; 16:3; Jas. 1:6).5

Likewise, David’s soldiers found occasion to praise him. David and his followers had been forced to flee from Jerusalem due to the rebellion led by his son Absalom. Now David wished to lead his accompanying troops in a counter attack against Absalom. Fearing that their leader might be killed in battle, they pled with David, reminding him of his supreme value to the nation and his people:

“You must not go!” the people pleaded. “If we have to flee, they will not pay any attention to us. Even if half of us die, they will not pay any attention to us because you are worth 10,000 of us. Therefore, it is better if you support us from the city.” (2 Sam. 18:3; HCSB).

David was not only important to the people, he was of essential worth.

Many others are praised in the Scriptures but none can be compared to the worthiness of the Lord. Accordingly, as David reminisced concerning his often being rescued from his enemies, he testified to God’s concern and delivering power: “I called to the LORD, who is worthy of praise, and I was delivered from my enemies” (2 Sam. 22:4; cf. Ps. 18:3). As Bergen remarks, “For David, the Lord is a very personal helper, a living resource whose interventions in the king’s life have consistently spelled the difference between life and death.”6 David’s praise of the Lord is reminiscent of his assertion that,” The LORD gives his people strength, the LORD grants his people security” (Ps. 29:11).

That the almighty God, the creator and controller of the universe, is worthy of highest praise is affirmed in many places in the Bible, especially in praise psalms (e.g., Pss. 19; 29; 104). The everlasting praise of God is well illustrated in the last book of the Bible. The Apostle John is blessed to behold the heavenly scene. There he sees the great praise of God by the 24 heavenly elders who declare,

You are worthy, our Lord and God,
to receive glory and honor and power,
since you created all things,
and because of your will they existed and were created! (Rev. 4:11)

Such is also reflected in the hymn writer’s declaration concerning God that:

Thou art worthy, Thou art worthy,
Thou art worthy, O Lord,
To receive glory, glory and honor,
Glory and honor and pow’r:
For Thou hast created, hast all things created,
Thou hast created all things,
And for Thy pleasure they are created:
Thou art worthy, O Lord.7

In what follows, John notes that in God’s hand was a scroll with writing on both the front and the back, and was sealed with seven seals. A comparison with Roman law shows that wills were to be sealed seven times. Likewise, deeds were usually sealed with seven seals, the document itself being written on the inside, while a summary of its contents was written on the outside.8 The scroll that John sees contained authoritative information concerning the Lord’s coming judgment against the earth, while the seals, “express the historical principles or trends that bring judgment on the earth.”9

In order for that informative information to be fully known the scroll needed to be unsealed. At that point John reports:

And I saw a powerful angel proclaiming in a loud voice, “Who is worthy to open the scroll and to break its seals?” But no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or look into it. So I began weeping bitterly because no one was found who was worthy to open the scroll or to look in to it. (Rev. 5:2-4)

The situation was alleviated, however, when someone was declared to be worthy: “Then one of the elders said to me, ‘Stop weeping! Look, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the root of David, has conquered; thus he can open the scroll and its seven seals’” (Rev. 5:5). This is none other than the Christ, the “Lion of the tribe of Judah” (Gen. 49:8-10), who comes from the line of David (Isa. 11:1, 10). He is also the promised Lamb (Isa. 53:6-7) who gave his life for the redemption of the world. Thus John the Baptist once proclaimed concerning Jesus, “Look, the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29; cf., 3:35-36). The Apostle Peter also declared that people find redemption from their sin only “by precious blood like that of an unblemished and spotless lamb, namely Christ” (1 Pet. 1:19).

Thus, like the Father, Jesus, God’s Son, is worthy. But he is not only worthy to unseal the scroll, for as the Lion, Jesus is the king who has authority and power over all. Moreover, the seven- horned Lamb (Rev. 5:6) points to both his sacrificial service and his divine power. Accordingly, the 24 heavenly elders could sing “a new song”:10

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals
because you were killed,
and at the cost of your own blood
you have purchased for God
persons from every tribe, language, people, and nation.
You have appointed them as a kingdom and priests
to serve our God
and they will reign on the earth. (Rev. 5:9-10)

This was followed by further singing by all in the heavenly scene:

Worthy is the lamb who was killed
to receive power and wealth
and wisdom and might
and honor and glory and praise! (Rev. 5:12)

The Son, therefore, is also worthy of praise and is to be worshiped (cf. vv. 13-14). It is interesting to note also that here as with the other “sevens” in the heavenly scene (7 seals, 7 horns, 7 eyes) seven items speak of Christ’s worthiness! Such is reflected in Don Wyrtzen’s song:

Worthy is the Lamb that was slain, worthy is the Lamb that was slain,
Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive
Power and riches and wisdom and strength,
Honor and glory and blessing!
Worthy is the Lamb, worthy is the Lamb,
Worthy is the Lamb that was slain,
Worthy is the Lamb.11

Worthiness vs. Unworthiness

The sovereign Lord of the universe is indeed so worthy that he deserves man’s highest praise. Can it be said of mankind, whom the Lord created, that he also is worthy? If so, in what sense or what constitutes man’s worthiness? The psalmist declares that there are those who live in an unworthy manner by opposing and slandering God’s righteous servants. Thus David admonishes the supposedly all-powerful clans who are doing just that against him:

You men, how long will you try
to turn my honor into shame?
How long will you love what is worthless
and search for that which is deceptive? (Ps. 4:2)

As VanGemeren explains,

The wealthy and the powerful in Israel’s society (cf. 19:2; 62:9; Isa 2:9; 5:15) … are opposed to the king and have shown their enmity in two ways. First, the leaders have ... despised the position of the king. Second, they characterize themselves by a diligent pursuit of what is vain (NIV, “delusions”) and deceptive (NIV, “false gods”). …They have trodden the king’s glory into the ground by betraying it for an unspecified and worthless cause.12

Those who live selfish lives rather than being devoted to God cannot redeem themselves by simply attending a religious service or following established rituals. For the Israelites that meant that merely bringing proper offerings without true commitment and devotion to the Lord did not gain God’s favor. Their sacrifices were worthless if presented by one who led a sinful life:

“Of what importance to me are your many sacrifices,” says the LORD….
When you enter my presence, do you actually think that I want this—
animals trampling on my courtyards?
Do not any more bring meaningless offerings;
I consider your incense detestable!
You observe new moon festivals, Sabbaths, and convocations;
but I cannot tolerate sin-stained celebrations!” (Isa. 1:11-13)

As Motyer explains (concerning vv. 12 and 13), “A religion of rite and formalism has no divine authorization. It is strong language to describe their temple worship as meaningless, detestable, and unbearable! The accusation is not now of formalism (as in verse 12) but of religious commitment devoid of ethical resolve.”13 Such is no less true today. Regular church attendance out on mere habit, duty, or to be seen of others is not praiseworthy. The believer’s worship of the Lord must spring from a heart of devotion and desire to serve the Lord in a worthy manner—one which reflects the person and standards of God.

In an even more inclusive way, as Jesus instructed his disciples he declared, “Whoever loves father or mother more than me is not worthy of me, and whoever loves son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. And whoever does not take up his cross and follow me is not worthy of me” (Matt. 10:37-38). Thus, the loving of self or family more than Christ make one unworthy of him. One must desire and be willing to put Christ above all people and things, and live a devoted, even sacrificial, life. Indeed,

The (perhaps well-meant but still essentially selfish) attempts of either parents or children to dissuade the disciple from “seeking God’s kingship” (6:33) must be resolutely resisted….The modern idiom of “having what it takes” perhaps captures the sense of “being worthy” to be Jesus’ disciple.14

This could perhaps include suffering humiliation for Christ, whether by social stigma or even death.

To be sure, living for Christ does not make us equal with him. Even John the Baptist, Jesus’ forerunner, and one who followed Jesus so faithfully that he gave his life for him (Matt. 14:10), could say from the outset of his ministry that he was “not worthy to untie the snap of his sandal!” (John 1:27). One is reminded of the hymn writer’s confession:

I am not worthy the least of His favor,
But Jesus left Heaven for me.
The Word became flesh and he died as my Savior,
Forsaken on dark Calvary.
I am not worthy! This dull tongue repeats it;
I am not worthy! This heart gladly beats it.
Jesus left Heaven to die in my place—
What mercy, what love and what grace. 15

Paul testified to the fact that John was so committed to Christ that he could say this repeatedly as he completed his mission for the Lord (Acts 13:24-25). As we shall note below, Paul also spoke similarly of his commitment toward his God-appointed goal (Phil. 1:20-21). Paul was doubtless pleased to be able to praise the worthiness of many to whom and with whom he ministered. We turn now to some of these.

Paul’s Commendation of Worthy Workers for God

Possibly the best known individual whom Paul commends is Phoebe (Rom. 16:1-2). Living near Corinth in the port of Cenchrea , Phoebe had been a blessing and help to many, including Paul himself. Accordingly, he commends her to the Roman Christians as “worthy of the saints.” Therefore, Paul, who himself hoped to visit Rome on day (cf. Rom. 15:22-24), urges the Roman Christians to receive her as a worthy servant of the Lord, and to assist her in whatever way they can. Moo suggests that, Phoebe, “was probably a woman of high social standing and some wealth, who put her status, resources, and time at the service of travelling Christians, like Paul, who needed help and support. Paul now urges the Romans to reciprocate.”16

Moreover, as a servant (or deaconess; see NET text note) in her church she was doubtless of great assistance to many people. For some reason, she was travelling to Rome. Keener suggests that,

Paul no doubt emphasizes Phoebe’s spiritual qualifications for two reasons: Jewish and Greco-Roman circles did not usually have high regard for women’s religious wisdom; and she will need to minister to them, explaining to them by word of mouth anything in Paul’s letter that the hearers would not understand.17

Phoebe’s unselfish desire to come to the aid and assistance of others is indeed exemplary. Whether male or female, Christian leader or church member, today’s Christian would do well to follow Phoebe’s dedicated service to others in whatever way possible.

Moreover, in doing so, believers will follow the classic example of Jesus Christ who fulfilled the messianic goal, “to proclaim good news to the poor… to proclaim release to the captives and the regaining of sight to the blind, to set free those who are oppressed.” (Luke 5:18; cf. v. 21; 7:18-22). May we be those who follow the practice of the saints in the Old Testament and the early church of helping the poor, needy, widows, and orphans (cf. James 1:29).18 A good example is the believers in the churches of Macedonia. Paul notes that even,

during a severe ordeal of suffering, their abundant joy and their extreme poverty have overflowed in the wealth of their generosity. For I testify, they gave according to their means and beyond their means. They did so voluntarily begging us with great earnestness for the blessing and fellowship of helping the saints. (2 Cor. 8:2-4)

May today’s believers be examples of a spiritual commitment that has concern for the spiritual and daily needs of others.

Likewise, Paul commended Timothy to the church at Philippi, for he was about to send Timothy to them in hopes that he might feel encouragement in learning more of the Philippians growing faith. Paul had purposely chosen Timothy to go to them because, “There is no one here like him who will readily demonstrate his deep concern for you” Phil. 2:20). Paul goes on to remind them that they “know of his qualifications [“his proven worth,” NASB; “his proven character,” NIV].” Not only was he a spiritual son of the faith, but a co-servant “in advancing the gospel” (v. 22). Indeed, Timothy had proven to be a worthy messenger of the gospel. As O’Brien remarks, “As one genuinely concerned for their welfare he has made himself a slave, along with Paul, in the furtherance of the gospel.”19 Comfort adds that, Timothy’s attitude of serving with Paul like a son with his father reflects what Jesus did in pleasing his Father.”20 Indeed, no less than Jesus, Paul, or Timothy, may believers prove to be worthy conveyors of the gospel to a needy world (cf. Matt 28:19-20).

It is only fitting, then, that Paul, who despite his humble disclaimer of being worthy (1 Cor. 15:8-9), exemplified worthiness in his walk for the Lord and could often charge believers in the churches to whom he ministered to walk worthy of the Lord. Thus in a highly informative letter to the believers at Colossae Paul tells of his praying for them. Particularly, he asks God to “Fill you with the knowledge of his will in all spiritual wisdom and understanding, so that you may live worthily of the Lord and please him in all respects—bearing fruit in every good deed” (Col. 1:9-10). As Bruce points out, “The wisdom and understanding which Paul and Timothy desire to see in the Colossian Christians are inseparable from the knowledge of God and his will—a knowledge which, as the prophets of Israel insisted, is the essence of true heart-religion.” 21 Walking worthily of the Lord would be not only of special benefit to the believers but be satisfying in God’s sight. Indeed, such a walk would include things that reflect the holiness and standards of the Lord: good deeds, a growth in a spiritual maturity, which includes such knowledge and self-control that they lead to patience, steadfastness, and grateful thanks to the Lord for all that he has done for the soul, is doing in the believer’s life and will yet provide (cf. Col. 1:10b-12). All such qualities are, of course, divinely engrafted into the believer who is surrendered to God and led by his will: As Van de Venter wrote:

All to Jesus I surrender,
Lord, I give myself to Thee;
Fill me with Thy love and power,
Let Thy blessings fall on me.22

In what is probably Paul’s first apostolic epistle Paul praises the Thessalonian believers for their favorable reception and response to the gospel message. Such was a fact that was widely known. In reminding them of his own walk before them and ministry to them (cf. 2:10) he adds further,

As you know, we treated each one of you as a father treats his own children, exhorting and encouraging you and insisting that you live in a way worthy of God who calls you to his own kingdom and his glory. (1 Thess. 2:11-2)

To be sure, the believer’s continuing salvation remains in God’s hands, but nevertheless for their part, believers should strive to “live in a manner worthy of God.” They should do their best to reflect God’s person and standards and live for him, not self. As Morris declares,

While it is well that we should appreciate the wonder of God’s loving-kindness to us, and the fact that his love does not grow less no matter how low we may fall, yet we should not waver in our grasp of the complementary truth that such a God must be served with all our powers. Nothing less can be offered to Him who gave His Son for us than all that we have and all that we are.23

Thus Christians should remind themselves that although they are now members of God’s kingdom, their primary allegiance must be to Christ, not self. Moreover, As Walvoord remarks,

“There is a glorious kingdom ahead of us also, the glory that is going to be ours in the predicted millennial kingdom and throughout eternity as we are with Christ. In view of these things, God has called us to a walk that is in keeping with our destiny…. We “walk worthy” of God because we are saved, because we are a child of the King by grace through faith in the Lord Jesus Christ.24

In every way, then, Christians should strive to represent Christ, including being model citizens (cf. Rom. 13:1-7; Rev. 12:9-21). This is true even in the midst of difficult situations. Thus later Paul commends the Thessalonian believers for their steadfast faith and love despite sometimes unfavorable circumstances. Accordingly, Paul can boast of their “perseverance and faith in all the persecutions and afflictions you are enduring” (2 Thess. 1:4; cf. 1 Thess. 3:7-8). Indeed, such was “evidence of God’s righteous judgment to make you worthy of the kingdom of God, for which in fact you are suffering” (2 Thess. 1:5). As Comfort observes, “When trials come to the Christian, they come from the hand of God as the means of making believers what they ought to be. These sufferings make the believers worthy members of God’s kingdom.”25

Subsequently Paul points out to them that at the time of Christ’s return (cf. vv.7-10) their worthiness could well be recognized and therefore, “We pray for you always that our God will make you worthy of his calling and fulfill by his power your every desire for goodness and every work of faith” (v. 11). He hopes above all that their goodness (cf. Gal. 5:22) may be so reflected that, “the name of our Lord Jesus Christ may be glorified in you, and you in him, according to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ” (v.12). As I have suggested elsewhere,

God is the constant source of good for the believer (Ps. 103:2-5), including even his basic needs (Ps. 107:9) ...Nevertheless, …he must keep in mind that God’s very goodness carries with it a challenge to give the Lord first place in his life (Ps. 34:10), be pure in heart (Ps. 73:1), and demonstrate genuine integrity (Ps. 84:11) and goodness (3 John 11) toward others.26

In Paul’s letter to the Philippians he declares that despite his present imprisonment he maintains unswerving allegiance to Christ: “My confident hope is that I will in no way be ashamed but with complete boldness even now as always, Christ will be exalted in my body, whether I live or die. For to me, living is Christ and dying is gain” (Phil 1:20-21). In addition, he voiced his hopes that in accordance with God’s grace he will be able to visit them again. Whether or not he will be able to do so, he urges them to, “conduct yourselves in a manner worthy of the gospel of Christ so that-- whether I come to see you or whether I remain absent-- I should hear that you are standing firm in one spirit, with one mind, by contending side by side for the faith of the gospel” (v. 27). This they should do in spite of any suffering or persecution that may come even as Paul had (vv. 28-30). Genuine faith will demonstrate itself in faithful commitment to Christ and his example not only in good times but in times of testing however severe (cf. Acts 5:40-42). For believers know that, “Our present suffering cannot even be compared with the glory that will be revealed to us” (Rom. 8:18).

Subsequently in his letter to them he provides further information as to what constitutes normal worthy conduct and action before God (Phil. 4:8-9). Here Paul enumerates a number of character traits and actions, which are commendable as a Christian lifestyle: whatever is just (or righteous, upright), whatever is pure (moral or spiritual worthiness before God), whatever is lovely (pleasing, agreeable, friendly; cf. Esther 5:2; LXX)), whatever is commendable (well thought of, of good report), that which is excellent (or virtuous, intrinsically good) and that which is praiseworthy, especially in Christian conduct. Paul urges the Philippians to “think about these things” (v. 8). Thus they should strongly consider such virtues, for such personal values and conduct will gain the believer stability and, hopefully, be followed by others. Paul had left them such a challenge by his own lifestyle: “And what you learned and received and heard and seen in me, do these things. And the God of peace will be with you” (v. 9).

Paul was very concerned about the value and effect of proper Christian thinking and conduct that he often wrote about what is proper for believers. Moreover, he pointed out distinct means for achieving them, especially by being led by the Holy Spirit. Thus to the Galatians he lists characteristics of the “fruit of the Spirit”: love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control” (Gal. 5:22-23a). Some of these emphasize the value of spiritual fruit (love, joy, peace); others deal with the believer’s relations with others (patience, kindness, goodness); still others serve as guiding principles for godly living (faithfulness, gentleness, self-control). “When the fruit of the Spirit becomes the believer’s daily experience—a living reality—his life at last becomes a truly successful and rewarding one.”27

Using metaphorical language, Paul reminds the Ephesian believers that they have been delivered from spiritual darkness so as to live in true spiritual light. Accordingly, they should “Walk as children of light-- for the fruit of the light consists in all goodness, righteousness, and truth—trying to learn what is pleasing to the Lord” (Eph. 5:8-10). As they do so, their true way of life becomes apparent to others and very importantly, such helps them to keep learning about conforming to the will and standards of God. As the hymn writer challenges,

Living for Jesus a life that is true,
Striving to please Him in all that I do,
Yielding allegiance, glad hearted and free—
This is the pathway of blessing for me.28

Paul also delivered another distinct challenge to the church at Colassae (cf. Col. 1:9-12). Here he emphasizes the believers’ duty concerning qualities of character as well as actions toward others:

As the elect of God, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with a heart of mercy, kindness, humility, gentleness, and patience, bearing with one another and forgiving one another. (Col. 3:12-13a)

To cap all of this off, Paul admonishes them: “Add love, which is the perfect bond” (v. 14). By this Paul means a genuine affection and concern for others and their needs. Also they should, “Let the peace of Christ be in control of your heart” (v. 15). As Peter David writes, “The result is recognizing that calls believers not to be individual holy people living in splendid isolation from others but members of a single body… Believers can only live that out if they live at peace with one another.”29

Indeed, if believers maintain a Christ-filled life lived out in harmony with other believers, they can be truly thankful not only for what they have, but for what God has done and is accomplishing in their lives and that of others. Thus Paul adds, “Whatever you do in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, giving thanks to God the Father through him” (v. 17). Indeed, “Those who have faith in Christ not only have peace with God, but they can with heartfelt thanksgiving experience a life of service to the Lord and to one another.”30 Thus Janie Alford writes,

But I am grateful Lord,
Because my meager loaf I may divide;
For that my busy hands
May move to meet another’s need;
Because my doubled strength
I may expend to steady one who faints,
Yes, for all these do I give thanks! 31

Summary and Applications

At the outset of our study we noted that God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ are those whom the Scriptures declare are supremely worthy of man’s praise. We saw, as well, that in contrast to the natural man those whom Christ has redeemed are often pointed out as worthy ambassadors for Christ and citizens of the heavenly kingdom. Paul holds up several examples, such as Phoebe and Timothy. Nor should we overlook the fact that although he disdained being viewed in this way, Paul himself did live a worthy life for Christ (cf. Phil. Phil. 1:21; cf. 2Tim. 4:8-9).

We have seen several scriptural challenges as to proper conduct in maintaining a worthy walk before God (e.g., Gal. 5:22; Eph. 5:8-10; Phil. 4:8-9; Col. 1:9-12; 3:12-17; 1 Thess. 2:11-12). On the basis of such scriptural texts it may safely be concluded that true worthiness comes from a committed faith in Christ’s finished work of redemption. Genuine worthiness in one’s Christian walk comes from a life in which, as united to Christ, the believer faithfully reflects the prominent place of the person and standards of the Lord. It is a life of such faithful and complete dedication to Christ that, as led by the Holy Spirit (cf. John 16:13-15), Christ is virtually seen in the believer’s life and actions. May it be so in each of our lives. As the hymn writer expresses it,

May the mind of Christ my Savior,
live in me from day to day,
By His love and power controlling
All I do and say.
May the Word of God dwell richly
In my heart from hour to hour,
So that all may see I triumph
Only through His pow’r.32

And as Osborn pleads,

Let the beauty of Jesus be seen in me—
All His wonderful passion and purity!
O Thou Spirit divine, all my nature refine,
Till the beauty of Jesus be seen in me.33


1 Philip Dormer Stanhope as cited in Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, eds. John Bartlett and Justin Kaplan (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 16th ed., 1992), 304.

2 Confucius, The Confucian Analects as cited in ibid., 61.

3 Unless otherwise noted, all scriptural citations will be taken from the NET.

4 Such was said of Ruth the Moabitess, ”Everyone in the village knows that you are a worthy woman” (Ruth 3:11).

5 Bruce K. Waltke, The book of Proverbs Chapters 15-31 in The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 521.

6 Robert D. Bergen, 1, 2 Samuel, in The New American Commentary, ed. E. Ray Clendenen (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1996), 452.

7 Pauline M. Mills, “Thou Art Worthy.”

8 See further, G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation, in The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 344-48.

9 Merrill C. Tenney, Interpreting Revelation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957), 81.

10 For the motif of the new song, see Richard D. Patterson, “Singing the New Song: An Examination of Psalms 33, 96, 98, and 149,” Bibliotheca Sacra 165 (2008), 13-27.

11 Don Wyrtzen, “Worthy is the Lamb.”

12 Willem A. VanGemeren, “Psalms, in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, eds. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, 13 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008) 5:d109.

13 J. Alec Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 46.

14 R. T. France, The Gospel of Matthew, in The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 409, 410.

15 Beatrice Bush Bixler, “I Am Not Worthy.”

16 Douglas Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, in The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 916.

17 Craig S. Keener, The Bible Background Commentary: New Testament (Downer’s Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 446.

18 See further, Richard D. Patterson, “The Widow, the Orphan, and the Poor, Bibliotheca Sacra, 130, July-September, 1973, 232.

19 Peter T. O’Brien, The Epistle to the Philippians, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 325.

20 Philip W. Comfort, “Philippians,” in Cornerstone Biblical Commentary, 18. Vols. (Carol Stream, Il: Tyndale House, 2008) 16: 186.

21 F.F. Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians in The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), 46.

22 Judson W. Van de Venter, “All to Jesus.”

23 Leon Morris, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians in The New International Commentary on the New Testament, ed. F.F. Bruce (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959), 85.

24 John F. Walvoord, The Thessalonian Epistles (Findlay, Ohio: Dunham Publishing Company, [n.d.]), 32.

25 Philp W. Comfort, “1-2 Thessalonians,” in Cornerstone Biblical Commentary, 18 vols. (Carol Stream, Il. Tyndale House, 2008) 16: 388.

26 Richard D, Patterson, “Psalm 145: A Song in ‘G Major,’” Biblical Studies Press (2009), 8.

27 Richard D. Patterson, “Fruit of the Spirit,” Biblical Studies Press, 2010, 10.

28 Thomas O. Chisholm, “Living for Jesus.”

29 Thomas O. Chisholm, “Colossians,” in Cornerstone Biblical commentary, ed. Philip W. Comfort, 18 vols. (Carol Stream, Il: Tyndale House, 2008) 16: 290.

30 Richard D. Patterson, “Thanksgiving Thoughts,” Biblical Studies Press, 2012), 6.

31 Janie Alford, “Thanks Be To God,” in Masterpieces of Religious Verse (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948), 374.

32 Kate B. Wilkinson, “May the Mind of Christ My Savior.”

33 Albert W. T. Osborn, “ Let the Beauty of Jesus Be Seen in Me.”

Related Topics: Character of God, Christian Life

1. Preliminary Questions And Answers

Related Media

This article is the first in a four-part series on New Testament textual criticism. It provides the basics on this science and art, answering such questions as these:

Did scribes make errors as they copied down holy Writ? If so, what kind of errors are they? Why wouldn’t God protect his Word from such errors? What’s the goal of the science and art of textual criticism? Should we even engage in criticism of the Bible? Isn’t that blasphemous? Should I trust the New Testament?

These questions and more are explored in a basic Question and Answer format, for ease of understanding. This article is written by a nonspecialist and is intended for the laity.

The entire series assumes the basic Christian doctrine of inspiration. The original authors of the New Testament were inspired. But we no longer have their very original manuscripts. Rather, they were transmitted by scribes and copyists who took their work seriously, but were not inspired as the original authors were. They made typical errors that all scribes and copyists do before the age of copy machines, word processors, and spell checks.

Textual criticism attempts to recover the originals, as much as humanly possible. Have textual critics succeeded? By any reckoning, we have 95% of the inspired words, and some scholars place the number as high as 99% (see Part Three and Question One). Where any uncertainties remain, they do not overturn New Testament doctrine, which is supported by other verses.

That is a remarkable achievement for any text coming out of the Greco-Roman world. Web readers need to know this, so they can be reassured about their Bible when they hear its critics misleading the public about the complete trustworthiness of Scripture. The New Testament (and the Old Testament) is a highly accurate, reliable, and faithful record of the words and ideas of the original authors, as inspired by God.

This article (and the entire series) is about the nonoriginal manuscripts. Let's educate ourselves about them so we won't be caught unprepared when the needlessly and heedlessly harsh critics appear in the media.

1. What is the original language of the New Testament?

Since the question and answer is so fundamental, I have repeated them in the other parts in this series. It was written in common Greek of the first century, in a vocabulary and sentence structure that most people could understand. This is especially true of the four Gospels. Christianity is a missionary religion, so it had to use the language that everyone knew in the cities in the first century. And that language was Greek. Not much later, as Christianity expanded farther, scribes translated the Greek New Testament into other languages.

It must be emphasized that ancient Greek (even koiné or common Greek of the New Testament) is a remarkably precise and nuanced language. It was conditioned, after all, by the two greatest philosopher who ever lived: Plato and Aristotle, not to mention other great geniuses in the Greek-speaking world, such as Sophocles and Euripides. The New Testament authors, though not indebted to them directly, drew from this deep source, ancient Greek.

2. What does criticism mean?

Webster’s Dictionary says that it means “the act of criticizing, usu[ally] negative.” This is the typical definition that first comes to mind because of its widespread use.

However, the third meaning in the dictionary is more relevant to New Testament criticism. It is “the scientific investigation of literary documents (as the Bible) in regards to such matters as origin, text, composition, character, or history.”

The two key words are “scientific investigation.” They do not mean negative criticism.

Further, this specialist in New Testament textual criticism says:

Textual critics . . . sort through these [New Testament] manuscripts and the variant readings therein in an effort to reconstruct the original wording of the Greek New Testament. (Comfort, Encountering, p. 289)

Note how he also states the goal in his definition: “to reconstruct the original wording.”

Next, the Oxford Classical Dictionary says that “textual criticism sets out to establish what a text originally said or meant to say.”

Another specialist says:

Textual criticism is the study of copies of any written work of which the autograph (the original) is unknown, with the purpose of ascertaining the original text (Greenlee, p. 1, emphasis original).

Finally, this specialist defines it thus:

Briefly stated, textual criticism is the science and art that seeks to determine the most reliable wording of a text. (emphasis original)

He goes on to say that it is a “science because specific rules govern the evaluation of various types of copyist errors and readings, but it is also an art because these rules cannot be rigorously applied in every situation” (Wegner, p. 24).

3. What do MS, MSS and NT mean?

The abbreviations stand for manuscript (singular), manuscripts (plural) and New Testament, respectively. Hereafter, I will use them.

4. What does variant mean?

It means a range of readings or words or phrases or clauses that could be inserted into a verse. It is any difference in two or more MSS in a verse from the NT.

This textual critic says:

The details of which texts are composed (letters, words) are “readings,” and, accordingly, all readings that differ from the accepted text as central are usually variant readings or variants. The term . . . refers to the existence of a deviation between the accepted text and another text. (Wegner p. 309)

See Questions Nine and Fifteen, below, for examples.

5. Isn’t it close to blasphemy to “criticize” the Word of God?

Not according to the third definition in Webster’s Dictionary, quoted in Question Two. In fact, we would not even have a Bible if scholars did not sacrifice their time and energy to get things right. Therefore, just the opposite from the assumed answer is true. No one doing this hard work would be close to blasphemy.

6. Why is it necessary to do textual criticism?

Necessity goes to need, and there is a definite need to do this.

The NT was written by scribes before the age of printing presses, computers, word processing programs, email attachments, and faxes. If twenty persons, sitting in far different places and without communicating with each other, were to copy by hand all of the four Gospels from an exemplar (a MS from which a copy is made), it is one hundred percent certain that they would make errors. They might spell their for there or form instead of from or write answer for answered.

How do we establish the correct readings? The process would be tedious, but it could be done by collating the twenty handwritten MSS (note the word Latin word for “hand” in “manuscript”). Collation is the “comparison of one manuscript against a known printed text for the sake of producing a list of the differences” (Comfort, Encountering, p. 381). Most of the errors are accidental, such as spelling and omitting words and jumping from one line to another one below or above, as the copyist’s mind wanders or he gets distracted.

However, now let’s take away the exemplar of the four Gospels. We could produce the original or autograph by coming up with a list of differences. It is extremely rare to have two or more copyists making the same error in the same place and in the same way. Therefore, most of the twenty MSS would lead us to the autograph.

However, this brief example is highly simplified because it too neatly assumes one generation and one exemplar. The NT MSS were written over centuries and from different exemplars that range in quality. In fact, each book of the NT has its own history and audience at the beginning. It was only gradually, but early, that the whole NT as we know it was put together. But the example illustrates the essence of the task and goal of textual criticism: sorting out MSS and eliminating errors so we can find the original wording.

7. What does autograph mean?

In short, it means the original MS. But according to a standard and longer definition, it means:

The authored manuscript, whether penned by the author, dictated by him, or endorsed by him. By comparison, the “original manuscript” is the archetypal exemplar from which other manuscripts were made for publication and distribution. This could be one-and-the-same with the autograph but not necessarily so, especially if editing occurred between the time of the author’s composition and publication. None of the original manuscripts of any book of the Bible are extant [exists and known] (Comfort, Encountering, p. 380).

As noted in that excerpt, these originals no longer exist; otherwise, we would not need to do textual criticism.

8. What’s the goal of textual criticism, in the first place?

This textual critic offers a clear purpose or goal:

The purpose of textual criticism, classically defined, is to recover the original wording of an ancient text, no longer extant [existing and known] in its original form, by means of examining the extant manuscript copies and then applying the canons [rules] of the discipline for determining the wording most likely original. (Comfort, Encountering, p. 289)

Other textual critics say virtually the same thing. (See the excerpts in Question Two).

9. So what kind of scribal errors are there, anyway?

The vast majority of errors are accidental. Here are some examples that have been classified and labeled.

  • Mistaken letters is the confusion of similar letters, such as i for j.
  • Homophony substitutes a similar sounding words, as in there for their.
  • Haplography omits a letter or word usually due to a similar letter or word in context, as in occurrence written incorrectly as ocurrence.
  • Dittography means that a letter or word has been written twice rather than once, such as latter written as later.
  • Metathesis is the reversal in order of two letters or words, as in dog for god.
  • Homoioteleuton is an omission caused by two words or phrases that end similarly. For example, in 1 John 2:23 in a MS or two the clause “he who confesses the Son” has been accidentally omitted because originally it was sandwiched in between the same clause appearing twice, “has the father.” The scribe skipped down to the similar two ending clauses and omitted the middle clause.

But are there some deliberate changes? Yes, but they amount to comparatively few and are not always difficult to correct.

  • Changes in spelling or grammar. In Matthew 1:7-8 the name Asaph has been “corrected” in some MSS to Asa, the king of Judah, in conformity to 1 Kings 15:9-14.
  • Clearing up difficulties. According to some MSS, in Mark 1:2-3 the composite quotation from Malachi 3:1 and Isaiah 40:3 is attributed only to Isaiah the prophet. But some later copyists changed it to “the prophets” to clear up any confusion.

Are there theological changes? Yes, and they also amount to comparatively few. Some scribes, motivated out of zeal or their need to protect doctrine, added or substituted or altered words, phrases, and clauses. Here is an example.

  • In Luke 2:41, 43 the words “his parents” have been changed in a few and late MSS to “Joseph and Mary” (verse 41) or “Joseph and his mother,” “possibly to safeguard the doctrine of the virgin birth.” (Wegner, pp. 53-54)

That is, according to some scribes, saying that Joseph was a parent of Jesus may imply that Joseph was the biological father of Jesus. But the scribes’ “improvement” was unnecessary. It is possible to be a parent outside of physical procreation.

However, these “zealous improvements” do not negatively impact Christian doctrine because other passages in fact support a given doctrine. Other verses, for example, support the doctrine of the virgin Birth. Indeed, it is these undisputed verses supporting doctrine that inform the zealous scribe to “fudge” the text in the first place. The scribe needs a textual starting point before he slips in his “improvements,” long before theologians developed and crystallized theology, derived directly from the Bible.

All of these examples are adapted from Wegner, pp. 44-55, and Metzger and Ehrman, pp. 250-71. For other categories of variants, go to Part Three and Question One.

10. How is textual criticism done?

Broadly speaking, the technique and art of textual criticism is divided into two main approaches: examining the external and internal evidence.

The external approach studies the MSS themselves. How early or late are they? Where do they come from? How do they compare with known reliable ones? Do any of them depend on another, or not? Can they be put into families, as in a genealogy? What scribal style are they written in? Is the style early or late? Can it be used to pinpoint the date of other MSS?

Generally, the earlier and more numerous the MSS, the better, but the dating is not a fixed rule. Sometimes it may be assumed that a later MS (eighth or ninth century) may come directly from a reliable and early, but unknown, MS.

The internal approach evaluates the MSS’s words on the page and all the variants. It answers such questions as these: Are there spelling or grammatical characteristics that would favor one reading over the others? Does the author commonly use words, phrases, or clauses a certain way? Are there clearly accidental errors (see Question, Nine, above)? Is there an identifiable reason that a copyist would change a word or phrase? What is the overall theology of a NT author (Wegner, pp. 238-39)?

11. How many scribal errors are there? Are there hundreds of thousands?

That number is misleading, because even the smallest spelling variant is counted. To use an example in English, a variant may be –ed after a word (answered) or without an –ed (answer). In Greek the word order of a sentence is much more flexible than in English. So if the word order changes in even the slightest way without changing the meaning (see Question Fifteen below, and Part Three, Question One), then this too is counted as a variant. Such trivial differences are counted in the grand total.

Plus, there are several million pages of manuscripts. If there are 500,000 variants (and that number is too high), then that would be much less than one variant per page, on average. Thus, saying that there are hundreds of thousands of variants turns the huge number of pages into a vice, when the huge number is in fact a virtue of NT MSS. Critics want us to believe that even more MS pages would make the NT less reliable, but that is wrongheaded.

So what is the total of more significant variants? It amounts to a surprisingly small percentage of the entire NT.

Most modern textual critics can agree on the bulk of the text (some 95 percent of it perhaps). It is the remaining 5 per cent or so where disputes occur and differing conclusions may be found. These discrepancies are the cause for most of the variants to be seen in the footnotes of our translations (Elliott and Moir, p. 8). Also, some scholars put the number as high as 99% (see Part Three, Question One). We nonspecialists do not have to debate over trivial variants. For us, the Scripture is 95-99% established. No other text coming out of the Greco-Roman world comes even close to this startling outcome, but a very, very far distant second.

This is significant because textual critics focus on a very small number of variants. This also means that after the five or so or one percent of variants have been worked through, we have essentially the Word of God in our hands.

These variants do not overturn or negate Christian doctrine. If one word or clause is being scrutinized in one verse, then the entire sweep of the New Testament supports basic doctrine, such as the deity of Christ (see Question Fifteen, below).

We need, therefore, to get a perspective. No one should doubt the Bible’s reliability in terms of the MS attestation.

12. What does witnesses mean?

Scholars (and all of us) look for shorthand ways to communicate. In the context of NT textual criticism, “witnesses” means all of the MSS, every early version or translation of the NT (usually from Greek into other languages), and the quotations of the NT in the writings of the church fathers (early Christian leaders).

13. How many MSS are there?

The official listing (as of 2006) of the several important categories of Greek New Testament manuscripts can be summarized as follows:

Papyri...118

Majuscule MSS...317

Miniscule MSS...2877

Lectionary MSS...2433

Total...5745

Source: Papyri

Hat tip: Komoszewski, Sawyer, and Wallace, p. 77.

Papyrus means writing material made from reed plants, in this case MSS that survive in fragments, but significant ones.

Majuscule (or uncials) denotes Greek MSS written in capital letters.

Miniscule indicates Greek MSS written in cursive.

And lectionary MSS mean books or lists of specific Biblical passages to be read (hence lectionary) in the church’s calendar. The MSS in the latter category need more detailed study, though the significant MSS have been used in textual criticism of the NT. Not mentioned here are the 20,000 or more different early versions, that is, translations, from original Greek into another language such as Latin, Ethiopic, Slavic, and Armenian.

Different scholars come to slightly different totals, but this chart gives us a clear idea of how many manuscripts scholars have to sort through.

After describing the poor showing of non-Christian MSS of ancient Roman authors, Metzger (and Ehrman, though this excerpt is found in the third edition without him) draws this conclusion about the richness and variety of the NT MSS:

In contrast with these figures [about non-Christian Roman writers], the textual critic of the New Testament is embarrassed by the wealth of material. Furthermore, the work of many ancient authors has been preserved only in manuscripts that date from the Middle Ages (sometimes the late Middle Ages), far removed from the time at which they lived and wrote. On the contrary, the time between the composition of the books of the New Testament and the earliest extant [existing] copies is relatively brief . . . several papyrus manuscripts of portions of the New Testament are extant that were copied within a century or so after the composition of the original documents. (Metzger and Ehrman, p. 51)

It should be pointed out that a footnote to this excerpt says that most of the papyri are relatively fragmentary and the great majority of other MSS contain only the four Gospels or only the Epistles. However, these MSS may still be used to cross-check the others. It is much better to have many MSS than few, as in the case of the Greco-Roman non-Christian MSS.

Further, the quotations of the NT in the writings of the church fathers have not yet been factored into the calculations. Though this fertile area is undergoing detailed study, Metzger (and Ehrman, though this excerpt is found in the third edition without him) estimates:

Indeed, so extensive are these citations that if all other sources for our knowledge of the text of the New Testament were destroyed, they would be sufficient alone for the reconstruction of practically the entire New Testament. (p. 126)

The quotations from the Church Fathers are significant in attesting to the reliability of the NT that we have in our possession.

14. Are there different levels of reliability or accuracy in the MSS?

Textual critics in fact see different levels of quality in MSS, and this is taken into account when they engage in their studies. For example, two scholars, Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, have five categories, but only the first three are mentioned here, for the latter two are for specialists and pertain to classifying the less reliable MSS (pp. 106 and 159).

I. Very special quality

II. Special quality

III. Distinctive character

Specialist may quibble over which MS belongs in which categories, but the main point here is to demonstrate that different levels of MS quality exist. Sometimes this fact is not always pointed out by skeptics, who may use a known weaker MS to score polemical points.

However, it should be noted that “the early church seems to have taken great care to monitor errant theology and their sacred texts” (Wegner, p. 38-39).

15. Don’t all these scribal errors and the great number of MSS cause confusion?

It poses challenges, but not confusion in a negative sense. With more MSS comes the risk of more scribal errors, but also the opportunity to cross-check the MSS and eliminate the errors. Scholars have to puzzle over a wide range of witnesses as they settle on the correct reading. The fourth edition of the United Bible Societies’ Greek NT discusses some variants in one clause of Luke 16:21. It tells the story of the rich man and the poor man Lazarus. Should the verse include the word crumbs or not?

19 There was a rich man who was dressed in purple and fine linen and lived in luxury every day. 20 At his gate laid a beggar named Lazarus, covered with sores 21 and longing to eat what fell from the rich man’s table.

There are three basic variants (genitive plural).

1. Tōn piptontōn means what fell; this is the best rendering according to the witnesses, so the New International Version uses it.

2. Tōn psichiōn tōn piptontōn means the crumbs that fell or the crumbs falling; the witnesses are strong, but not quite as strong as the first variant.

3. Tōn piptontōn psichiōn means the falling crumbs or perhaps also the crumbs falling; the witnesses for this variant are few.

Do these variants in Luke 16:21 cause confusion for the textual critic? No, but they pose a challenge. In this case, the challenge is overcome because critics have boiled down certain MSS that are the most accurate, and they support the first variant. Still, though, the scholars at United Bible Societies, an organization under which they have united to produce a highly accurate NT, rate their certainty about the correct reading in Luke 16:21 as “some degree of doubt” their letter B, as compared with “virtually certain” for their letter A. The letter C indicates “considerable degree of doubt.” To finish off their rating system, D signals a “very high degree of doubt” about the strength or weakness of their decision about a variant.

However, does this example of Luke 16:21 impact basic Christian doctrine negatively? Not in the slightest. Textual critics may wrestle with variants like these, but web readers do not need to do this in most cases. Sometimes a good translation of the NT will signal in the footnotes important variants, and readers should pay attention to them. Perhaps the footnotes mean that we should not be too dogmatic about specific verses here and there, though essential doctrines are not seriously called into question when all the witnesses are collated properly, doctrines such as the deity of Christ.

Before leaving Question Fifteen, this should be repeated and emphasized: by far the vast majority of variants discussed by specialists have nothing or little to do with the solid meat of Christian doctrine. Rather, they concern “crumbs,” so to speak. And no variant overturns Christian doctrine, such as the deity of Christ, which is supported by other verses.

This article was originally hosted at American Thinker.

The article later hosted by biblicalstudies.org.uk has been updated in other areas.

References

Aland, Kurt and Barbara Aland. The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism. 2nd ed. Trans. Erroll F. Rhodes. Eerdmans, 1989.

Black, David Alan, New Testament Textual Criticism: a Concise Guide. Baker, 1994.

--- ed. Rethinking New Testament Textual Criticism. Baker, 2002.

Bruce, F. F. New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 5th ed. InterVarsity, 1960.

Comfort, Philip Wesley. The Quest for the Original Text of the New Testament. Wipf and Stock (originally at Baker), 1992.

--- and David P. Barrett. The Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts. corrected and enlarged edition. Tyndale House, 2001.

Comfort, Philip W. Encountering the Manuscripts: An Introduction to New Testament Paleography and Textual Criticism. Broadman and Holman, 2005.

Ehrman, Bart D. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture: The Effect of Early Christological Controversies on the Text of the New Testament. Oxford UP, 1993.

Elliott, Keith and Ian Moir. Manuscripts and the Text of the New Testament: An Introduction for English Readers. T & T Clark, 1995.

Epp, Eldon J. and Gordon D. Fee. Studies and Documents: Studies in the Theory and Method of New Testament Textual Criticism. Eerdmans, 1993.

Eldon J. Epp, “The Multivalence of the Term ‘Original Text’ in New Testament Textual Criticism.” Harvard Theological Review 92 (1999) 245-81.

Finegan, Jack. Encountering New Testament Manuscripts: A Working Introduction to Textual Criticism. Eerdmans, 1974.

Fee, Gordon D. “The Textual Criticism of the New Testament,” in Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol. 1, pp. 419-33. Frank E. Gaebelein (ed.). Zondervan, 1979.

The Greek New Testament. Ed. Barbara Aland et al. Fourth ed. United Bible Societies, 2001.

Greenlee, J. Harold. Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism. Rev. ed. Hendrickson, 1995.

Head, Peter M. “Christology and Textual Transmission: Reverential Alterations in the Synoptic Gospels.” Novum Testamentum 35 (1993) 105-29.

Komoszewski, J. Ed, M. James Sawyer and Daniel B. Wallace. Reinventing Jesus: How Contemporary Skeptics Miss the Real Jesus and Mislead Popular Culture. Kregel, 2006. See Chapters 4-8.

Metzger, Bruce M. The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration. 3rd ed. Oxford UP, 1992.

--- and Bart D. Ehrman. The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration. 4th ed. Oxford UP, 2005.

Parsons, Mikeal C. “A Christological Tendency in P75.” Journal of Biblical Literature 105/3 (1986) 463-479.

Roberts, Colin H. Manuscript, Society and Belief in Early Christian Egypt, published for the British Academy by the Oxford UP, 1979.

--- T. C. Skeat, The Birth of the Codex. published for the British Academy by the Oxford UP, 1983.

Wegner, Paul D. A Student’s Guide to Textual Criticism of the Bible: Its History, Methods, and Results. InterVarsity, 2006.

3. Discovering And Classifying New Testament Manuscripts

Related Media

This article is the third in a four-part series on New Testament textual criticism. It provides basic facts on how some of the New Testament manuscripts were discovered and how they are classified. It answers such questions as these:

What does Oxyrhynchus mean? What do Beatty or Bodmer mean? What are the totals of the New Testament manuscripts? Were some of them destroyed during the persecution of the early church? Why wouldn’t God protect his Word from such complications? Should I trust the New Testament?

These questions and more are explored in a basic Question and Answer format, for ease of understanding. It is written by a nonspecialist and is intended for the laity.

As noted in Part One, NT stands for New Testament, MS stands for manuscript (singular), and MSS for manuscripts (plural).

1. What are the kinds and amount of variants?

As noted in the previous two parts, this article assumes the basics of the Christian doctrine of inspiration. The original authors were inspired, but we do not have their very originals. (Incidentally, no original manuscript of any book coming out of the Greco-Roman world exists today.) The original New Testament documents were transmitted by scribes, who were not inspired. But does this cast doubt on the New Testament? Not if we are reasonable. New Testament textual criticism attempts to purge out the less likely and decide on the most likely variants that evolved over the tedious process of copying.

They can be classified in this way:

I. Spelling differences and nonsense errors

This is by far the majority. For example, the name John in Greek can be spelled with two n's or one n. Nonsense errors can come from the fatigue of the scribe, such as spelling and (kai in Greek) for Lord (kyrios in Greek).

II. Differences that do not affect translation or that involve synonyms

This is also a sizeable chunk of the scribal variants. Two examples: Greek can use or not the definite article for proper nouns, such as Mary or the Mary. Also, the word order in Greek is much more flexible than it is in English, and this is counted in the grand total of variants, but they do not affect the meaning for us nonspecialists. Such is the nature of Greek back then.

III. Meaningful variants that are not viable

This category represents the third smallest number of variants, but it amounts to only a tiny fraction. For example, 1 Thessalonians 2:9 could read "the gospel of God" (found in most manuscripts) or "the gospel of Christ" (found in one late thirteenth century manuscript).

IV. Meaningful and viable

This represents only one percent of all variants. For example, the ending of the Gospel of Mark 16 is classified thus. Any reputable modern translation will mention that the best manuscripts do not support the longer ending. The reader should look at the New International Version, for example. Please go to Bible Gateway and type in Mark 16 and then John 7, and scroll down to the end of the page.

So what do these four categories of variants have in common? No variant overturns Christian doctrine, such as the deity of Christ, which is often supported by other verses. Skeptics appearing in the national media mislead the public about this. Also, the majority of variants are a concern for scholars, but not for average Bible readers, who need to know that our Bible is completely trustworthy. For us non-specialists, this means that only one percent of these variants are in play and are often noted in our translations. On the positive side, 99% of the Bible is established. Or if we combine the third and fourth categories, then only about 5% are relevant for us indirectly. This means that around 95% of the Bible is established. No text in the ancient Greco-Roman world comes close to this outcome, but a very far distant second.

As I wrote in the previous article in this series, the Bible is a highly reliable, accurate, and faithful record of the words and ideas of the original authors, as inspired by God.

Source: Komoszewski, Sawyer, and Wallace, pp. 54-63.

2. What is the original language of the New Testament?

Since the question and answer is so fundamental, I have repeated them in the other parts in this series. It was written in common Greek of the first century, in a vocabulary and sentence structure that most people could understand. This is especially true of the four Gospels. Christianity is a missionary religion, so it had to use the language that everyone knew in the cities in the first century. And that language was Greek. Not much later, as Christianity expanded farther, scribes translated the Greek New Testament into other languages.

3. Who physically wrote down the original New Testament books and epistles?

It is likely that the original authors wrote their own books and epistles. But it is equally likely that at least some employed scribes to do this, as the authors dictated their words. For example, the scribe or amanuensis of Paul’s long Epistle to the Romans reveals himself: “I, Tertius, who wrote down this letter, greet you in the Lord” (Rom. 16:22; see Gal. 6:11 and 1 Pe. 5:12).

4. Was copying hard work for the scribe?

We do not have enough information about the originals, but later scribes sometimes would include in their manuscript a complaint, such as the following:

He who does not know how to write supposes it to be no labor; but though only three fingers write, the whole body labors.

A traditional formula reads:

Writing bows one’s back, thrusts the ribs into one’s stomach, and fosters a general debility of the body.

Still another scribe wrote:

As travelers rejoice to see their home country, so also is the end of a book to those who toil [in writing].

An Armenian copyist says in a Gospel that “a heavy snow storm was raging and that the scribe’s ink froze, his hand became numb, and the pen fell from his fingers!”

Finally, manuscripts may end with gratitude:

“The end of the book; thanks be to God!”

(Source: Metzger and Ehrman, p. 29)

5. Did scribes use contractions?

Yes, but it is unknown whether the originals had contractions or abbreviations. A short time after the originals, scribes used them mostly for sacred names (nomina sacra). Here are some examples, in transliterated English.

God = Theos → THS (Th in Greek is one letter)

Christ = Christos → CHS or CHR (Ch or Kh in Greek is one letter and is spoken as a hard c, as in cool)

Lord = Kurios → KS

Spirit = Pneuma → PNA

Jesus = Iēsous → IS or IĒ

After the scribe abbreviated or contracted the sacred names, he would draw a bar or line over the letters to signal a contraction.

One textual critic says of the sacred names: “Scribes wrote these names with special regard, and readers (lectors) uttered these names with special attention in church meetings as they read the Scriptures aloud” (Comfort, Encountering, p. 253)

See real-life abbreviations in a papyrus of a part of Paul’s epistles.

6. What does “P” stand for (usually in Gothic or Old English font style), and what about the raised number, as in P75?

This is used only by modern scholars.

The “P” stands for papyrus, and the number indicates the individual papyrus that has been catalogued. Metzger and Ehrman say that a total of 116 papyri have been examined and catalogued (p. 48). All of the papyri, among many other manuscripts, have been used to produce the most highly accurate and reliable New Testament possible.

7. What do recto and verso mean?

In being made (see this slide show on how), the reed plant produced horizontal and vertical lines, as the strips of the plant were laid horizontally and vertically, in two layers. Recto stands for the “front” of the papyrus sheet or page, with the horizontal lines. The verso is the “back” side of the same sheet or page, and its lines were vertical, so it was more difficult to write on that side.

8. The name Oxyrhynchus appears often. What does it mean?

It is a city in Egypt, on the west side of the Nile, about 125 miles south of Cairo. In 1897, Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt, two archaeologists, traveled to this city because they knew that a Christian community had flourished in the early centuries of Christianity. Egypt was naturally dry, so papyrus manuscripts could survive there, buried. They searched in cemeteries, tombs, churches, and monasteries, but they found a trash or rubbish heap, and carefully excavated it. They struck “papyrus gold,” so to speak. Philip W. Comfort, another prominent textual critic, describes the value of trash heaps, specifically for Grenfell and Hunt and the New Testament:

Manuscripts found in rubbish heaps are not “rubbish” per se or defective copies. When a manuscript became old and worn, it was customary to replace it with a fresh copy and discard the old one. Since the Egyptians are known to have disposed of such copies by putting them in rubbish heaps, excavators looking for ancient Egyptian papyri would search for ancient rubbish heaps in deserted sites on ground higher than the Nile River. Grenfell and Hunt’s choice of ancient rubbish heap at Oxyrhynchus was fortuitous, for it yielded that largest cache of papyri ever discovered. (Comfort, In Quest, p. 62)

Then Comfort tells us how long the excavations lasted.

Grenfell and Hunt excavated at Oxyrhynchus until 1907; the Italian exploration society (under G. Vitelli) continued the work there during the years 1910-14 and 1927-34 (Comfort, In Quest, p. 64).

Clearly the First World War (1914-1918) stopped the second dig, the first for the Italians.

The Oxyrhynchus papyri are different from the ones discovered at Nag Hammadi.

See this Website for more information on Oxyrhynchus papyri. Or do a Google search with “Oxyrhynchus.”

9. How many manuscripts were found at Oxyrhynchus?

High-quality classical works were found, such as those of Homer and Pindar. But what about the New Testament?

In total, forty-six papyrus manuscripts containing portions of the New Testament have been discovered at Oxyrhynchus. (Comfort, Encountering, p. 64)

Oxyrhynchus is sometimes abbreviated as Oxy. or Ox.

10. Who was Chester Beatty, and why is his name mentioned so often in the context of papyri?

Chester Beatty was an American living in Britain. He purchased papyri of the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, found in Egypt in the early 1930s. The precise location of the discovery is a mystery because the Egyptian diggers and dealers would not reveal it. This find must not be confused with the Oxyrhynchus papyri or Nag Hammadi papyri. The University of Michigan also purchased some leaves of this sensational discovery.

11. What manuscripts were discovered and then placed in his collection?

Eight manuscripts of portions of the Greek Old Testament were found in codices (plural of codex), which is the forerunner of our book. All dates, in AD, refer to the time that the manuscripts were copied, not originally written.

  • Two manuscripts of Genesis (one from the third century, another from the fourth)
  • One of Numbers and Deuteronomy (second century)
  • One of Ezekiel and Esther (third century)
  • One of Isaiah (third century)
  • One of Jeremiah (late second century)
  • One of Daniel (third century)
  • One of Ecclesiastes (fourth century)

Greek New Testament

  • One codex of the four Gospels and Acts, P45 (late second or early third century)
  • One Codex of the Pauline Epistles, P46, (late first or early second century, or early third); Pauline is the adjective form of Paul, who was a major apostle.
  • One Codex of Revelation, P47, the last Book in the New Testament (third century)

This collection is housed in Dublin, Ireland, as the Chester Beatty Library.

12. Who was Martin Bodmer, and why is his name mentioned so often in the context of papyri?

He was a Swiss bibliophile and humanist who founded the Bodmer Library of World Literature, at Cologny, a suburb of Geneva (Metzger and Ehrman, p. 56).

He purchased papyri in 1952, discovered in Jabal Abu Manna, north of the Dishna plain, in Egypt. They are different from the Oxyrhynchus and Nag Hammadi papyri.

13. What manuscripts were discovered, now in the Bodmer collection?

All dates, in AD, refer to the century that the manuscripts were copied, not originally written.

  • One containing most of the Gospel of John, P66, (ca. 150-200)
  • One having all of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude, P72 (third century)
  • One having the Gospel of Matthew, P73 (seventh century)
  • One having the Book of Acts and the general epistles, P74, e.g. James, Jude, and other non-Pauline epistles (seventh century)
  • One having the Gospels of Luke and John, P75, (ca. 175-225)

14. What other discoveries of manuscripts are there?

The most famous discovery was done by Constantin von Tischendorf, a German who traveled to Egypt and then to the Sinai Peninsula in 1843, at the foot of Mt. Sinai, St. Catherine’s Monastery. He describes his discovery. Apparently, some parchments were thrown in the fire, until he rescued the remaining ones.

It was at the foot of Mount Sinai, in the Convent of St. Catherine, that I discovered the pearl of all my researches. In visiting the library of the monastery, in the month of May, 1844, I perceived in the middle of the great hall a large and wide basket full of old parchments; and the librarian, who was a man of information, told me that two heaps of papers like these, mouldered by time, had been already committed to the flames. What was my surprise to find amid this heap of papers a considerable number of sheets of a copy of the Old Testament in Greek, which seemed to me to be one of the most ancient that I had ever seen. The authorities of the convent allowed me to possess myself of a third of these parchments, or about forty-three sheets, all the more readily as they were destined for the fire. But I could not get them to yield up possession of the remainder. The too lively satisfaction which I had displayed had aroused their suspicions as to the value of this manuscript. I transcribed a page of the text of Isaiah and Jeremiah, and enjoined on the monks to take religious care of all such remains which might fall in their way.

Then in 1853, Tischendorf returned to St. Catherine’s Monastery for more manuscripts. He concealed his joy, so as not arouse the suspicions of the steward of the monastery, who jealously guarded his ancient manuscripts.

And so saying, he [the Steward] took down from the corner of the room a bulky kind of volume, wrapped up in a red cloth, and laid it before me. I unrolled the cover, and discovered, to my great surprise, not only those very fragments which, fifteen years before, I had taken out of the basket, but also other parts of the Old Testament, the New Testament complete, and, in addition, the Epistle of Barnabas and a part of the Pastor of Hermas. Full of joy, which this time I had the self-command to conceal from the steward and the rest of the community, I asked, as if in a careless way, for permission to take the manuscript into my sleeping chamber to look over it more at leisure. There by myself I could give way to the transport of joy which I [felt]. I knew that I held in my hand the most precious Biblical treasure in existence—a document whose age and importance exceeded that of all the manuscripts which I had ever examined during twenty years' study of the subject. I cannot now, I confess, recall all the emotions which I felt in that exciting moment with such a diamond in my possession . . .

(Source)

He named the manuscript he discovered Codex Sinaiticus (or Aleph, the first letter in the Hebrew alphabet). See this quick write-up.

15. How are manuscripts classified?

Manuscript (singular) is abbreviated as MS and manuscripts (plural) as MSS. NT stands for New Testament. There are five main classifications, plus quotations from the church fathers.

I. Papyri

Papyrus comes from a reed plant (see this slide show on how it is made). Scribes used majuscules and minuscules handwriting on this material. It is quite possible that the autograph (original) manuscripts of the New Testament were written on it, or perhaps on parchment, or both, but scholarship is unclear on this point. But papyrus was not very durable, so we do not have the originals now.

This Webpage on papyri, written by Dr. Peter M. Head, a prominent textual critic, lists the papyri and provides further links.

Here is a complete list of papyri. The page also has links to images.

II. Uncials

This word performs a double duty. It means a handwriting style, but it “ordinarily designates [manuscripts] on parchment” (Greenlee, p. 27). It dominates from the fourth through the tenth centuries.

Generally speaking, the uncial MSS, especially the earlier ones, are the most dependable group of witnesses to the NT text. (Greenlee p. 28)

This page on uncials, also written up by Dr. Head, lists the major uncials, and has further links.

This page provides links to uncials on parchments, including links to photos.

Here is a study of Codex B (03) or Codex Vaticanus.

This page has facsimile photos of Codex Alexandrinus (02).

III. Minuscules

“By far the largest group of Greek NT MSS [is] those written in minuscule handwriting, thus dating from the ninth century and later. Most are on parchment” . . . (Greenlee, p. 33)

Generally, this group of witnesses may not be as reliable as the earlier ones, but this is not always true. A later manuscript may have a more reliable exemplar (now unknown) than an earlier manuscript.

Dr. Head also provides a list of the major minuscules.

IV. Lectionaries

This word comes from the Latin for reading.

These are MSS in which the Scriptures are written, not in ordinary sequence, but in sections arranged in units for reading in church services. In very ancient times certain scripture passages were designated as the reading for each day of the year and for special services and days. The lectionary MSS were then written to follow the sequence of readings, with the day and the week generally indicated at the beginning of each lection. (Greenlee, p. 35)

Finally, Dr. Head lists the major lectionaries.

V. Versions

Christianity is a missionary religion, so it needed to translate the NT in other languages from the original Greek. Here are some common ones, as Christianity spread out:

Latin (Itala), Syriac, Coptic (Egyptian), Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Gothic, Arabic, Persian, Slavonic, Frankish, Gothic, and Anglo-Saxon.

These versions are helpful in NT textual criticism because they can decide key words and phrases and clauses, provided they are easy to translate back into Greek. A Syriac version, for example, some of which are earlier than Greek MSS, help textual critics decide on variants.

VI. Quotations from the church fathers

The quotations of the NT in the writings of the church fathers have been studied in detail, but not all of them. Though this fertile area is undergoing more study, Metzger and Ehrman estimate that the quotations are extensive (though this quotation is found in the third edition before Ehrman joined Metzger for the fourth edition):

Indeed, so extensive are these citations that if all other sources for our knowledge of the text of the New Testament were destroyed, they would be sufficient alone for the reconstruction of practically the entire New Testament. (p. 126)

This is significant in attesting to the reliability of the NT that we have in our possession. Also, the number of citations exceed a million. Metzger is right to say that the citations are "so extensive."

16. What are the totals for these classes of manuscripts?

The official listing (as of 2006) of the several important categories of Greek New Testament manuscripts can be summarized as follows:

Papyri...118

Majuscule MSS...317

Miniscule MSS...2877

Lectionary MSS...2433

Total...5745

Source: Papyri

The summary gives us a clear idea of how many manuscripts scholars have to sort through.

Hat tip: Komoszewski, Sawyer, and Wallace p. 77.

17. Were manuscripts ever destroyed during the persecutions of early Christians?

The totals gathered by Metzger (and Ehrman), cited in the previous Question, seem like a lot (and they are), but we could have benefited from many more manuscripts. Diocletian, a Roman Emperor who reigned from AD 284 to 305, ordered the destruction of church buildings and the Christian Scriptures in 303-304, but the persecution occurred before and continued after that date.

Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, two prominent leaders in textual criticism of any generation, explain the devastation this decree wreaked on the NT MSS.

The persecution of Diocletian left a deep scar not only in church history but also in the history of the New Testament text. Innumerable manuscripts were destroyed during the persecution and had to be replaced. Even more were needed to supply the flood of new churches which sprang up in the Age of Constantine [an Emperor who reigned immediately after Diocletian]. (Aland and Aland, p. 70)

This was a time of crisis. A “snitch” society developed. Non-Christians exposed the Christians and the whereabouts of their Scriptures. Some devout believers paid with their lives, protecting God’s Word. They deserve our admiration. We should honor them by honoring God’s Word in our lives. Honoring means reading and studying it.

18. All of the discoveries and recovery process seem so complicated. Why wouldn’t God protect his Word?

I have asked and answered this question in the other parts in this series. Christians believe that God works through history and humans. C. S. Lewis’ preliminary study on miracles is relevant. Once the inspired original manuscripts get assimilated into history, they undergo the effects of time:

The moment [the newcomer, e.g. miracle] enters [Nature’s] realm, it obeys her laws. Miraculous wine will intoxicate, miraculous conception will lead to pregnancy, inspired books will suffer all the ordinary processes of textual corruption, miraculous bread will be digested. (Miracles: A Preliminary Study, p. 81)

However, these errors have been purged out (and continue to be), with very few remainders. Why can’t devout believers today conclude that God is in fact working through humans in the purging process? Isn’t this a kind of divine protection that is worked out over time and history?

19. So what’s the bottom line on all of this? Should I lose my confidence in the NT?

I have also asked and answered this question in the other three articles in this four-part series on New Testament manuscripts, but it is repeated here since it is critical both for seekers and the devout. The persecution of the church may have devastated the number of manuscripts, but enough have survived to help us put together the original, as much as this can be done, by cross-checking and comparing the thousands we have.

Sir Frederick Kenyon (d. 1952), a premier NT textual critic of the first half of the twentieth century, is optimistic about the general result of all of the hard work done by many scholars.

It is reassuring at the end to find that the general result of all these discoveries and all this study is to strengthen the proof of the authenticity of the Scriptures, and our conviction that we have in our hands, in substantial integrity, the veritable Word of God (qtd. in Wegner, p. 25).

Kenyon worked in an earlier generation, and other MSS have been found since his time. However, nothing has cropped up that challenges in a substantive way the meaning and content of the NT. “Still there are relatively few significant variants in the Bible, and among these variants there is very little difference in meaning and content” (Wegner, p. 25).

Christians should have gratitude, if I may intrude with my own opinion, for scholars putting in so much time and energy and for clarifying the NT. Somebody has to do this thankless yeoman’s work, done often behind the scenes, with no glamour.

Therefore, far from losing one’s confidence, it should grow.

See the final article in the series: The Manuscripts Tell the Story: the New Testament Is Reliable. It surveys the opinions of many specialists on New Testament textual criticism. They also are optimistic.

This article was originally hosted at American Thinker

The article later hosted by biblicalstudies.org.uk has been updated in other areas.

References

Aland, Kurt and Barbara Aland. The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism. 2nd ed. Trans. Erroll F. Rhodes. Eerdmans, 1989.

Black, David Alan, New Testament Textual Criticism: a Concise Guide. Baker, 1994.

Comfort, Philip Wesley. The Quest for the Original Text of the New Testament. Wipf and Stock (originally at Baker), 1992.

---. Encountering the Manuscripts: An Introduction to New Testament Paleography and Textual Criticism. Broadman and Holman, 2005.

Elliott, Keith and Ian Moir. Manuscripts and the Text of the New Testament: An Introduction for English Readers. T & T Clark, 1995.

Finegan, Jack. Encountering New Testament Manuscripts: A Working Introduction to Textual Criticism. Eerdmans, 1974.

Greenlee, J. Harold. Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism. Rev. ed. Hendrickson, 1995.

Komoszewski, J. Ed, M. James Sawyer and Daniel B. Wallace. Reinventing Jesus: How Contemporary Skeptics Miss the Real Jesus and Mislead Popular Culture. Kregel, 2006. See Chapters 4-8.

Metzger, Bruce M. and Bart D. Ehrman. The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration. 4th ed. Oxford UP, 2005.

Roberts, Colin H. Manuscript, Society and Belief in Early Christian Egypt. Published for the British Academy by the Oxford UP, 1979.

--- and T. C. Skeat, The Birth of the Codex, published for the British Academy by the Oxford UP, 1983.

Wegner, Paul D. A Student’s Guide to Textual Criticism of the Bible: Its History, Methods, and Results. InterVarsity, 2006.

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