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Christian Fellowship

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Introduction

In Acts 2:42 we read that one of the four things the early church devoted itself to was “fellowship.” Fellowship was a very important part of their reason for meeting together. It was one of their objectives. But what is fellowship?

We often hear people talking about fellowship. We hear it said that what we need is more fellowship. But our modern ideas of fellowship have become so watered down that the word no longer carries the same meaning it did in New Testament times.

We are not surprised that the early church devoted itself to “the apostles’ teaching” and also “to prayer.” Apart from the ministry of the Holy Spirit, these are the two most important means of growth, power, and effectiveness in the Christian life and this is everywhere evident in the rest of Scripture.

But Luke tells us these early Christians also devoted themselves to fellowship. They just didn’t have fellowship; they devoted themselves to it. This means that fellowship was a priority and one of the objectives for gathering together. They made fellowship a priority.

Today, however, we often view fellowship as what we do in “fellowship hall.” It’s the place where we have casual conversations and savor coffee and donuts. This is not bad and can contribute to fellowship, but it falls far short of fellowship according to biblical standards and according to the meaning and use of the Greek words for fellowship.

Still others who may have become fed up with church seek fellowship through viewing a worship service on television, but this too misses the picture.

Give your TV a hug! Joel S. McCraw has suggested that if you are one of those who gets their religion by watching religious broadcasts on the TV, or listening to the gospel via radio, you might want to step up to the set after a service and “Give your TV a great big hug.”

Foolish, isn’t it. The electronic religion of multitudes of people creates an emptiness—interpersonal relationships are so desperately needed to keep our faith glowing and growing. If you drop off your associations with other Christians and disassociate yourself from them in worship and service, you’ll run out of spiritual fervor and dedication in a short time. There is no substitute for “going to church and worshiping with others of like precious faith.”1

You may be thinking, “My view of fellowship is much richer and deeper than mere social activity. True fellowship involves getting together for spiritual purposes: for sharing needs, for prayer, for discussing and sharing the Word to encourage, comfort, and edify one another.” And you are right. This certainly is an aspect of Christian fellowship, and one much more important than the first idea. It is an area of fellowship that is often lacking in the church today and one that needs to be remedied. But even this does not comprehend or grasp the full and rich meaning of “fellowship” in the New Testament.

In order to grasp its meaning and relate our lives to its truth, we need to study two Greek word groups, koinwnia, and its derivatives, and metocos, a word which will come into importance because of its spiritual relationship to koinwnia.

English Definition of Fellowship

Before we begin a study of the Greek words, let’s get a glimpse of our word “fellowship” from the English dictionary to see what it might add to our understanding. An English dictionary can shed a lot of light on the Bible if we would use it in our Bible study. The translators chose English words according to their real and exact meanings. When we study our Bibles we assume we understand the full significance of a word, but often our ideas are very incomplete. This is particularly true of the word “fellowship.”

According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary it means: (a) companionship, company, associate (vb.); (b) the community of interest, activity, feeling or experience, i.e., a unified body of people of equal rank sharing in common interests, goals, and characteristics, etc.; (c) partnership, membership (an obsolete usage but an important one. It shows what has happened to our ideas of fellowship).

There are three key ideas that come out of this:

(1) Fellowship means being a part of a group, a body of people. It is opposed to isolation, solitude, loneliness, and our present-day independent kind of individualism. Of course, it does not stop there because we can be in a crowd of people and even share certain things in common, but still not have fellowship.

(2) Fellowship means having or sharing with others certain things in common such as interest, goals, feelings, beliefs, activities, labor, privileges and responsibilities, experiences, and concerns.

(3) Fellowship can mean a partnership that involves working together and caring for one another as a company of people, like a company of soldiers or members of a family.

But what about Christian fellowship according to the Word of God and the words for fellowship as they are used in the New Testament?

Greek Words for Fellowship

The Koinwn Words

(1) Koinos (the root word)

The language of the New Testament is called koinh Greek because, through the conquests of Alexander the Great, it was the common language of Christ’s day for Romans, Greeks and Jews alike. Koinh means common. Koinwnia comes from koinos which means “common, mutual, public.” It refers to that which is held in common.

(2) Koinwnia (n) and Koinwneo (vb) (primary words)

There are two main ideas with this word: (a) “to share together, take part together” in the sense of partnership or participation, and (b) “to share with” in the sense of giving to others. As we will see, there are four key ideas that come out of these two meanings according to New Testament usage.

The New Testament usage according to sentence construction refers to: (a) the thing shared in common in some way by all parties involved as relationships, blessings or burdens, privileges, or responsibilities (all believers in Christ share many things in common); (b) the person(s) doing the sharing with others; (c) the person(s) with whom there is sharing; and (d) an abstract quality of the concept of fellowship, with no object, used alone as in Acts 2:42.

(3) Koinwnos, Koinwnikos (secondary words)

Koinwnos means “a partner, associate, companion” (2 Cor. 8:23; Luke 5:10; Phil. 1:7) or “a partaker, sharer” (1 Cor. 10:18-20; 2 Cor. 1:7; 1 Pet. 5:1; 2 Pet. 1:4).

Koinwnikos, is an adjective meaning “characterized by koinwnos, ready to share or partake” (1 Tim. 6:18).

The Metocos Words (metocos, metoch)

These words come from meta, “with,” plus ecw, “to have.” The basic idea is “to have with” or “to have together.”

Metocos means: (a) “a sharing in, a partaking of” (Heb. 3:1, 14; 6:4; 12:8); and (b), “a partner, associate” (Heb. 1:9; Luke 5:7).

Metoch means: (a) “sharing, fellowship”; or (b) “partnership” (cf. 2 Cor. 6:14 where it is used with koinwnia).

Based on the meanings and uses of these words, four key ideas develop that are important if we are to grasp the richness the New Testament’s teaching on “fellowship.” If we understand these four concepts we will begin to have a grasp of the doctrine of fellowship and its implications and demands on our lives.

Concepts of
Fellowship in the New Testament

A. Relationship

In the New Testament, what is shared in common is shared first of all because of a common relationship that we all have together in Christ. Koinwnia was an important word to both John and Paul, but it was never used in merely a secular sense. It always had a spiritual significance and base. The idea of an earthly fellowship founded upon just common interests, human nature, physical ties like in a family, or from church affiliation was really rather foreign to the apostles.

In the New Testament, believers can have fellowship and share together because they first of all have a relationship with Christ and share Him in common (1 Cor. 1:9; 1 John 1:3). The New English Bible translates 1 John 1:3 as follows: “what we have seen and heard we declare to you, so that you and we together may share in a common life, that life which we share with the Father and with His Son Jesus Christ.”

Fellowship is first the sharing together in a common life with other believers through relationship with God through Jesus Christ. Fellowship is first and foremost a relationship, rather than an activity. The principle is that any activity that follows, should come out of the relationship.

In Acts 2:42 the early church was not merely devoting itself to activities, but to a relationship. It was this relationship that produced an active sharing in other ways. It is so important that we grasp this. Fellowship means we belong to each other in a relationship because we share together the common life and enabling grace of Jesus Christ.

There is also, however, a negative aspect. Because of our relationship with Christ, there can be no legitimate fellowship with the world, demonism, idolatry, or anything that is contrary to Christ and our relationship with Him (cf. 2 Cor. 6:14f).

B. Partnership

Both koinwnia and metocos mean to share together in the sense of a partnership. As sharers together of the person and life of Christ, we are automatically copartners in His enterprise here on earth.

Both sets of Greek words were used in this sense by classical and New Testament writers.

(1) In the secular realm, koinwnos (a form of koinwnia) and metocos were both used by Luke to refer to the partnership of Peter with James and John (Luke 5:7, 10).

(2) In the spiritual realm, koinwnos was used by Paul of Titus (2 Cor. 8:23) and Philemon (Philemon 17), and koinwnia of the Philippians (Phil. 1:5) because he viewed them as partners in the ministry of the gospel, as co-workers who shared in ministry (cf. Gal. 2:9).

(3) In the spiritual realm, metocos was similarly used by the author of Hebrews to express the concept of our partnership with the Lord (Heb. 1:9) because we are also sharers of His life and calling (Heb. 3:1, 14). “The concept of fellowship as a spiritual partnership is firmly embedded in the new Testament …”2 by the use of both word groups.

Whereas the word relationship describes believers as a community, partnership describes them as the principals of an enterprise. A business partnership is always formed in order to attain an objective, such as providing a service to the public at a profit for the partners. In the same way, the concept of a spiritual partnership implies that it is created with the objective of glorifying God. Just as all believers are united together in a community relationship, so we are all united together in a partnership formed to glorify God …

… Biblical fellowship, then, incorporates this idea of an active partnership in the promotion of the gospel and the building up of believers.3

This element is strongly brought out in the argument of the author of Hebrews who shows us that believers are both partakers of and partners with Christ in His salvation, kingdom, and purposes for earth and man.

In Hebrews 1:14 this “salvation” which believers are to inherit, within the context of the passage, includes the believer’s share in the Son’s triumphant dominion in which He has partners, those who belong to Him and are involved with Him in His kingdom and reign (1:9; 2:10,13; 3:1). This partnership, however, begins here on earth, and this forms the foundation for what believers will share with Him in the future kingdom. We are responsible to share with Him in the work He is now doing on earth so we can share in the blessings of the future by way of rewards (cf. Luke 19:11f; 1 Cor. 3:12f). A steadfast confidence in Christ is vital or we will defect and fail to carry our responsibilities as His companions. As those who share in His life through faith, we are also partners with Him in His enterprise and purposes here on earth. We are His representatives on earth (cf. 1 Pet. 2:5f).

Perhaps one of the keys here is our understanding of the word metocos, which is used a number of times in Hebrews (cf. 1:9; 3:1,14; 6:4; 12:8). As seen above, this was a term used of business partners. It was used in precisely this way in the papyri and in its only occurrence in the New Testament outside of Hebrews, in Luke 5:7.

Note Hebrews 3:14 which may be rendered, “… we have become partners with Christ.” It can mean “sharer, partaker.” “Of Christ” then becomes what we share in: we partake of His life. This is true, but I don’t believe this is the point here. As in Hebrews 1:9, the author is saying we become companions, partners of the Christ, the Messianic King, but to share in what He is doing now and in the future, we need fidelity and confidence in Him (cf. Rev. 2:26-27).

    Distinction Between Relationship and Partnership

Relationship describes what we are: a community of people bound together by our common life and blessings that we share together through our relationship with Christ. Partnership describes how we are related to each other in that relationship: we are partners in an enterprise and calling in which we are to work together in a common purpose to obtain common objectives for the glory of God and the gospel of Jesus Christ (cf. Phil 1:27).

Later, as we look at the foundation for fellowship, we will see that our relationship with Christ is like a coin, it has two sides, union and communion, or relationship (the positional side) and fellowship (the experiential side).

C. Companionship

Companionship is the interchange or communication (communion) that exists among companions, those associated together through a relationship they hold in common. The key ingredient in companionship is communication. Key words that describe companionship are “interchange, communion, sharing.” Communication is the sharing of concepts, feelings, ideas, information, needs, etc. through words or other symbols like body language and actions so that all members of the relationship hold these things in common.

In the Christian community, companionship includes communicating on a spiritual level through a mutual sharing of the things of Christ: the Word, the filling of the Holy Spirit, and the ministries and gifts of the various members of the body of Christ.

Companionship through communication would include:

(1) The Vertical: This is our communion and fellowship with the Lord through the Word, prayer, the filling of the Holy Spirit, and the abiding life.

(2) The Horizontal: This is our communion and fellowship with the body of Christ, other believers. This includes: (a) assembling together as a whole body (Acts. 2:42; Heb. 10:25); (b) assembling in smaller groups (2 Tim. 2:2); (c) meeting together one-on-one (1 Thess. 5:11); (d) sharing and communicating truth together and building up one another (Rom. 1:11-12; 2 Tim. 2:2; 1 Thess 5:11; Philem. 6); (e) sharing together in worship, i.e., the Lord’s supper (1 Cor. 10:16), the singing of hymns, psalms, and spiritual songs (Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16), prayer (1 Cor. 14:16-17), the ministry of the Word (Acts 20:20; 2 Tim. 2:2; 1 Pet. 4:10-11); (f) sharing together as partners in the needs, burdens, concerns, joys, and blessings for the purpose of encouragement, comfort, challenge or exhortation, praise, prayer and physical help according to the needs and ability (cf. Phil. 1:5 with 1:19; and 2:4 with 1:27; also 4:3; Rom. 12:15; and 1 Thess. 5:11,14,15; Heb. 10:33).

This means we must develop the loving art of communication. We need to be willing to share our own burdens and aspirations and be available to hear what others are saying so we may minister to needs according to the directives of the Word. The ultimate goal is to build up and enrich others in the things of Christ that we may all together experience the sufficiency of His life and tune our lives into His. We need others for that. As the early church was first devoted to the apostles’ teaching, they were also devoted to caring for one another and to sharing with one another what they were learning and what Christ was meaning to them (Acts. 2:42; Heb. 3:12-14).

Ted Malone, whose radio show came on early in the morning, told of an Idaho shepherd who wrote: “Will you, on your broadcast, strike the note ‘A’? I’m a sheep herder way out here on a ranch, far away from a piano. The only comfort I have is my old violin. It’s all out of tune. Would you strike ‘A’ so that I might get in tune?”

Malone honored the request. Later he received a “thank you” note from the distant shepherd saying, “Now I’m in tune.”

One of the purposes and responsibilities of personal and public worship is to enable the aspirant to keep tuned to the Great Shepherd. One of the joys of the Christian life is to help others recapture the missing note!4

D. Stewardship

A steward is one who manages the property of another. A steward is not an owner; he is a manager. As stewards we must recognize that all we have belongs to the Lord and has been given to us as trusts from God to invest for His purposes. Believers need to be willing to share their material possessions for the promotion of the gospel and to help those in need. Good stewardship stems from recognizing our relationship to Jesus Christ, but it also means recognizing our partnership in Christ’s enterprise on earth.

In any good partnership, the partners share equally in both the privileges and responsibilities, the assets and liabilities, and the blessings and burdens. What kind of partnership would it be if one partner took all the income and enjoyed all the privileges while the other partner did all the work and paid all the bills? Would you enter a partnership like that? No, of course not! Partners are to share and share alike in all the aspects of their enterprise. They may not do the same things. In fact, they will be much more successful in their enterprise if they work and share according to their abilities, expertise, and training, but still share the load.

It is interesting that one of the most prominent uses of the koinwnia group of words is its use in connection with sharing material blessings—giving money to meet financial needs. Of the 36 usages of these words, they are used 9 times specifically in connection with giving, and in a couple of other passages giving would be included among other aspects of fellowship (Acts 2:42; Phil. 1:5; Heb. 10:33).

Giving is meant in the following passages: koinwneo (Rom. 12:13; 15:27; Gal. 6:6; Phil. 4:15); koinwnia (Rom. 15:26; 2 Cor. 8:4; 9:13; Heb. 13:16); koinwnikos (1 Tim. 6:18); and metecw (1 Cor. 9:10, note context vss. 9-14). Therefore as partners in Christ’s enterprise on earth, “we need to share with one another, realizing that we are not owners but stewards of the possessions God has entrusted (not given) to us.”5

The concept and application of this partnership/stewardship combination is seen clearly in 2 Corinthians 8:12-15. “Paul envisioned a continual flow of believers’ possessions toward those who have needs. This is an outworking of koinwnia, and an important expression of true fellowship.”6

What was happening here? What was Paul wanting to see done? Paul was asking the Corinthian believers to have fellowship as partners, as fellow sharers in Christ and laborers together in the gospel. As partners, they were to give out of their abundance to other partners, to other believers, even though they had never met. Why? Out of love, certainly, but also because they were partners in the Savior’s enterprise on earth.

Note 3 John and its application here:

3 John 5-8 Beloved, you are acting faithfully in whatever you accomplish for the brethren, and especially when they are strangers; 6 and they bear witness to your love before the church; and you will do well to send them on their way in a manner worthy of God. 7 For they went out for the sake of the Name, accepting nothing from the Gentiles. 8 Therefore we ought to support such men, that we may be fellow workers with the truth.

“Acting faithfully” (vs. 5) refers to their partnership as those who share in common the life and enterprise of Christ. It goes on to say, “especially when they are strangers.” Why is this? Because we share a common relationship through a common life, the person of Christ, and thus, a common objective.

“To your love” (vs. 6) refers to the expression of Christ’s love in the lives of these saints as they shared in His life through fellowship or communion with Him. “To send them on their way” refers to fellowship. Here was a group of believers who, recognizing their partnership, shared their resources with these missionaries. The word used here is propempw, which became a technical term for sending someone forth with all that they needed for their journey. It involved “supplying them with food and money to pay for their expenses, washing their clothes and generally helping them to travel as comfortably as possible.”7

“For they went out for the sake of the Name” (vs. 7) refers to the purpose of their going out. They were missionaries involved in the enterprise of propagating the gospel, the news about the Savior. This is the enterprise and objective we should all have in common as Christians. They sought nothing and refused to accept any support from unbelievers (“accepting nothing of the Gentiles”). Why? Because there was no common relationship in Christ. They were not partners together in this enterprise. They were instead, the objective.

“We ought” (vs. 8) refers in the Greek text to a moral obligation. It is the Greek ofeilw, “to owe a debt.” We owe such a debt to others of the body of Christ because we are partners. “Support” is the Greek @upolambanw which means “to bear up, lift up by giving financial aid, support.” Why? The reason is expressed in the final words of verse 8, “That we may be fellow workers with the truth.” Because we are partners and should live like it by sharing in the work (cf. Gal. 6:6 and the partnership principle there).

These four major areas cover the doctrine of fellowship as it pertains primarily to our relationship with one another, but the basis of our relationship to one another is our relationship with Jesus Christ. It is that vertical aspect of fellowship that forms the foundation and means of fellowship in the body of Christ.

Relationship:
The Foundation for Fellowship

As we’ve seen, fellowship is first a relationship. But, sometimes the term relationship is used of our subjective experiences. A man might say, “I have a good relationship with my wife.” He means that they get along well, they communicate and enjoy one another’s company. But the most basic meaning of relationship deals with objective fact. It refers to the condition or fact of being related to someone as a son to a father or a wife to her husband. This is particularly true with the concept of relationship as we use it theologically. Relationship refers to an objective fact.

Relationship means we are related to God as His children, born into His family by the Holy Spirit through faith in Christ. Then, as believers in Christ, we are related to Christ and to each other in that we have been joined into union with Him; we are members of His body through the baptizing work of the Holy Spirit. Fellowship means we share this relationship and it is an objective fact regardless of our spiritual condition (cf. 1 Cor. 1:2 with 3:1-3). In this sense, we must understand and act on the following concept: RELATIONSHIP stands to FELLOWSHIP as UNION stands to COMMUNION.

This means we must ever keep in mind that our experience with God and with one another grows out of the objective fact of our relationship with the Lord Jesus (cf. Eph. 2:5, 6). Only those who are in relationship with one another (objective fact) can have true fellowship (subjective experience).8 We must first have a real living relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ before we can have experiential fellowship with God. As this is true with God, so it also becomes true in our fellowship with one another (2 Cor. 6:14-7:1).

In the Bible, fellowship embraces both the objective and experiential aspects. However, for the experiential to occur, we must first have the objective fact. Why? Because the relationship aspect of fellowship (the objective fact) forms the foundation for all the other aspects of fellowship. In relation to God, relationship/union provides the motivation, the means, the confidence, everything we need to reach out to appropriate our new life as those who are related to the living Christ. It is because we are related to Christ that we are partners and related to each other. It is because we are related as a household of God’s people that we share and give (Gal. 6:10; 3 John 8).

Partnership:
The Means of Fellowship

As pointed out earlier, Paul and John never used the term fellowship in a purely secular sense. It always had a spiritual base and a spiritual means. The idea of an earthly fellowship founded upon simply common interests or common likes or dislikes or similar personalities or human opinions or purely physical ties was a foreign idea in connection with Christian fellowship.

For these human authors of Scripture, Christian fellowship was tied directly into spiritual realities. Certain things must be involved or we do not have Christian koinwnia. The first essential is the foundation (the objective aspect), but it also includes the means of fellowship (the subjective aspect).

If we are to share experientially in the life of Christ, and if we are to share together as partners and as companions in an effective and meaningful way, certain things are a must. Without God’s means of fellowship, we can’t have true Christian fellowship. What we end up with is mere religiosity as it pertains to God, and simply social interchange and a compatibility of old sin natures as it pertains to men.

Let’s take a look at God’s means of fellowship.

The Fellowship of the Holy Spirit

In 2 Corinthians 13:14 we have the clause, “fellowship of the Holy Spirit.” A question arises as to whether “of the Holy Spirit” is objective (the object of our fellowship, a participation or sharing in the Holy Spirit), or subjective (the fellowship or sharing which the Holy Spirit produces or provides as the means, the agent). In Philippians 2:1 we have the same construction and the same question. There is no question that all believers mutually share in the person and ministries of the Holy Spirit as is clear in Hebrews 6:4 (metochos).

There is a clue from the text as to how this should be understood. We are not merely left to our feelings or imaginations about this. In both passages the clauses “fellowship of the Holy Spirit” are preceded by statements which give us an objective guide according to the normal conditions of Greek grammar. Let’s take a look at both verses.

2 Corinthians 13:14 The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit, be with you all.

This verse has three “of” clauses in the Greek, each referring to the three persons and gifts of the Trinity. Normally we would expect such clauses to be parallel grammatically. If we can determine the pattern of one by the nature of the clause, the others would normally follow the same pattern (cf. Tit. 3:5).

(1) “The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ.” It is the grace which the Lord Jesus Christ gives (subjective), not grace which the Lord Jesus Christ receives (objective).

(2) “The love of God” is clearly the same. It is the love we receive from God (subjective), not the love we give to God (objective). This follows by the pattern set in the first clause, but also from the last statement, “be with you all.” The context deals with what we receive, not give.

(3) “The fellowship of the Holy Spirit.” Following the above examples, it is more likely that the third genitive (tou @agiou pneumatos) is also subjective (“the fellowship engendered by the Holy Spirit”; cf. Eph 4:3) than that it is objective (“participation in the Holy Spirit”).9

Philippians 2:1 If therefore there is any encouragement in Christ, if there is any consolation of love, if there is any fellowship of the Spirit, if any affection and compassion,

This passage likewise consists of three clauses, one with “in,” and two with “of.” Again we have a similar parallel. “Encouragement in Christ” is an encouragement which comes from being in Christ. “Consolation of love” is a consolation which comes from love. So likewise, “fellowship of the Spirit” is a fellowship which the Spirit gives.

All aspects of fellowship are dependent upon the ministry of the Holy Spirit. Before salvation, fellowship with God in the sense of relationship (union) depends on His pre-salvation work, the conviction of truth, followed by His work of regeneration and baptizing accompanied by the Spirit’s indwelling as a gift of the Father and the Son (John 16:8f; 2 Thess. 2:13; Tit. 3:5; 1 Cor. 12:12,13). After salvation the experience of fellowship in communion with God depends on the filling of the Spirit. Carnal Christians cannot have true fellowship either with God or with one another. They simply will not be functioning as partners, companions, and stewards. About the best they can have is a compatibility of human friendship, or backgrounds, or of likes and dislikes, but true fellowship engendered by the Spirit will certainly be hampered because carnality grieves and quenches the Spirit. In a question designed to show how Israel’s sin had hampered their fellowship with the Lord and ability to function as God’s people according to His purpose for the nation, Amos asked, “Do two men walk together unless they have made an appointment (an agreement)?” (Amos 3:3).

Fellowship in the Gospel

Acts 2:42 And they were continually devoting themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer.

Central to these believers’ fellowship was the teaching of the apostles. Being devoted to our relationship, partnership, companionship, and stewardship depends on our devotion to Scripture.

Philippians 1:5 “in view of your participation in the gospel from the first day until now.” This partnership for all the churches of Macedonia as with the Thessalonians began with hearing and receiving the Word (cf. 1 Thess. 2:13).

1 John 1:1-3 What was from the beginning, what we have heard, what we have seen with our eyes, what we beheld and our hands handled, concerning the Word of Life—and the life was manifested, and we have seen and bear witness and proclaim to you the eternal life, which was with the Father and was manifested to us—what we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also, that you also may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ.

The coming of the Son and the proclamation of His Word was not an end in itself, its purpose was fellowship. Fellowship in all its aspects comes from the proclamation of the Word of Christ. True fellowship must have its foundation in the Word and it must get its energy, direction, and scope from the Scriptures. This is central, but unfortunately in our day of the “feel good” kind of Christianity other things have become central and the Bible has been given a back seat.

A passage that is pertinent here is 1 Corinthians 1:10-2:5. These verses deal with the division brought about by the variance of men’s opinions concerning personalities and forms and emphasis in worship as it pertained to such things as baptism and its importance, and the use and function of showy gifts like tongues. What the Corinthians were emphasizing in their meetings was undercutting the ministry of the Word which proclaimed the sufficiency of Christ, a wisdom certainly not of this world. Furthermore, because they had failed to grasp the very heart of the gospel, their fellowship with Christ, they were cliquish and snubbing the poorer saints when the church came together (11:17-34). So, Paul sought to demonstrate that what men need is the wisdom of God’s Word and its message of Christ. This is the basis of fellowship, not forms of worship or showy gifts.

So we should also note the preceding context, 1:9, “God is faithful, through whom you were called into fellowship with His Son, Jesus Christ our Lord.” As we have seen, fellowship has as its fundamental meaning the concept of having a share in, partnership, having a common share. All believers share in common the life of Christ positionally and experientially. Consequently, they also share with one another in Christ’s enterprise on earth. This is the hinge upon which Paul attacks the party spirit in the verses that follow.

Companionship:
The Method of Fellowship

Fellowship With God: the Vertical Dimension

Companionship, as suggested previously, involves communion or communication, interchange, intimacy, sharing and receiving. If there is going to be fellowship with God, we must first draw on the Lord’s resources as we listen to Him in His Word, as we allow the Spirit of God to talk to us through Scripture and through the various providential events of life (trials, blessings, etc.) and through the lives of others around us. We need to be open to Him, receptive, teachable. In our communion with the Lord, we need to listen to His voice and respond in obedience.

Note this emphasis in these words from the Psalms and Proverbs:

Psalm 78:1 Listen, O my people, to my instruction; Incline your ears to the words of my mouth.

Psalm 81:8 Hear, O My people, and I will admonish you; O Israel, if you would listen to Me! … 11 But My people did not listen to My voice; And Israel did not obey Me. …13 Oh that My people would listen to Me, That Israel would walk in My ways!

Psalm 106:25 But grumbled in their tents; They did not listen to the voice of the LORD.

Proverbs 8:32 Now therefore, O sons, listen to me, For blessed are they who keep my ways. 33 Heed instruction and be wise, And do not neglect {it}. 34 Blessed is the man who listens to me, Watching daily at my gates, Waiting at my doorposts.

In communion, we also talk to God in prayer and pour out our needs and burdens to Him as is seen, for instance, in the Psalms.

Psalm 4:1 Answer me when I call, O God of my righteousness! Thou hast relieved me in my distress; Be gracious to me and hear my prayer.

Psalm 34:15 The eyes of the LORD are toward the righteous, And His ears are open to their cry.

Psalm 39:12 Hear my prayer, O LORD, and give ear to my cry; Do not be silent at my tears; For I am a stranger with Thee, A sojourner like all my fathers.

Psalm 54:2 Hear my prayer, O God; Give ear to the words of my mouth.

Psalm 84:8 O LORD God of hosts, hear my prayer; Give ear, O God of Jacob!

Psalm 102:1 A Prayer of the Afflicted, when he is faint, and pours out his complaint before the LORD. Hear my prayer, O LORD! And let my cry for help come to Thee.

Psalm 143:1 A Psalm of David. Hear my prayer, O LORD, Give ear to my supplications! Answer me in Thy faithfulness, in Thy righteousness!

In communion we give as we make our requests to Lord and we receive as we listen and He answers and directs our paths.

But this is only part of the communion or fellowship aspect of our relationship with God. There is another aspect as seen in some of the verses quoted above and in a number of verses in the New Testament on fellowship. This actually involves a result, but nevertheless, a vital part of communion or fellowship. It is the aspect of loving obedience. Obedience becomes one of the proofs of our communion and fellowship with the Lord. Listen to these words of our Lord.

John 14:23, Jesus answered and said to him, ‘If anyone loves Me, he will keep My word; and My Father will love him, and We will come to him, and make Our abode with him.’

“Abode” is monh, the noun form of menw, “to abide, remain, live with.” In essence the Lord said, we will come and make our ‘abiding place’ with him. In the upper room the Lord taught the disciples, and as such He teaches us, that obedience to his commands would bring with it the continued experience of His Father and Himself in deep communion with one another. Now, this is not to be understood as a condition by which we merit fellowship by the good deeds of obedience. He had just finished discussing the promise of the Holy Spirit whom He called the Helper, the Enabler, the One given to us to enable us to live obediently and victoriously through the process of fellowship (cf. John 14:16-17). Failure to walk obediently hinders fellowship without deep seated confession. As we saw in Amos 3:3, two can’t walk together unless they be agreed.

Scripture gives us a number of illustrations of fellowship and communion. I want to share three.

Illustrations of the Vertical Dimension of Fellowship

    Abiding in the Vine

The first illustration of communion or of maintaining a right relationship with the Lord in the sense of fellowship is that of the vine in John 15. In essence this forms a discourse on fellowship in the key relationships of life. In this passage we see three areas of relationships: (a) the relationship of believers to Jesus (vss. 1-11); (b) the relationship of believers to each other (vss. 12-17); and (c) the relationship of believers to the world (vss. 18-27).

The first thing this passage demonstrates is the concept of priorities. The most important of all relationships which must be maintained is our relationship with Jesus Christ. This is the foundation and source of all our other relationships and our capacity for fellowship. To enforce this truth, the Lord used the analogy of the vine and the branches, one not unfamiliar to the disciples because of their culture.

The passage stresses:

    The Right Stock

    Verse 1

    “I am the true vine”

    The Right Vinedresser

    Verse 1

    “My Father is the husbandman”

    The Right Cultivation

    Verses 2, 6

    “He prunes”

    The Right Connection

    Verses 4

    “Abide in me, and I in you”

    The Right Fruitage

    Verses 5, 8

    “That you bear much fruit”

While God has provided everything we need for fellowship in all its aspects, we must appropriate that fellowship by abiding in Christ. We must exercise our volition to act on our new life in Christ.

There are four ways people seek to have fellowship and try to live the Christian life.

(1) By their own ability, effort, and will power. But Christ said, “apart from me you can do nothing” (John 15:5). While we have a responsibility to appropriate our new life in the Lord, while diligence on our part is called for (1 Tim. 4:7), the fact remains that in and of ourselves we are totally incapable.

(2) Do nothing at all, just let go and let God. But the Lord said, “abide in the vine” (John 15:4). This means we have the responsibility to abide, to depend on Him, to do the things abiding requires. Note the emphasis of Scripture:

Ephesians 6:13 Therefore, take up the full armor of God, that you may be able to resist in the evil day, and having done everything, to stand firm.

Philippians 2:12-13 … work out (appropriate, put to work) your salvation with fear and trembling,

1 Timothy 4:7b … Discipline yourself for the purpose of godliness.

2 Peter 1:5 Now for this very reason also (the reason of God’s abundant supply of everything we need for life and godliness), applying (bringing alongside of God’s grace) all diligence, in your faith supply moral excellence …

(3) The partial approach (“Lord, help me to do it”). In this approach, “there is the assumption—unconsciously perhaps, but still very real—that there is a certain reservoir of goodness, wisdom, and spiritual strength within my own character that I should draw on for the ordinary duties of life, but that beyond that, I need the Lord’s help.”10

(4) The abiding approach (John 15). This is the approach that results in and describes true fellowship. The relationship that believers are to have with the Lord is illustrated in the visual image of the vine/branch analogy.

The vine/branch analogy does not in any way illustrate the picture of salvation. Rather, the text and context suggests that it is related to the discipleship relationship, the relationship of those who are believers in Christ. Only the disciples are present and Christ is talking directly to them about their relationship to Him and their responsibility of fruitfulness. Judas had already departed to do his dirty work. Further, the Lord’s final words about this vine/branch relationship are related to fruitfulness and discipleship (cf. vs. 8, “and so prove to be My disciples,” i.e., become what disciples ought to be).

The subject of the passage is the vine/branch relationship for the purpose of maximum fruitfulness for the glory of God. Our Lord is showing the need for maintaining a proper connection with Him for fruitfulness: from fruit to more fruit to much fruit so that God is glorified in the believer’s life. The means of this fruitfulness is the work of the Vinedresser (vs. 2). Abiding is the duty of the branches (vss. 3-5, 7), but it is also promoted by God’s loving discipline (cf. vs. 6 with Heb. 12:5-11).

In John’s writings, the phrase “in Me” (used in some 24 verses) refers not to a common essence or organic connection as the phrase “in Christ” does in the writings of Paul, i.e., position. Instead, it refers to fellowship, to a commonality of purpose and commitment. Because of this, a branch “in Me” is not a branch organically connected to Him as a literal branch is organically connected to a vine. Instead, it pictures a branch that is deriving its sustenance from a literal vine by which it is able to bear fruit.

The analogy of the vine and the branches depicts a relationship that mature and growing Christians sustain with Christ because of remaining in close fellowship to him, rather than a relationship that all Christians have because of salvation (Pauline theology). Fellowship rather than organic union or spiritual position is the picture. To be “in Me” means to be in fellowship, living obediently through having communion with the Lord, and this is evident from the command “abide in me.”

The Greek word for “abide” is menw which means “to stay in a sphere, to stand against opposition, to endure, to hold fast.”11 It means to continue in a place and, when a place is involved, it can be close to the idea of living in that place or sphere.

“The word ‘abide’ which occurs ten times in the passage, means the maintenance of an unbroken connection rather than repose, and bespeaks the necessity of a constant active relationship between the believer and his Lord, if the resultant life is to be productive.”12

It means to remain in fellowship. It involves renouncing all confidence in our own merit, wisdom, and strength. It means we look entirely to Christ as the source of our merit, wisdom, and strength.

To abide in Christ is, on the one hand, to have no known sin unjudged and unconfessed, no interest into which He is not brought, no life which He cannot share. On the other hand, the abiding one takes all burdens to Him, and draws all wisdom, life, and strength from Him. It is not unceasing consciousness of these things, and of Him, but that nothing is allowed in the life which separates from Him.13

When we do not abide we lose our fellowship with the Lord, we are severed from fellowship with the vine. Because of John’s use of the term, it has nothing to do with salvation. It means we are no longer drawing upon His life as the means of our sustenance and fruitfulness. If we continue in this state, we come under the discipline of the Lord (vs. 6). But how are we to understand this verse? The statement of verse 6 has caused needless perplexity. Hodges writes:

The main reason for that is the strong impulse many readers have to identify the reference to fire with hell. But this is an unjustified interpretive leap. There is no reason at all to think of the fire as literal, just as we are not dealing with a literal vine, literal branches, or literal fruit. “Fire” here is simply another figurative element in the horticultural metaphor.

What happened, therefore, in vineyards all over Palestine, could happen to the disciples as well. If they failed to “abide” in Jesus, they would be separated from their experience of fellowship with Him: they would be “cast out as [or, like] a branch.” Intimate contact with the True Vine would be lost. But more, this loss of vital communion with the True Vine would result in the “drying up” of their spiritual experience: they would be “withered.” And finally, they would be cast into the “fire” of trial and divine chastisement: “they gather them and throw them into the fire, and they are burned.”14

    Dining With Christ

Revelation 3:20 Behold, I stand at the door and knock; if anyone hears My voice and opens the door, I will come in to him, and will dine with him, and he with Me.

“The words of Jesus spoken to the Laodicean Christians were clearly a call to personal fellowship with Himself. In the ancient Middle East, sharing one’s table with others was a fundamental and basic way of having communion with them. It was the very essence of hospitality and a signal of personal acceptance.”15

Our Lord is addressing a Christian church here and, while there may have been some professing Christians there, the passage is addressed to the church as a whole. He is talking to believers who had become spiritually destitute, who were materially rich, but spiritually poor in their spiritual independence and failure to have real fellowship with the Lord. It was a lukewarm congregation. Though they had works, they were like lukewarm water that the Lord said he would vomit out of His mouth to show His displeasure with their spiritual condition.

    Walking in the Light

1 John 1:5-9 And this is the message we have heard from Him and announce to you, that God is light, and in Him there is no darkness at all. 6 If we say that we have fellowship with Him and yet walk in the darkness, we lie and do not practice the truth; 7 but if we walk in the light as He Himself is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus His Son cleanses us from all sin. 8 If we say that we have no sin, we are deceiving ourselves, and the truth is not in us. 9 If we confess our sins, He is faithful and righteous to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.

Amos 3:3 Do two men walk together unless they have made an appointment (have agreed)?

As these passage show, another picture of communion or personal fellowship with the Lord is that of walking in the light. Walking in the light means to walk in an open, honest-to-God fashion, so one is open to what His light reveals with a willingness to confess and deal with sin and apathy and self-dependent ways.

Quite clearly John teaches us that regardless of our verbal claims or our religious actions, if we are not walking in the light, honestly dealing with our attitudes and actions in the light of the Word through confession and the filling of the Spirit, we are not having true fellowship. Without God’s means, we can’t have fellowship with the Lord or with one another. As seen in these illustrations, fellowship with God means we are walking with God, dining with Him, abiding in the Vine, but this is done through the control and in the energy of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:16; Phil. 3:1-3).

Known sin grieves the Spirit’s person (Eph. 4:30) and quenches His power; it short circuits His ministries in one’s life and hampers one’s capacity for true fellowship (1 Thess. 5:19, cf. Amos 3:3 and Isa. 59:1-2 with 1 John 1:5-9). This results in carnality, the control of the flesh rather than the Spirit (1 Cor. 3:3; Rom. 8:2-4). This means we are operating by our resources, using the weapons of the flesh (2 Cor. 10:3) not God’s (Eph. 6:10f; Phil. 3:3). As a result, we become controlled by our desires, our opinions, by our wisdom, by our own methods for meeting our needs, by our everything.

We can all appear to be having fellowship when we go through the motions of churchianity. We can appear to be in fellowship by our presence in a worship service, by our involvement in various religious activities, or when we find those who happen to agree with our viewpoint, but if the Holy Spirit is not in control, if we are not abiding, if we are not walking in obedience, then, there is no fellowship. This is why differences among carnal people cause divisions, rather than growth and the sharpening of character (Prov. 27:17).

Fellowship With Christians: the Horizontal Dimension

    The Basic Principle

God has created us to be dependent people—dependent on Him and on one another. His judgment in Genesis 2:18, “it is not good for the man to be alone,” is a principle that speaks not only to marriage, but to all of life and especially to the spiritual fellowship of all believers. Marriage is a miniature cosmos of relationships which forms the foundation and soil for other relationships of community life.

No man is an island. None of us has the ability to go it alone. We need the communion or companionship of one another. Spiritual fellowship both on the vertical and horizontal planes are absolute necessities. They are not options nor are they luxuries we can do without. J. I. Packer has an important insight about fellowship on the horizontal plane:

We should not … think of our fellowship with other Christians as a spiritual luxury, an optional addition to the exercises of private devotion. We should recognize rather that such fellowship is a spiritual necessity; for God has made us in such a way that our fellowship with himself is fed by our fellowship with fellow-Christians, and requires to be so fed constantly for its own deepening and enrichment.16

    The Basic Problem

But this is not easy for us to grasp particularly in our country today because of the negative impact society has had on traditional American culture and the church. Believers are supposed to be a people who avoid conformity to the world by the habitual renewal of their minds in the Word. But society always influences believers to some degree as we see so clearly in the letters to the seven churches in Revelation 2-3. And to the degree this happens, we obscure the teachings of the Word or eclipse the light of the Word of God on our lives.

The church is allowing our culture to eclipse the light of Scripture. We are being affected by a number of the forces of this world’s darkness which, as a part of the New-age Movement and Satan’s strategies for the last days, are moving us into a kind of neo-paganism. Three of these forces have definite negative affects on fellowship.

The first force is relativism. Relativism maintains there are no absolutes of truth, of good and evil, or of values and priorities. It is just as Isaiah warned Israel:

Isaiah 5:20-21: Woe to those who call evil good, and good evil; Who substitute darkness for light and light for darkness; Who substitute bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter! Woe to those who are wise in their own eyes, And clever in their own sight!

Peterson writes, in a recent copy of Discipleship Journal, “It is not in style to say, ‘This is truth,’ ‘That is sin,’ or ‘It is wrong.’”17 It all simply becomes a matter of one person’s opinion over another’s.

The second force is privatization. Describing this force, Peterson says:

The second force, privatization, accommodates relativism. It says, ‘What I believe and do is my private business. Since it doesn’t really matter if you believe in God and I believe in Mother earth (pantheism, another influence), let’s agree to keep our beliefs to ourselves.’ The church is no longer able to function as a public conscience; its role has been reduced to serving the private spheres of its members. (emphasis mine)

But the problem is further aggravated by the fact that this influence has even influenced the private life of the church and its fellowship as outlined in the New Testament. Believers too often don’t want to be involved in the lives of others and they especially don’t want anyone getting too close to them.

The third force is individualism.

When the third force, individualism—which is at the very core of American culture—is mixed with relativism and privatization, the cocktail becomes deadly. A way of life emerges in which self is at the center. The all-consuming pursuit of self-fulfillment that characterizes this brand of individualism inevitably leaves wreckage in its wake.18 (emphasis mine)

As Christians, we may realize the Word is our authority, at least intellectually, but many do not live with it as their authority. Tradition, personal aspirations, expedience, personal preference, and other forces too often eclipse the authority of Scripture. We allow the viewpoint of our culture to invade and take control of our lives and actions. This is not to suggest there is no place for privacy and individualism in the Christian life. We are each believer priests with the privilege of going directly into God’s presence in prayer and we are warned against being busy bodies (1 Thess. 4:9-11; 2 Thess. 3:11; 1 Tim. 5:13).

The Bible does not stamp out all aspects of individualism. It teaches we are each individual people with gifts and talents given to us by God for His glory, but these gifts are for the blessing, encouragement, help, and edification of the body of Christ. We are members of the body who need each other and who have specific responsibilities to each other. It is the Bible that guides us in the how and what of these responsibilities.

The Word does provide for privacy and warns against becoming busybodies, but this does not eliminate the need for intimacy in the body of Christ, dependence on the body, and the ‘one another’ commands of Scripture. It does not in any way eliminate our need to be responsible to and for the body of Christ. The problem is, because of culture and nature, we are prone to be so caught up in our own individual pursuits and concerns, that we have no time or concern for others—especially the body of Christ.

Because of these cultural influences and our natural tendencies to take the spirit of individualism and privatization to the extreme, let’s consider the scriptural foundation for the horizontal aspect of fellowship to further stress its importance.

Scriptural Foundations for
Fellowship on the Horizontal Plane

Ecclesiastes 4:9-10 Two are better than one because they have a good return for their labor. 10 For if either of them falls, the one will lift up his companion. But woe to the one who falls when there is not another to lift him up.

This passage shows how man, through his natural limitations, needs the help of others. Bridges writes:

Solomon intended more than simply a literal application of these truths to physical situations. In his rather picturesque way, he was emphasizing the importance of fellowship. Two are better than one, first because of the synergistic effect; Two together can produce more than each of them working alone … two people together can help each other up when they fall or even when they are in danger of falling. One of the many advantages of fellowship is the mutual admonishing or encouraging of one another in the face of a temptation or an attack of Satan.19

Proverbs 27:17 Iron sharpens iron, So one man sharpens another.

This passage shows us how our relationship and contacts with one another stimulate and sharpen us in our walk with God and life in general. We are able to grow and be sharpened and aided by the insights, gifts, and God’s workings in the lives of others.

1 Corinthians 12:12-18 For even as the body is one and yet has many members, and all the members of the body, though they are many, are one body, so also is Christ. 13 For by one Spirit we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Greeks, whether slaves or free, and we were all made to drink of one Spirit. 14 For the body is not one member, but many. 15 If the foot should say, “Because I am not a hand, I am not a part of the body,” it is not for this reason any the less a part of the body. 16 And if the ear should say, “Because I am not an eye, I am not a part of the body,” it is not for this reason any the less a part of the body. 17 If the whole body were an eye, where would the hearing be? If the whole were hearing, where would the sense of smell be? 18 But now God has placed the members, each one of them, in the body, just as He desired.

These verses emphasize the fact we are members of the body of Christ and, as these verses show, this necessitates our fellowship.

Ephesians 4:11-16 And He gave some as apostles, and some as prophets, and some as evangelists, and some as pastors and teachers, 12 for the equipping of the saints for the work of service, to the building up of the body of Christ; 13 until we all attain to the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to a mature man, to the measure of the stature which belongs to the fulness of Christ. 14 As a result, we are no longer to be children, tossed here and there by waves, and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by the trickery of men, by craftiness in deceitful scheming; 15 but speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in all aspects into Him, who is the head, even Christ, 16 from whom the whole body, being fitted and held together by that which every joint supplies, according to the proper working of each individual part, causes the growth of the body for the building up of itself in love.

This passage stresses the importance of every believer working and serving in the fellowship of the body.

Romans 1:12 … that I may be encouraged together with you while among you, each of us by the other’s faith, both yours and mine.

This verse shows how our mutual faith, through God’s working in each of our lives, becomes an important ingredient to our mutual encouragement.

I Thessalonians 5:11-12 Therefore encourage one another, and build up one another, just as you also are doing. 12 But we request of you, brethren, that you appreciate those who diligently labor among you, and have charge over you in the Lord and give you instruction,

Here we see how the deceitfulness of sin and temptations of life necessitates our fellowship together, not only in the worship service but in more intimate ways. Compare also Hebrews 3:13 and 10:22-25 for this same emphasis.

Malachi 3:16 Then those who feared the LORD spoke to one another, and the LORD gave attention and heard it, and a book of remembrance was written before Him for those who fear the LORD and who esteem His name.

“Those who feared the Lord” were those who had not been wrongly influenced by their society and who had not given way to doubts and the cynicism of the rest of the nation. Various translations of this text are, “spoke to one another” (NASB), “talked with each other” (NIV), “talked often one to another” (Amplified), “spoke often one to another” (KJV). The Hebrew has the imperfect tense of continual action or frequent action.

In the face of the widespread complaining against God and the apostasy of the day, a remnant sought encouragement and strength in frequent fellowship. It is obvious that this fellowship is what promoted their faithfulness against the widespread complaining. This fellowship then, along with their faithfulness, was so important to God that a scroll of remembrance of their response was written and is kept in heaven.

Stewardship:
The Overflow of Fellowship

Persecution of the believers in Jerusalem, which had led to extreme conditions of poverty, caused the Apostle Paul to encourage the church, especially Gentile assemblies, to give to their need. This would not only demonstrate the oneness of Jew and Gentile in Christ, but gave the body of Christ to share with others in the body as partners Christ’s enterprise on earth. In writing to the Corinthian church to be a part of this ministry, the Apostle Paul used the Macedonian believers as an example. Regarding their giving Paul wrote:

2 Corinthians 8:1-12. And now, brothers, we want you to know about the grace that God has given the Macedonian churches. 3 Out of the most severe trial, their overflowing joy and even beyond their ability. Entirely on their own, 4 they urgently pleaded with us for the privilege of sharing in this service their extreme poverty welled up in rich generosity. (Italics mine)

It is important for us note how Paul described their desire to give. He not only spoke of their giving in terms of their rich generosity, but he described it as a sharing (koinwnia). In other words, their giving was as an aspect of koinwnia. Giving, the steward of our material blessings, is also a part of our fellowship, our sharing in the work of the Savior as we experience His life, His values and priorities in our own lives through our fellowship with Him. As pointed out previously, one of the prominent uses of the koinwnia group of words is its use in connection with sharing material blessings—giving money to meet financial needs. For instance, even a casual look at the context shows that giving is meant in the following passages: koinwneo (Rom. 12:13; 15:27; Gal. 6:6; Phil. 4:15); koinwnia (Rom. 15:26; 2 Cor. 8:4; 9:13; Heb. 13:16); koinwnikos (1 Tim. 6:18). Even the metcos group of words is brought into the picture in 1 Corinthians 9:10 which uses metecw in a context of giving to aid in the ministry of the gospel.

As believers in partnership with the Savior, we are not owners, but stewards of the things God has given us which includes not only our talents (spiritual gifts), our temple (our body), our time, and God’s truth, but also the treasures, the material blessings God gives us.

Since it is outside of the scope of this study to cover the area of biblical giving, see the study called, Financial Faithfulness, on our web site under the section, “Spiritual Life.”

Conclusion

Fellowship in the body of Christ is certainly no side issue. It was one of the four things the early church devoted itself to, and from this brief study, we can see why. It is a means of support and encouragement to others and of ministry in the Savior’s enterprise on earth.

We have seen four words (relationship, partnership, companionship, and stewardship)20 that describe the general emphasis of this New Testament concept, but how does this carry over into specifics? How do we have the kind of fellowship that encourages, edifies (builds) and serves one another? How do we find the strength, the wisdom, and the courage to have true fellowship?

At least part of the answer comes through obedience to the many ‘one another’ commands of the New Testament. Over and over again, we are exhorted in various ways to be involved with and caring for one another. For instance, we are told to admonish one another (Rom. 15:14), to comfort and encourage one another (1 Thess. 4:18; 5:11; Heb. 3:13), to worship with one another (Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16; Heb. 10:25), to bear one another’s burdens (Gal. 6:2), to always seek the good of one another (1 Thess. 5:15), to be honest with one another (Col. 3:9), to show hospitality to one another (1 Pet. 4:9), and to be at peace with one another (Mark 9:50). There are many others, some fifteen categories in all, but this illustrates the point.

The expression ‘one another’ is a translation of a reciprocal pronoun in the Greek New Testament. Reciprocal means mutual, shared, shown or felt alike by both sides, united in feelings, actions, responsibilities, and attitudes. Synonyms include: common, mutual, fellowship, and shared—ideas that are at the heart of the doctrine of fellowship. In usage, this pronoun is used in statements and injunctions to believers regarding shared and mutual responsibilities. In emphasis, it focuses us on our need of the ministry and aid of others, of our duty to care for others as partners in the body of Christ, and of how we can experience true fellowship. Therefore, a study of the ‘one another’ commands of Scripture would be tremendously helpful in the matter of New Testament fellowship. For a detailed study of the doctrine, see the study on the “One Another” Commands of Scripture..

The Psalmist wrote: “Look to the right and see; For there is no one who regards me; There is no escape for me; No one cares for my soul” (Ps. 142:4).

A poet has written:

    Loneliness is like a piano without keys,
    Like a violin without strings.
    Like a sanctuary without a congregation
    Or a choir where no one sings.

    Loneliness is like a blade of grass
    Growing through a crack of cement.
    Loneliness is like a camp ground
    Without a single tent.

    Loneliness is like a mocking bird
    That cannot sing a song.
    Loneliness is a feeling
    That one does not belong.

    Like a pansy in a corn field
    Hidden where no one can see.
    I know all there is to know about loneliness
    Because it lives inside of me.21


1 Bible Illustrations, Parsons Technology, 1990-94, electronic media.

2 Jerry Bridges, True Fellowship, Navpress, Colorado Springs, 1985, p. 18.

3 Ibid.

4 Parsons Technology, electronic media.

5 Bridges, p. 22.

6 Ibid.

7 Fritz Rienecker, Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament, Vol. II, edited by Cleon L. Rogers, Jr., Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 1980, p. 800.

8 Bridges, p. 26.

9 The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, Frank E. Gaebelein, general editor, Vol. 11, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 1981, p. 406.

10 Bridges, pp. 36-37.

11 The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Abridged in One Volume, Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, editors, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1985, electronic media.

12 Merrill C. Tenney, John, The Gospel of Belief, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1948, p. 228.

13 The Scofield Reference Bible, Oxford University Press, London, 1967, p. 1148.

14 Zane Hodges, Absolutely Free, Academie Books, Grand Rapids, 1989, p. 137.

15 Hodges, p. 131.

16 Bridges, pp. 76-77, quoting J. I. Packer, God's Words, p. 193.

17 Jim Peterson, Disciple Journal, issue fifty-five, 1990, p. 12.

18 Peterson, p. 12.

19 Bridges, p. 77.

20 For an overview of the concept of financial stewardship see the study Financial Faithfulness on the Biblical Studies Foundation web site.

21 Parsons electronic media.

Related Topics: Spiritual Life, Fellowship

Christ Our Companion (Luke 24:13-35)

Related Media

Luke 24:13-35 And behold, two of them were going that very day to a village named Emmaus, which was about seven miles from Jerusalem. 14 And they were conversing with each other about all these things which had taken place. 15 And it came about that while they were conversing and discussing, Jesus Himself approached, and began traveling with them. 16 But their eyes were prevented from recognizing Him. 17 And He said to them, “What are these words that you are exchanging with one another as you are walking?” And they stood still, looking sad. 18 And one of them, named Cleopas, answered and said to Him, “Are You the only one visiting Jerusalem and unaware of the things which have happened here in these days?” 19 And He said to them, “What things?” And they said to Him, “The things about Jesus the Nazarene, who was a prophet mighty in deed and word in the sight of God and all the people, 20 and how the chief priests and our rulers delivered Him up to the sentence of death, and crucified Him. 21 “But we were hoping that it was He who was going to redeem Israel. Indeed, besides all this, it is the third day since these things happened. 22 “But also some women among us amazed us. When they were at the tomb early in the morning, 23 and did not find His body, they came, saying that they had also seen a vision of angels, who said that He was alive. 24 “And some of those who were with us went to the tomb and found it just exactly as the women also had said; but Him they did not see.” 25 And He said to them, “O foolish men and slow of heart to believe in all that the prophets have spoken! 26 “Was it not necessary for the Christ to suffer these things and to enter into His glory?” 27 And beginning with Moses and with all the prophets, He explained to them the things concerning Himself in all the Scriptures. 28 And they approached the village where they were going, and He acted as though He would go farther. 29 And they urged Him, saying, “Stay with us, for it is getting toward evening, and the day is now nearly over.” And He went in to stay with them. 30 And it came about that when He had reclined at the table with them, He took the bread and blessed it, and breaking it, He began giving it to them. 31 And their eyes were opened and they recognized Him; and He vanished from their sight. 32 And they said to one another, “Were not our hearts burning within us while He was speaking to us on the road, while He was explaining the Scriptures to us?” 33 And they arose that very hour and returned to Jerusalem, and found gathered together the eleven and those who were with them, 34 saying, “The Lord has really risen, and has appeared to Simon.” 35 And they began to relate their experiences on the road and how He was recognized by them in the breaking of the bread.

Introduction

Our Lord assured His disciples that though He must leave them, He would not leave them comfortless or without enablement. He promised them that He would come to them through the ministry and work of the Holy Spirit for fellowship, guidance, comfort, and strength. He also promised that by abiding in Him they would experience His life to become fruitful disciples, men with a mission and purpose in life (see John 13:33-14:3, 16f, 15:4-8, and then, 16:12-13).

Included with these promises, He also gave them specific revelation regarding His death and resurrection, both of which were essential to these promises. Yet, after His death we find the disciples sad, gloomy, fearful, perplexed, scattered, defeated, and running in retreat with no sense of mission or purpose. They were men in desperate need of the Savior’s touch; they needed His comfort and direction.

As a follow-up to Easter, this study is designed to help us reflect on the most momentous event in human history—the resurrection. This event, which is so important to the Christian faith, has a tremendous amount of historical evidence to support its reality. One such evidence is the post resurrection appearances of Christ.

Let’s consider some of the reasons for the appearances of the risen Christ.

    1. Certainly one of the Lord’s reasons for appearing to men after the resurrection was to show Himself alive to give evidence of His accomplished victory as the resurrected and glorified Savior.

    2. But these various appearances did more than that. Through these appearances Lord taught his disciples and us a great deal about Himself and His relationship and ministry to all believers during His physical absence from the church.

    3. Christ’s appearances also teach us the truth of His availability and companionship and how that works in and for us even though physically absent.

    4. Christ’s appearances also teach us about ourselves, our needs, and tendencies. Here He shows us our need of His fellowship for an understanding of Scripture, for faithfulness as His disciples, and for the ability to handle the pressures of life.

The Retreat of the Two Disciples
(24:13-24)

The Conversation While in Retreat (13-15a)

Following the narrative about the resurrection in verses 1-12, which leaves us with Peter going home and marveling at all that had happened after finding the empty tomb, verse 13 begins with what I believe to be a very special word, one designed to catch our attention. Though some Bibles do not translate it, this section begins with the word “behold.” This is the Greek idou, an aorist imperative of the verb @oraw, “to discern.” It is a kind of demonstrative particle designed to focus our attention on an important lesson to be gleaned from what follows in the actions of the two disciples in retreat and the arrival of the risen Savior who came along side to minister to them.

Rather than proclaiming a message of a victorious and risen Savior, we find these two disciples in retreat, leaving Jerusalem, scared, dejected, and perplexed. Here was a walk of sadness and gloom, of frustration and doubt; a walk filled with deliberation and discussion, but without answers and understanding, and thereby, without comfort; going, but without sense of mission and purpose.

“They were conversing” is @omilew, “to company with, to consort together,” hence, “to converse together” (vs. 14). The tense is a descriptive imperfect and pictures the ongoing conversation between these two men as they walked along.

But the interesting point is what were they discussing. The text tells us they were conversing “about all that had taken place.” Their conversation was centered around the death, burial, and reports of the resurrection of Christ, a very wonderful topic of conversation and one which should have brought joy, hope, a sense of victory, and purpose. But instead, it brought sadness, retreat, and a sense of loss.

To further describe the nature of their conversation, Luke uses the word, discussing. “Discussing” in verse 15 is the Greek sunzhtew, “to search, examine together by discussion.” Quite clearly, in their disappointment and perplexity over the turn of events, they were looking for answers, they wanted to understand, they were searching. It is the same word used in Mark 9:10, “And they seized upon that statement, discussing with one another what rising from the dead might mean.”

Application: But let’s note a couple of things because this is so much like all of us.

    1. Their conversation was woefully inadequate and their deliberations impotent because, as the passage will show in the verses that follow, they had been indifferent to the Word and as a result, they were ignorant of its truth. Their deliberations and discussions were not founded on the Scripture or on the what the Lord had taught them.

    2. Aren’t we often just like this? We can get together and reason and discuss, but just being together to talk, share our experiences and ideas for the purpose of comforting one another cannot truly answer the main problems and questions of life or give us peace.

    3. We need something more, much more. We often hear about support groups, and they can be helpful, but they will always be inadequate and without God’s answers unless founded on the Word of God and fellowship with the Savior.

What then was their need? Fellowship with the living Christ. So what happens next? Someone graciously and lovingly enters the scene. The Savior Himself comes along side.

The Coming of the Companion (15b)

“And it came about that while they were conversing” introduces us to a significant time element which shows us that right in the middle of their plight of perplexity, the Lord Himself came on the scene. The pronoun “Himself” is an intensive pronoun which meant it is emphatic drawing our attention to His personal involvement in their need. This fact plus the word, “approached,” the Greek engizw, “to draw near,” brings out the personal interest, availability and ministry that the Lord Himself always has in our lives.

Here, then, we see the love and desire of the Savior to draw near and to draw us to Himself, to make the things of Christ (or His life) dear and real to us. The purpose, of course, includes bringing comfort and change to our countenances, but more importantly, He wants to change our lives and make us like Him. Really, the issue is never a matter of His presence, but of our awareness of His presence.

Here we have two believers gathered in His name and we find the Savior personally drawing near to make their conversation meaningful, to turn their sadness into joy, their expectations into reality, and their futile lives into meaning.

The next verses, verses 16-24, draw our attention to their spiritual condition, one so typical of so many believers. In the process, it shows us how we so desperately need the companionship of the risen and living Savior.

The Condition and Need of the Two Disciples (16-24)

    The Condition of their Sight—a Problem of Perception (16)

We should note that what we see here is really the effect, the fruit of a deeper problem. This will become evident in the process of this exposition.

“Their eyes were prevented (Lit. “were held back, restrained, hindered”) from recognizing Him (vs. 16). But why? Two verses, Mark 16:12 and John 20:15, may shed some light on this.

Mark 16:12 And after that, He appeared in a different form to two of them, while they were walking along on their way to the country.

John 20:15 Jesus said to her, “Woman, why are you weeping? Whom are you seeking?” Supposing Him to be the gardener, she said to Him, “Sir, if you have carried Him away, tell me where you have laid Him, and I will take Him away.”

These verses suggest that their inability to recognize Christ was first of all a product and phenomenon of His glorified body. He could appear as a gardener or as just a traveler and withhold His true identity.

So the bigger question is why did the Lord do this? Perhaps to illustrate how the Lord comes to us in different ways and uses different people and events to teach us and reach us. He might work through a traveler or a simple gardener, but always, He is the sovereign, omniscient, and companionable Christ who is ever at work and always near and ready to come to our aid.

But perhaps this also illustrates how, if we are ignoring His Word and its careful application to the details of our lives, and so walking independently of His fellowship and guidance; if we are ignoring His answers to life and its questions as found for us in the Scripture, then we become filled with unbelief, blind, and insensitive to His presence and working in our lives.

Point: Their problem was one of perception: But what is perception? It is the ability to see below the surface and to understand what is not evident to the average mind. It means the ability to realize what is true. Even though He was standing in their presence, they were unable to perceive His presence.

Application: Christ is not in the grave. He is risen, but even as the risen Lord who has ascended, He is still never remote to us though we may not be relating to His love and presence. He is always near and interested in us wherever we go whether in the city, in the country, on the road, in the garden, in the church, in the home, at work, every place. He is always there, but do we perceive His presence? O how we need to remember and believe Matthew 28:20, “… Lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the age.”

    The Nature of their Speech—a Problem of Comprehension (17-24)

Now we see the root, the deeper problem and cause for their lack of perception. The Lord now speaks as the great and loving counselor. He asks, “What are these words . . .” This forms a mild rebuke and was a question designed to cause them and us to think about the nature of our speech, which so often reveals troubled hearts. Our speech is so indicative of the condition and comprehension of the heart. The Lord’s words to the religious Pharisees teaches us something that is true for all men. He said, “You brood of vipers, how can you, being evil, speak what is good?” Then note what He said, “For the mouth speaks out of that which fills the heart” (Matt. 12:34).

“Are exchanging” is from the Greek verb, antiballw, which, in this context carries the idea of “to throw back and forth like a ball as in a game.” The point is, when our words are not anchored in the Word, in the viewpoint of God, and do not stem from an awareness of His presence, the end result, regardless of how sincere we are, is that we often just play games with words like a ball we throw back and forth.

Like a lot of people, they were probably proud of their opinions and they were exchanging ideas, experiences, feelings, fears, and probably doing some grumbling as well. Their words simply could not comfort them and in essence, they were pooling their ignorance. As a result, “… they stood still, looking sad,” or lit., “with sad, sullen or gloomy faces (or expressions).” The content of their conversation is given in verses 18-24.

With Jesus Christ unrecognized He was not free to work in their lives and hearts and the dialog here becomes a picture of what the message of Christ’s death and resurrection would be, just theological information without seeing and trusting in the spiritual implications.

It is also an illustration of how we can muddy up the waters and fail to witness and make the issues clear when we are not consciously walking with Him as our resurrected Savior.

Point: Their problem was one of comprehension. Comprehension means an understanding of an object or subject of thought in its entire compass and extent. They lacked insight into Christ’s presence because they lacked comprehension of the person and work of Christ and its meaning to life.

Application: Are we truly comprehending the meaning of the person and work of Christ, past, present, and future with all its implications? And are we living by faith in the light of what that means to us so that it impacts our hearts, minds, our faces, conversations, and actions? Compare Paul’s prayer in Eph. 1:15f.

The Remedy for the Disciples
(24:25-31)

A. The Exposition and Revelation of Christ in the Scripture (25-27)

These verses quickly show us a number of critical areas of need while also pointing out the divine remedy for our doubts, our fears, our grumbling, our sadness, and absence of experiencing God’s purpose and mission.

    The First Critical Area of Need:

Their condition (the lack of perception and comprehension) was a product of their neglect of God’s truth in some way. This is evident from the following:

“Foolish” is the Greek anoetos, which literally means, “without understanding,” but it generally carries a sense of blame. It has a moral as well as an intellectual sense, and the use of this word suggests their condition was a product of their own indifference and self-reliance. Unlike the Bereans of Acts 17:11, they had failed to search the Scriptures regarding the things the Savior had taught them. In the Old Testament a fool is one who is not only without God’s wisdom, but he is one who is without it because he thinks he does not need it or because his values and priorities, being all wrong, cause him to neglect it. Proverbs 1:22-25 is helpful here.

22 “How long, O naive ones, will you love simplicity? And scoffers delight themselves in scoffing, And fools hate knowledge? 23 “Turn to my reproof, Behold, I will pour out my spirit on you; I will make my words known to you. 24 “Because I called, and you refused; I stretched out my hand, and no one paid attention; 25 And you neglected all my counsel, And did not want my reproof;

Verse 25 shows us that being naive and a fool deal with a person’s chosen condition and outlook and not his mental equipment. This concept is further supported by the next statement of our Lord because He also addressed them as “slow of heart to believe all . . .” This brings out two pertinent points:

    1. They were sluggish toward the God’s Word; there was no push, no desire to know it fully (cf. Heb. 5:11f). It revealed an attitude or priority problem toward the Scriptures.

    2. They were sluggish to know and believe the whole counsel of God’s Word. They were quick to believe in the promises concerning the kingdom and the removal of the Roman yoke, but they were slow to believe the prophecies of a suffering Savior who must die for our sins. Perhaps there was reluctance here also because to believe in a suffering Savior brought with it a call on His disciples to likewise deny themselves, take up their crosses, and follow Him in a hostile world for whom the cross was a stigma. For the Greeks it was foolishness and to the Jews it was a stumbling block (1 Cor. 1:188-23).

Application: Sluggishness to know the whole counsel of God’s Word can happen to any of us when we become what we might called ‘cafeteria believers,’ those who pick and choose from the Scripture according to what fits their own agendas and selfish desires. In our day where a false prosperity gospel is preached and where a consumer religion is promoted, people tend to choose churches like they choose a restaurant or a mall for what they have to offer by way of activities, entertainment, comforts, conveniences, rather than for the faithful and indepth proclamation of the Word of God. Sermonettes are just fine for these folks, but as someone has said, ‘sermonettes produce Christianettes.’ Thus, the Bible is too often NOT a means of knowing God and having intimate fellowship with Him. Instead, it is a means of selfish fulfillment—an experience, an emotional high, deliverance from a habit, and on the list goes. Packer correctly describes the problem when he writes about the man centeredness of our godliness:

Modern Christians tend to make satisfaction their religion. We show much more concern for self-fulfillment than for pleasing our God. Typical of Christianity today, at any rate in the English-speaking world, is its massive rash of how-to-books for believers, directing us to more successful relationships, more joy in sex, becoming more of a person, realizing our possibilities, getting more excitement each day, reducing our weight, improving our diet, managing our money, licking our families into happier shape, and whatnot. For people whose prime passion is to glorify God, these are doubtless legitimate concerns; but the how-to-books regularly explore them in a self-absorbed way that treats our enjoyment of life rather than the glory of God as the center of interest.1

    The Second Critical Area of Need:

The Bible is about the person and work of Christ. It is filled with him. He is the spirit of prophecy and the heart of the Bible. Scripture points us to Him as God’s answer and provision for man’s needs, questions, and problems. Through His precious Word God wants to point us to Christ and seeks to enhance our walk with Him because He is everyone’s need. We go then to the Word to see Jesus which in turn means to see God and man’s salvation and sanctification. But these men had failed to grasp the full message of the Old Testament regarding the person and work of the Savior as the suffering Servant who must die and be raised from the dead. They knew something about His glory, but not His sufferings.

    The Third Critical Area of Need:

Of the short forty days He had left on earth, the Lord Jesus spent an entire afternoon ministering the Word to these two men. Does this not show us that the concern and priority of the Savior is for us to know Him through the Scriptures?

Application: Let us not miss the significance of this. Here the exalted and glorified Lord shows great enthusiasm and places great importance on the written Word. We might think that the exalted Lord would be independent of the Scripture, but no, He took them immediately to it. Does anything reveal the priority and importance of the Bible any more than this event? Surely this is a token, a mark of the Bible’s authority and indispensability to our life here on earth. How we need this attitude and priority! But we also need to note the method of Christ’s communication with these two of His disciples. What did the Savior do? He opened the Word and expounded, explained it to these two men as it concerned Himself.

The Invitation and Response of the Disciples (28-29)

In these verses we see the necessity of positive responses to the revelation of God’s Word. Here was a test for their hunger and response to the Lord and His to His Word. Verse 28, “… and He acted as though He would go farther,” suggests the Lord would have moved on if they had not urged Him to stay. And, please note, they would have remained unchanged: just two men exchanging words--but still depleted, depressed, and discouraged. The Bible is truly living and active and sharper than a two-edged sword with the power to penetrate and change our lives, but unless we respond and seek fellowship with the Savior through its pages, we remain unchanged. We may be religious and morally good in some ways as were the religious externalists, the Pharisees, but if we are ignorant of the message of Christ or without intimacy with Him in the Scripture or both, we will be unchanged from the inside out.

“Urged” is parabiazomai which means “to use force to accomplish something, to urge strongly, to prevail upon.” It is a strong word and demonstrated (1) the animating power of the Word (Heb. 4:12) and (2) their positive response to its message along with their hunger to know the Savior. In the papyri this word was used in connection with someone coming forward of their own free will (see its use in Acts 16:15, but see also Christ’s invitation in Rev. 3:20). The Lord Jesus seeks to come into our lives, He stands at the door and knocks, but He does not force Himself in. We must invite Him and respond to His plan and methods.

We then read that “He went in to stay with them.” It is interesting that the word “stay” is the Greek meno which is used in John 15 of the abiding life that results in bearing fruit for the glory of God. Then too, we might remember James’ exhortation, “draw near to God, and He will draw near to you” (Jam. 4:8).

The Initiation and Ministry of Christ as the Host (vs. 30)

“… He took the bread and blessed it, and breaking it he began giving it to them.” How interesting! They had invited the Savior to come in to abide with them in their home, but as He did, in keeping with who He is, He assumed the position of host and not just a guest. It was He who took the bread, broke it, and gave it to them. You see, the Lord Jesus is not just the unseen guest in our homes. He is always to be much more. He comes in to be the unseen host. He comes in to take charge and to lead in our fellowship that He might minister, lead, feed and sustain. He leads, we follow. This was the same truth, though presented through a different figure, in Joshua 5:13-15. There Joshua was suddenly faced with a man with his sword drawn who was none other than the pre-incarnate Christ and who had come on the scene, not to take sides, but to take over as the Commander of the Lord’s Army.

Application: As we walk along the road of life, are we experiencing the Lord Jesus as our companion and fellow traveler? And are we allowing Him to come into our homes as the very real, though unseen Host who lives to lead and minister to our life? Or are we, like these two disciples on the road to Emmaus who know the news of the Savior, but are still walking in retreat without mission and purpose, with a sad and gloomy countenance, as those who are not really living in the reality of the Risen Christ?

I am reminded of Paul’s words to Timothy in 2 Timothy 2:1-10? There he encouraged Timothy with regard to his ministry of multiplying his life in the lives of others by the strength of God’s grace (2 Tim. 2:1-2). He sought to motivate him through the illustrations of a soldier, an athlete, and a farmer (2:3-7). But then he gave the exhortation, “Remember Jesus Christ, risen from the dead, descendant of David, according to my gospel.” It is this message of the risen companionable Christ which formed the pinnacle of the exhortation. So Paul, based on this awesome truth of a risen Savior, went on to explain,

“for which I suffer hardship even to imprisonment as a criminal; but the word of God is not imprisoned. For this reason, I endure all things for the sake of those who are chosen, that they also may obtain the salvation which is in Christ Jesus and with it eternal glory” (2 Tim. 2:9-10)

If we are not experiencing the risen Christ as our companion, we have no one to blame but ourselves and our own foolish heart and sluggishness toward spiritual things. The Lord Jesus is our faithful companion in the road of our daily lives and He wants to come alongside to turn our sadness into joy and peace and give us mission and purpose.

A little boy was offered the opportunity to select a dog for his birthday present. At the pet store, he was shown a number of puppies and from them he picked one whose tail was wagging furiously. When he was asked why he selected that particular dog, the little boy said, “I wanted the one with the happy ending.”

If we want to reach out for a life with a happy ending (a life with significance and purpose), we have no choice but to accept the living Christ as our Lord and Savior. But we must also walk with Him as our present companion and dwell with Him as the Host of our homes and as the Commander who has enlisted us. Only then can we truly rejoice in the eternal life that we possess in the Savior who has conquered all our enemies.

What about our Priorities?

Howard Rutledge, a United States Air Force pilot, was shot down over North Vietnam during the early stages of the war. He spent several miserable years in the hands of his captors before being released at the war’s conclusion. In his book, In the Presence of Mine Enemies, he reflects upon the resources he drew upon in those difficult days when life seemed so intolerable.

During those longer periods of enforced reflection it became so much easier to separate the important from the trivial, the worthwhile from the waste. For example, in the past, I usually worked or played hard on Sundays and had no time for church. For years Phyllis (his wife) had encouraged me to join the family at church. She never nagged or scolded—she just kept hoping. But I was too busy, too preoccupied, to spend one or two short hours a week thinking about the really important things.

Now the sights and sounds and smells of death were all around me. My hunger for spiritual food soon out-did my hunger for a steak. Now I wanted to know about that part of me that will never die. Now I wanted to talk about God and Christ and the church. But in Heartbreak (the name POWs gave their prison camp) and in solitary confinement there was no pastor, no Sunday School teacher, no Bible, no hymnbook, no community of believers to guide and sustain me. I had completely neglected the spiritual dimension of my life. It took prison to show me how empty life is without God.2

We now come to the results—the amazing transformation that occurred in these two men as a result of their fellowship and submission to the presence of the Savior.

The Results in the Two Disciples
(24:31-35)

Transformation of their Sight--Perception (31)

And their eyes were opened and they recognized Him . . .” Their problem had been one of perception, but now in verse 31 we see the power of the Word to give light and spiritual sight. Suddenly they were able to perceive that this new companion and fellow traveler was the none other than the Lord Himself and they began to perceive and experience the reality of His presence.

Like a two-edged sword (Heb. 4:12), the Word had not only cut through their callus and coldness, it had penetrated to comfort them as well. It gave them insight and understanding or perception and comprehension. As the Psalmist put it, “The entrance of Your word gives light.”

We then read that “He vanished from their sight.” Literally it is, “He became invisible.” This illustrates the Lord’s relationship with believers today. It is a spiritual fellowship with Christ in the Word by faith. But though physically invisible to us, He is nevertheless there with the Holy Spirit to open our eyes to God’s truth and the very real reality of His life and ministry in us and to us. He is the One who walks in the midst of the church as seen in Revelation, walking in the midst of the seven churches.

A passage that is significant here is John 20:15-18 which reads:

Jesus said to her, “Woman, why are you weeping? Who are you looking for?” Because she thought he was the gardener, she said to him, “Sir, if you have carried him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will take him.” Jesus said to her, “Mary.” She turned and said to him in Aramaic, “Rabboni” (which means Teacher). Jesus replied, “Do not touch me, for I have not yet ascended to my Father. Go to my brothers and tell them, ‘I am ascending to my Father and your Father, to my God and your God.’” Mary Magdalene came and informed the disciples, “I have seen the Lord!” And she told them what Jesus had said to her (NET Bible).

What the Savior wanted to impress upon her, upon the disciples, and upon us was not that “I have ascended,” but that “I will ascend.” You see, the resurrection was clear enough as His appearances and the empty tomb made clear. The resurrection was the authentication to His person and work and thus the stepping stone to His ascension and exalted position in heaven as our forerunner and representative to open the way for us to God as Christ’s brethren and God’s children. He could not, therefore, remain with them as before. Not yet. And Mary and the disciples must not cling to Him as such—nor should we.

So what does this mean? It means our relationship to Him during the church age would not be physical, but spiritual. It would be a relationship with Him through the Word (2 Cor. 5:15-16; John. 4:23-24; 17:17). It means we must, therefore, cling to Him as the ascended Lord, but also as the One who is nevertheless our companion in the way through the Spirit and the Word.

The Transformation of their Speech--Comprehension (vs. 32)

“And they said to one another, ‘Were not our hearts burning within us while He was speaking to us on the road, while He was explaining the Scriptures to us?’”

The three things they learned:

First, their comment, “while He talked with us on the road,” showed they learned He is our Companion in the Way. The disciples reflected on the fact that it was Christ Himself who talked to them as they traveled along the road. Who was speaking with them? The Christ of the cross? Yes, but more. It was Christ who had now entered His glorified state and body. One might fear remoteness, that He would be less human, less sympathetic with our needs and condition. But no! In His coming to them in their need and distress, even in their retreat, we learn a wonderful lesson, the lesson of His availability, of His pursuit of and sympathy with us as our kindred, as one made like unto His brethren. It showed He is our faithful High Priest who is intimately interested in us and interceding for us (Rom. 8:34; Heb. 2:17-18; 4:14-16).

No wonder the author of Hebrews spoke of our “so great salvation” (Heb. 2:3f). What love, what faithfulness! Do you have a problem? Christ cares and He wants to come alongside and minister to your life, to bring forgiveness, strength, purpose, and joy as the companionable Christ.

Where did Christ speak to them? Where did he meet with them? We are told, “While he was speaking to us on the road. How we need to capture the significance of these words “in the way” or “on the road.” He is not only the Christ of heaven at God’s right hand, but indeed, He is the Christ of the way, the Christ of our daily walk whether on the road, in the office, or at home, wherever. Indeed, we can’t do without Him in the heavenly sanctuary at God’s right hand, but how wonderful to know he is also the companionable Christ, the Christ of the way, the Christ of our everyday path, with all our trials, frustrations, sin and failures, victories and joys.

So we might ask, what exactly is our problem? We often react to conditions and circumstances without His companionship; we focus on and see only the problem and so we strike out like these two without spending time with the Savior in the Word. The result? We lack biblical perception and comprehension--the perception of His presence and comprehension of His life.

In recent years there has developed a rather new phenomena in the art world. You may have seen these, but they are special drawings in which all you see are hundreds of little pictures all scrambled together, but hidden within each of these is a picture of some object which cannot be seen without the right focus. One cannot see the picture by focusing on the details. You must look through and beyond the picture and then suddenly, there is the perception of the hidden object that comes into view.

No wonder our path so often becomes heavy and burdensome and filled with all the details of our problems without the perception of His presence. Why? Again, because, as He challenged these two, we are so often foolish and slow to focus on Him through His Word.

Next, note to whom He spoke. The disciples said, He spoke “to us . . .” Though the Lord seeks to draw all men to Himself and to bring them into a personal relationship with Him through faith in the gospel, life-changing, intimate fellowship with the Savior only occurs with believers (John 14:6; Acts 4:12). And moreover, these believers had been unfaithful, but the availability of His companionship is always there for each one of us no matter where we are. He is always willing to come alongside to minister to our hearts as His disciples. No matter what our failure or our condition.

The Issue is our response: His coming alongside these two men in their frustration and sadness beautifully illustrates how He takes our situations and uses them as opportunities for us to know the Word and thus to know Him if we will allow Him to come alongside. Again note the words in verse 29, “abide with us.” These men wanted His fellowship, though they didn’t know who He was. So, this companionship is available upon (1) confession, (2) faith, and (3) hunger (Ps. 107:9).

The second thing they learned is, He is our Communicator of the Word. They said “He was explaining (lit. was opening) to us the Scriptures.” First, let us again not miss the significance of this. Here the exalted Lord shows the importance to the written Word. As mentioned previously, we might think that the exalted Lord would be independent of the Scripture, but not so. Certainly, the priority and importance of the Bible is seen in the Savior’s actions in this passage. Truly, this is a token or mark of the Bible’s authority and indispensability. How we need to grasp this attitude and priority.

Let’s also note that the method of Christ’s communication with these two was through the Word. The text says literally that “He was opening the Scriptures.” The Bible needs opening for it is sealed until He opens it to our spiritual eyes. However, He has made perfect provision for this, but we must know that provision and appropriate it. God’s provision and means include the following principles and issues:

(1) Regeneration—Other than the basics of salvation, God’s truth is hidden from to the lost

“But a natural (unregenerate or unsaved) man does not accept the things of the Spirit of God; for they are foolishness to him, and he cannot understand them, because they are spiritually appraised” (1 Cor. 2:14)

(2) Spirituality—Even for the regenerate, the ministry of the indwelling Holy Spirit through His control as the Spirit of truth is essential for grasping the Word through confession and faith. Thus, compare what Christ told His disciples in John 16:12 and what Paul told the carnal or flesh-controlled believers at Corinth in 1 Corinthians 3:1-3:

"I have many more things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now” (John 16:12).

“And I, brethren, could not speak to you as to spiritual men, but as to men of flesh, as to babes in Christ. 2 I gave you milk to drink, not solid food; for you were not yet able to receive it. Indeed, even now you are not yet able, 3 for you are still fleshly. For since there is jealousy and strife among you, are you not fleshly, and are you not walking like mere men?” (1 Cor. 3:1-3).

The work of the Spirit in understanding and applying God's truth does not mean that He gives some interpreters a "hidden" or "esoteric" meaning divergent from the normal, literal meaning, one based on the historical, grammatical, contextual, and lexical meaning of the words of a particular text.

(3) Disciplined Diligence—Bible study that is effective and truly rewarding is hard work and requires careful and disciplined diligence in the pursuit of God's truth as the objective standard in order to rule out personal prejudiced or preconceived ideas. Paul spoke to this end in his exhortation to Timothy in 2 Timothy 2:15.

“Be diligent to present yourself approved to God as a workman who does not need to be ashamed, handling accurately the word of truth” (2 Tim. 2:15).

Spiritual discipline is needed to both understand the text (head apprehension) and apply the text (heart application). Jesus told the Jewish leaders of His day, "You diligently study the Scriptures" (John 5:39), but He quickly added that their disciplined study was useless because they would not come to Him that they might have life and because they did not have the love of God in themselves (John 5:40, 42).

(4) Growth and Maturity—While babes in Christ can begin to grasp the ABCs of Scripture, understanding the deeper things of the Word require growth and maturity through the skill developed by personal experience or practice of Bible study which enhances ones powers of spiritual perception (Heb. 5:11-6:1).

“Concerning him we have much to say, and it is hard to explain, since you have become dull of hearing. 12 For though by this time you ought to be teachers, you have need again for someone to teach you the elementary principles of the oracles of God, and you have come to need milk and not solid food. 13 For everyone who partakes only of milk is not accustomed to the word of righteousness, for he is a babe. 14 But solid food is for the mature, who because of practice have their senses trained to discern good and evil. 1 Therefore leaving the elementary teaching about the Christ, let us press on to maturity, not laying again a foundation of repentance from dead works and of faith toward God” (Heb. 5:11-6:1).

(5) Prayerful dependence

“Open my eyes, that I may behold Wonderful things from Thy law” (Psalm 119:18)

Then, we should note that the Savior was “opening the Scriptures.” Today we have the Bible in all sizes, colors, translations and versions, yet sadly, believers are often lacking in (1) their understanding of its truth and (2) in its igniting or animating power. There has never been a time in the history of America (which was founded on the truth of the Bible) when the people of this country (including Christians) were more biblically illiterate than they are today.

What’s the Problem? Very often, believers read their Bibles or a devotional booklet much like some people within Roman Catholicism recite the rosary. It becomes a mere religious ritual. As believers we need to learn the truth of counting on the unseen but very real presence of Christ through the Holy Spirit to open our hearts to the Word to give us insight into the person of Christ and to ourselves. So again, it’s a matter of fellowship and faith and attitude. It is not a problem of His presence, but of taking the time and effort to listen.

The third thing the two disciples learned is found for us in verse 32 in their comment, “Were not our hearts burning within us while He was speaking to us on the road, . . .” They learned that He is the Enkindler or Igniter of our Hearts.

These men had known the Old Testament Scriptures, Moses and the prophets. Yet, they were sad, downtrodden, in retreat, and sorely perplexed about the turn of events, and in part, unbelieving. We should noted that they did not say, “Did not our hearts burn within us as we talked about this truth or that truth,” but as “He talked with us.” It is the Lord who teaches us truth and part of the goal of Bible study is personal fellowship with Christ in the Word. Using sound principles of careful Bible study, we must study to know the facts of Scripture; our faith stands and acts on those facts, but never apart from intimacy with the living Christ. So often, rather than intimacy with Christ, we find ourselves studying to prove our point and prove someone else wrong. We need to check our motives.

We might, in this light, compare John 15:7, “my words,” and Eph. 6:17, “the word of God.” These passages use the Greek rhema rather than logos. In contrast to logos, which speaks of “the word, the Bible as God’s inspired revelation to us,” rhema seems to refer to the specific words or lessons or truth He speaks to us from the Word (the logos). It is this that ignites in our understanding and that transforms lives (cf. Col. 1:9 “. . . spirit taught understanding and wisdom.”)

The Results: Now having encountered Christ as their Companion in the way, as the Communicator who made the Word real and who opened their understanding to its truth, their hearts were kindled, indeed, ignited into hope, joy, happiness, and commitment to the living Savior.

Coolness gave way to heat and devotion.
Despair to hope and confidence.
Uncertainty to certainty.
Dissatisfaction to satisfaction
Gloom to joy and enthusiasm
Fear to courage
Retreating to returning and faithfulness.

Now with verses 33-35 we see a further result of the transforming power of fellowship with Christ in the Word.

The Transformation of their Stand for Christ--Action (33-35)

The choice of verbs here and the nature of their action teach us this encounter with Christ and the Savior’s instruction in the Word left its impact upon these two disciples in a number of significant ways:

(1) Restoration (v. 33a) “They arose” points to a decisive act which demonstrated their restored spiritual condition. Remember Psalm 19:7, “The Law of the Lord is perfect, restoring the soul.”

(2) Association (v. 33b) “and found gathered together the eleven . . .” They returned and began to relate, minister, and enjoy the fellowship of other believers. This is such an important ingredient of our life as believers for support, growth, encouragement, direction, and motivation.

(3) Attestation (v. 34) These men with the others began giving testimony to the risen Savior.

(4) Explanation (v. 35) They were explaining what had happened to them and what He had taught them—passing on the good news and the Word for the benefit of others. They were able to build up and encourage one another because they had been with the risen Christ and listening to the Word. They were no longer simply throwing words about in the expression of their own opinions

Application: So, how about it? Are we open to the Word and God’s plan for learning and interacting with the living Christ? Are we allowing Bible study to be a personal encounter with the living Savior?

Conclusion

Jerusalem is not to become for us a Mecca—a place we go to worship the founder of Christianity who lies smoldering in a musty old tomb as is the case with other religions. Our Savior is not there, He is risen and He appeared to men to teach them and us that He is with us and wants to be our companion in the way.

We have a risen and an ascended Savior and, unlike the founders of the religions of the world, He has not left us with merely a moral code of ethics by which we are to try to live by the futility of our own weakness. Nor has He left us with a mystical philosophy through which we try to transcend this material world through meditation or some form of mysticism as in the New Age movement.

Instead, the appearances of Jesus Christ, the conqueror of death, sin and Satan, teach us we have a risen Savior, one who personally:

  • walks with us in our daily path,
  • talks with us through His Word and with whom we can talk through prayer,
  • opens our minds to understand and respond to His Word,
  • is with us and concerned about us and our every step,
  • provides for us regardless of what life may bring, and
  • who has left us here to, in the power of His gift, the Holy Spirit, go forth, teach others about Him.

Let us, therefore, with the perception of His presence, walk with Him, talk with Him, depend on Him, worship Him, and go, tell, and teach others about Him.


1 J. I. Packer, Keeping in Step With the Spirit, Fleming H. Revell Company, Old Tappan, New Jersey, 1984, p. 97.

2 Howard Rutledge and Phyllis Rutledge with Mel White and Lyla White, “In the Presence of Mine Enemies.”

Related Topics: Christology, Comfort

An Introduction to the Book of Habakkuk

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I. TITLE:

A. Hebrew: In Hebrew the book is titled qyqbj after the name of the prophet. It probably comes from the verb qbj meaning “to fold one’s hands” or “to embrace.” Perhaps the significance is that Habakkuk embraced God and his people. A meaning is uncertain.

B. Greek: In Greek the book is titled AMBAKOUM

II. AUTHOR:

A. The author’s name was Habakkuk (1:1)

B. He was a prophet (1:1)

C. The subscription at the end of chapter three may indicate that this was to be part of the liturgical singing done at the Temple

D. The apocryphal work of Bel and the Dragon says, “Habakkuk, the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi”

E. Rabbinic tradition has identified Habakkuk as the son of the Shunammite woman (based on the term “embrace,” 2 Ki 4:16)1

F. Habakkuk does not have a history of canonical dispute2

III. DATE:3 Late Seventh Century B.C. (c. 626 to 605 B.C.)

A. Habakkuk 1:6 announces the Lord’s intent to raise up the Chaldeans (neo-Babylonians) to judge Judah; this would have begun with Babylon’s defeat of Egypt and Assyria at Carchemish in 605 B.C. and its subsequent entrance into Palestine (cf. Dan 1:1-2). The prophecy of Habakkuk seems to precede this event

B. Habakkuk seems to assume that the Babylonians have already established a reputation by the time of his writing (cf. 1:6-11, 15-17; 2:5-17); this would have occurred after the battle of Carchemish; this may support a date of 605 for the writing of Habakkuk
Commenting on this possibility Chisholm writes, “However, if Habakkuk prophesied while the Babylonians were actually marching toward Judah, one wonders why the announcement of Judah’s downfall at their hands would have been so unbelievable to his audience (1:5). Also, could the Babylonians have developed the reputation described in chapters 1--2 in such a short period of time? Perhaps the description of Babylonian imperialism is largely proleptic, anticipating, on the basis of tendencies already revealed, how the Chaldeans would treat others as they further expanded their empire. One should note that the series of woe oracles in 2:6-20, which include the most specific references to Babylonian imperialism in the book, are delivered primarily from the perspective of Babylon’s future demise ....”4

C. Therefore, it may be best to date the book of Habakkuk anywhere from the rise of neo-Babylonia (through Nabopolassar) over Assyria in 626 B.C. to the battle of Carchemish in 605 B.C.

IV. HISTORICAL SETTING:5

A. Josiah brought about the final spiritual revival for Judah when he came to the throne in 622 B.C.

B. The Assyrian Empire Fell

1. The Assyrian power rose with Ashurnasirpal II (884-859 B.C.) and Shalmaneser II (859-824 B.C.)

2. Tiglath-pileser III (Pul in the Scriptures) began a group of conquerors who took Syria and Palestine including Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C. who began the deportation of Samaria), Sargon II (722-705 B.C. who completed the deportation of Samaria), Sennacherib (704-581 B.C. who attacked king of Judah, Hezekiah [Josiah’s father]), and Esarhaddon (681-669 B.C. who led campaigns against Egypt)

3. Esarhaddon’s son, Ashurbanipal (669-631) ruled much of the upper Egyptian city of Thebes, but his decline and that of Assyria’s soon followed

4. Nineveh, the capital, was destroyed in 612 B.C.

5. Assyria’s army was defeated in 609 B.C. at Haran

6. What was left of Assyria’s army went to Carchemish (just west of the Euphrates River and north of Aram)

C. The Neo-Babylonian Empire Arose

1. Merodach Baladan was a Chaldean and father of Nabopolassar and grandfather of Nebuchadnezzar. Merodach Baladan sent ambassadors to Hezekiah (Isa 39; 2 Ki 20:12-19)

2. In October 626 B.C. Nabopolassar defeated the Assyrians outside of Babylon

3. In 616 B.C. Nabopolassar expanded his kingdom, and in 612 B.C. he joined with the Medes and destroyed Nineveh

D. A Realignment of Power in 609 B.C. and later

1. Judah: When Assyria fell and Babylon arose Judah, under Josiah, removed itself from Assyria’s control and existed as an autonomous state until 609 B.C. when it lost a battle with Egypt on the plain of Megiddo

2. Egypt:

a. Attempted to expand its presence into Palestine with Assyria’s troubles

b. Egypt joined with Assyria to fight the Babylonians at Haran

1) Judah tried to stop Egypt’s (Pharaoh Neco II) alliance but was defeated on the plain of Megiddo with the loss of their king, Josiah (cf. 2 Chron 35:20-24)

2) The Assyrians lost their battle with Babylon (even with the help of Egypt) and disappeared as a power in the world, and Egypt retreated to Carchemish as the dividing line between Egypt and Babylonian

3) Egypt ruled Judah:

a) Egypt (Necho) replaced Josiah’s son, Jehoahaz, after three months with Jehoiakim (who was another son of Josiah) as a vassal king (2 Ki 23:34-35)

b) Egypt (Necho) plundered Judah’s treasuries

c) Egypt (Necho) took Jehoahaz into captivity in Egypt

E. In 605 B.C. other changes of power occurred:

1. Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Egyptians at Carchemish

2. Judah’s king, Jehoiakim, changed his loyalty to the Babylonians rather than the Egyptians and became Nebuchadnezzar’s vassal king (2 Ki. 24:1)

3. Nebuchadnezzar had to return to Babylon with the death of his father, Nebopolassar

4. Nebuchadnezzar solidified his rule by appointing vassal kings and taking hostages; Daniel was taken as a part of this deportation (Dan 1:1-6)

V. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER PROPHETS:

Habakkuk is one of three prophets who have prophesies against other nations:

A. Nahum--against Assyria

B. Habakkuk--against Babylon

C. Obadiah--against Edom
These three countries/empires afflicted God’s people throughout their history

VI. UNITY OF THE TEXT

A. There is some questions about the place of the psalm in chapter three as a genuine part of Habakkuk--especially since it is not included in the Qumran commentary on the book found in Cave I in 1948.

B. However there is support for considering chapter three as part of the book of Habakkuk:

1. The heading of 3:1 identifies Habakkuk as its author

2. There are verbal, thematic, and structural parallels which unite chapter 3 with chapters 1--26

3. The pattern of “divine revelation and prophetic response is consistent with the rest of the book”7

4. The presence of musical notations identify the psalm as a unit, but does not require that one conclude that it was not a part of chapters 1--2

5. There are plausible answers to the Qumran commentary:

a. There may have been an alternate recension of Habakkuk which did not include chapter 3

b. Early textual witnesses for the book of Habakkuk include chapter three (LXX, copies of The Book of the Twelve [c. 200 B.C.])

c. They commentators of Habakkuk may have not gotten to chapter three8

d. The absence of chapter three may stem from sectarian motives (e.g. chapters 1--2 fit their purposes better than chapter 3)9

VII. PURPOSES:

A. To proclaim that Yahweh, Judah’s sovereign warrior, will appropriately judge the evil of Judah by bringing the Babylonians against them

B. To proclaim that Yahweh, as the protector of His people, will sustain those who trust in Him

C. To proclaim that Yahweh, as the protector of His people, will deliver Israel from the Babylonians some day

D. To proclaim that Yahweh, as Judah’s sovereign warrior, will one day judge the unjust Babylonians


1 J. Ron Blue, Habakkuk, in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty: Old Testament, 1506.

2 See Carl E. Armerding, Habakkuk, in The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:496.

3 Much of this information comes from Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 183-84.

4 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 184-85.

5 This was adapted from Charles H. Dyer, Jeremiah, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty: Old Testament, 1125-27, and Homer Heater, Jr., Notes on the Book of Jeremiah, unpublished class notes in seminar in the preexilic Old Testament prophets (Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1990), 101-105.

Ron Blue's setting for the book is relevant: Habakkuk wrote in a time of international crisis and national corruption. Babylonia had just emerged as a world power. When the Babylonians rebelled against Assyria, Judah found a brief period of relief reflected in the reforms initiated by Josiah. The Assyrians were forced to devote their energies to stop the Babylonian rebellion. The Babylonians finally crushed the Assyrian empire and quickly proceeded to defeat the once-powerful Egyptians. A new world empire was stretching across the world. Soon the Babylonians would overtake Judah and carry its inhabitants away into captivity. On the eve of pending destruction, a period of uncertainty and fear, Habakkuk wrote his message.

The crisis internationally was serious. But of even greater concern was the national corruption. Great unrest stirred within Judah. Josiah had been a good king. When he died, Josiah's son Jehoahaz rose to the throne. In only three months, the king of Egypt invaded Judah, deposed Jehoahaz and placed his brother Jehoiakim on the throne. Jehoiakim was evil, ungodly, and rebellious (2 Kings 23:36--24:7; 2 Chron. 36:5-8). Shortly after Jehoiakim ascended to power, Habakkuk wrote his lament over the decay, violence, greed, fighting, and perverted justice that surrounded him.

No wonder Habakkuk looked at all the corruption and asked, 'Why doesn't God do something?' Godly men and women continue to ask similar 'whys' in a world of increasing international crises and internal corruption. Nation rises up against nation and around the world and sin abounds at home. World powers aim an ever-increasing array of complex nuclear weapons at each other while they talk of peace. World War III seems incredibly imminent.

While the stage is set for a global holocaust, an unsuspecting home audience fiddles a happy tune. The nation's moral fiber is being eaten away by a playboy philosophy that makes personal pleasure the supreme rule of life. Hedonism catches fire while homes crumble. Crime soars while the church sours. Drugs, divorce, and debauchery prevail and decency dies. Frivolity dances in the streets. Faith is buried. 'In God We Trust' has become a meaningless slogan stamped on corroding coins.

In such a world of crisis and chaos, Habakkuk speaks with clarity. This little book is as contemporary as the morning newspaper (J. Ron Blue, Habakkuk, in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty: Old Testament, 1507-1507).

6 Carl E. Armerding, Habakkuk, in The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:522.

7 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 184.

8 Gleason L. Archer, Jr. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 365.

9 Ralph L. Smith, Micah-Malachi, Word Biblical Commentary, XXXII:95.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Introduction to the Book of Zephaniah

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I. TITLE:

A. Hebrew: In Hebrew the book is titled hynpx meaning “Yahweh hides” perhaps reflecting the terror of the days of Manasseh when Zephaniah was born, or meaning “Watchman for the Lord,” or even “Zaphon [a Canaanite deity] is Yahweh”1
This was a common name in the Hebrew Scriptures (cf. a Levite, 1 Chron 6:36-38; a second priest under the high priest 2 Ki 25:18-21; cf. Jer 52:24--27; the father of Josiah--a returning exile, Zech 6:10, 14)

B. Greek: In Greek the book is titled SOFONIAS, a transliteration of the prophet’s name in Hebrew

II. AUTHOR:

A. The author, Zephaniah, traces his ancestry back four generations; this is unique among the prophets:2 1:1

1. Son of Cushi

2. Son of Gedaliah

3. Son of Amariah

4. Son of Hezekiah, (possibly the famous Judean king [c. 716-687 B.C.])

B. The author places himself during the reign of Josiah, son of Amon, king of Judah (c. 641-609 B.C.)

III. DATE: between 641 and 612 B.C. (possibly 641 and 621 B.C.)

A. The superscription places the prophet during the time of king Josiah of Judah (c. 641-609 B.C.) 1:1

B. The prophecy anticipated, but preceded the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. (Zeph 2:13-15)

C. Many would date the book prior to Josiah’s reforms (622-621 B.C.) which dealt with much of the nation’s idolatry (cf. 2 Ki 22--23) since there are implications of idolatry in Zephaniah’s Judah (cf. 1:4-6, 11-12; 3:1-4)3

D. Conclusion: The book was written some time between 641 and 612 B.C. and possibly between 641 and 622 B.C.

There may have been some overlap with Jeremiah since he began to prophecy in 627 B.C. Zephaniah would have been the first prophet to Judah in the 60 years since Isaiah (Nahum was about Assyria)

IV. AUDIENCE: To the people of Judah and the nations around her

V. HISTORICAL SETTING:4

A. Manasseh’s and Amon’s reigns were dark times in Judah’s history:

1. Manasseh rebuilt the high places that his father, Hezekiah, tore down

2. Manasseh was eclectic making altars to Ashtoreth (Canaanite), Chemosh (Moabite), Milcom (Ammonite), and Baal (Canaanite)

3. Manasseh restored child sacrifice (2 Ki 21) even sacrificing two of his own sons in the Valley of Hinnom

4. Worship of the heavens (stars, sun, moon, astral bodies) was common

5. Amon was named after an Egyptian god unlike most kings who were named after Yahweh

B. Manasseh paid tribute to Esarhaddon to keep Assyria from invading Judah

C. Josiah brought about the final spiritual revival for Judah when during the eighteenth year of his rule in 622 B.C. (2 Ki 22-23)

D. The Assyrian Empire Fell

1. The Assyrian power rose with Ashurnasirpal II (884-859 B.C.) and Shalmaneser II (859-824 B.C.)

2. Tiglath-pileser III (Pul in the Scriptures) began a group of conquerors who took Syria and Palestine including Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C. who began the deportation of Samaria), Sargon II (722-705 B.C. who completed the deportation of Samaria), Sennacherib (704-581 B.C. who attacked king of Judah, Hezekiah [Josiah’s father]), and Esarhaddon (681-669 B.C. who led campaigns against Egypt)

3. Esarhaddon’s son, Ashurbanipal (669-631) ruled much of the upper Egyptian city of Thebes, but his decline and that of Assyria’s soon followed

4. Nineveh, the capital, was destroyed in 612 B.C.

VI. MAJOR THEME--THE DAY OF THE LORD:

The Day of the Lord is a major theme in Zephaniah occurring 23 times in this short book (as well as in Obadiah, Joel, and Ezekiel). It describes a time when Yahweh will come to His people and necessarily destroy evil as a means to delivering them. While Zephaniah and Joel obviously had “local” aspects in view of this coming Day of Yahweh’s presence among them (with the judgment of Assyria and Babylon), those judgments/deliverances only mirrored, or foreshadowed, the ultimate deliverance (and thus necessary judgment) which would come in the eschaton.

VII. PURPOSE:

A. To proclaim judgment on the entire world

B. To proclaim the Day of the Lord as a time when Yahweh will come to judge the wicked (including the wicked of Judah) and deliver His own5

C. To proclaim judgment on the nations which surrounded Judah (Philistia, Moab, Ammon, Assyria, Ethiopians/Egyptians

D. To proclaim hope for the remnant of Judah

E. To expose the unfaithfulness of Judah’s rulers

F. To encourage Judah to accept correction by hearing of the judgment on her neighbors

G. To expose Judah’s unwillingness to accept correction from Yahweh

H. To describe the ultimate changes which Yahweh will bring about as the nations become worshippers of Him and He becomes Judah’s King/Defender


1 For a more developed explanation see Ralph L. Smith, Micah-Malachi, Word Biblical Commentary, XXXII:120; Larry Lee Walker, Zephaniah, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:537.

2 Chisholm comments, When genealogical information is provided, usually only the prophet's father is identified (cf. Isa. 1:1; Jer. 1:1; Ezek. 1:3; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1), although in the case of Zechariah (Zech 1:1), two generations are included. Some have identified Zephaniah's great-great-grandfather Hezekiah with the famous king who ruled over Judah from 715 to 686 B.C. This connection would provide a reasonable explanation for the expanded heading, its purpose being to demonstrate Zephaniah's royal descent (Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 201).

3 If Zephaniah preached after Josiah's reforms, it is extremely evident that the reforms were not all that successful (cf. 1:4-5, 8-9; 3:1, 3, 7).

4 Some of what follows was developed from John A Martin, An Outline of Zephaniah, unpublished class notes in 304 preexilic and exilic prophets, (Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1983), 1.

5 Chisholm writes, The 'Day of the Lord is the focal point of Zephaniah's prophecy. On this day, the nearness and severity of which are emphasized, the Lord would come as a mighty and just warrior-judge to punish the whole world, including Judah. Though this purifying judgment the nations would become genuine worshippers of the one true God. The judgment of the Lord's Day would also purge God's covenant people and their capital city, Jerusalem. A faithful remnant, the nucleus of the purified city and rejoice in the Lord's deliverance and protections (Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 215).

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Introduction to the Book of Haggai

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I. TITLE OF THE BOOK:

A. Hebrew: In Hebrew the book is titled ygj after the name of the prophet which probably meant my feast1

B. Greek: In Greek the book is titled AGGAIOS, a transliteration from the Hebrew, from which we get our English spelling of Haggai

II. AUTHOR: Probably Haggai himself

A. He is given no introduction other than the prophet (cf. 1:1; Ezra 5:1; 6:14)2

B. He may have been a returnee from Babylon3

C. He may have been a priest4

D. Even though the book was written in the third person (e.g., about Haggai) it is possible that Haggai did this to give the impression of objectivity5

III. DATE: August 29 to December 18, 520 B.C.

A. Haggai preached his sermons during the second year of Darius I (521-486 B.C.)

B. Haggai's messages were preached within a fifteen week period 29 August to 18 December 520 B.C. This is determined from the dates given in Haggai; the biblical dates from Haggai and Zechariah, and Julian calendar dates are provided below in the following chart:6

Reference

Year of Darius

Month

Date of New Moon

Day

Equivalent Date, BC

Hag. 1:1

second

sixth

29 Aug.

1st

29 Aug. 520

Hag. 1:15

24th

21 Sept. 520

Hag. 2:1

seventh

27 Sept.

21st

17 Oct. 520

Zec. 1:1

eighth

27 Oct.

-----

-----

Hag. 2:10,20

ninth

25 Nov.

24th

18 Dec. 520

Zec. 1:7

eleventh

23 Jan.

24th

15 Feb. 519

Zec. 7:1

fourth

ninth

4 Dec.

4th

7 Dec. 518

C. It is unknown what happened to Haggai after his last message on 18 December 520. Baldwin writes, Once Temple building began in earnest he had fulfilled his mission, and, having in Zechariah a successor to continue the work, he withdrew from the scene7

D. The message in 1:13 does not have a certain date. Chisholm offers the following solution:
Since the other messages in the book can be dated, the chronological notation of 1:1 may apply to this message as well. However, since the people's positive response to the message came on September 21, 520 B.C. (the sixth month, twenty fourth day; cf. 1:14-15), it could have been delivered any time between August 29 and that date8

IV. HISTORICAL SETTING:

A. First Return: The first return from Babylonian exile was under Zerubbabel in 538 B.C. when Cyrus was King (539-530) (Ezra 1--6)

1. Return of Haggai: This was probably when Haggai returned to Jerusalem9

2. Temple Rebuilt: Haggai and Zechariah prophesy and the Temple was completed under Darius I (521-486)

a. Levitical sacrifices were reinstituted on an altar built for burnt offerings (Ezra 3:1-6)

b. The foundation for the temple was laid in the second year of the return (536 B.C.; cf. Ezra 3:8-13; 5:16)

c. Samaritan and Persian resistance ended the rebuilding of the temple for 16 years (until 520 B.C.; cf. Ezra 4:4-5)

d. Haggai and Zechariah prophesy from 520-518 B.C. encouraging the nation to rebuild the temple

e. The Temple was completed in 515 B.C. (Ezra 5--6)

B. Second Return: The second return from Babylonian exile was under Ezra in 457 B.C. while Artaxexes I Longimanus was King (Ezra 7--10)

1. Ezra 7:1 affirms that Ezra arrived in Jerusalem during the reign of Artaxerxes the king of Persia

2. Ezra 7:8 affirms that Ezra arrived in Jerusalem in the fifth month of the seventh year of the king (Artaxerxes)

a. The is some question as to whether this was in the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464-423 B.C.) or Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404-359 B.C.)10

b. The evidence seems to be that this was during the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus; therefore, the seventh year of his reign would have been 457 B.C.

1) Nehemiah 8:2 identifies Ezra as Nehemiah's contemporary

2) The Elephantine Papyri11 [c. 400 B.C.] mentions Johanan (the grandson of Eliashib [Neh 3:1, 20])12

C. Third Return: The third return from Babylonian exile was under Nehemiah in 445/444 B.C. also while Artaxerxes I Longimanus was king (Neh 1--13).

1. Nehemiah I: Nehemiah's first arrival in Jerusalem was probably in 444 B.C.

a. Nehemiah 1:2 and 2:1 affirm that the events of Nehemiah occurred in the twentieth year of king Artaxerxes

b. Nehemiah arrived the first time in Jerusalem twelve-thirteen years after Ezra arrived

2. Nehemiah II: Nehemiah's second arrival in Jerusalem was probably in 433/432-420 B.C.

a. Nehemiah 13:6-7 reads, But during all this time I was not in Jerusalem, for in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes king of Babylon I had gone to the king. After some time, however, I asked leave from the king, and I came to Jerusalem and learned about the evil ....

b. Nehemiah left Jerusalem in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes

c. Nehemiah may also have returned to Jerusalem in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes (this is not certain since the text reads, After some time, ...

V. PURPOSES:

A. To encourage the returned remnant to move from a resigned satisfaction with their return to the land to an expression of faith by making an effort to rebuild the temple13

B. To encourage the returned remnant toward the reestablishment of temple worship as the nation's main goal

C. To encourage the returned remnant that Yahweh will bless them and the land as they move towards rebuilding the temple

D. To encourage the returned remnant that Yahweh has a future place of importance for them in spite of their past rebellion


1 Baldwin writes, His name is one of several in the Old Testament derived from hag, 'festival': Hggi (Gen. 46:16; Nu. 26:15), Haggith (2 Sa. 3:4), Haggiah (1 Ch. 6:30). He was probably born on a feast day and therefore named 'my feast' (Lat. Festus, Gk. Hilary). It is even possible that Haggai was a nickname (Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 27-28).

2 Baldwin writes, The absence of a patronym may indicate that his father was already forgotten, that prophets were few and therefore, 'the prophet' was sufficiently specific (Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 27).

3 Baldwin writes, According to Jewish tradition he had lived the greater part of his life in Babylon [Rabbi Eli Cashdan, The Twelve Prophets (Soncino Press, 1948), p. 254]. Partly on this tradition and partly on inference from Haggai 2:3 is based the opinion that when he prophesied he was a very old man who had seen the Temple before its destruction, and was given the most important task of his life just before his death. The authority he commanded and his single-minded preoccupation with the Temple rather tend to bear this out (Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 28).

4 Baldwin writes, According to an early Christian tradition Haggai was a priest and was buried with honour near the sepulchers of the priests. The fact that in the Versions certain Psalms are attributed to Haggai may add support to his priestly lineage. The LXX, for example, prefaces Psalms 138 and 146-149 with the names Haggai and Zechariah, indicating perhaps that they were responsible for the recension from which the Greek translation was being made. Hebrew tradition on the other hand did not reckon Haggai among the priests, and the modern Rabbi Eli Cashdan writes: 'Evidently he was not of the priestly tribe, seeing that he called on the priests of his day for a ruling on levitical uncleanness (ii.II).' The point is hardly proved on this evidence, however (Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 28).

5 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 30. Continuing she writes, Recently W. A. M. Beuken has argued that Haggai and Zechariah 1--8 were edited 'in a Chronistic milieu'. His argument is that the same major interest in the Temple, its ritual, and the continuity of the Davidic line dominate both these prophets and the books of Chronicles. This is true, but if Beuken is implying that the editors selected according to their individual preference the themes they would record, this is to undermine confidence in the books as they have come down to us. We believe it to be both more likely and more logical that Haggai was edited early, possibly before 500 B.C. and that he and Zechariah together moulded the thinking of those who edited the books of Chronicles (Ibid.).

6 This chart comes from Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 29.

7 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 29.

8 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 219.

9 Robert L. Alden, Haggai, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:572.

10 See Albright's early discussions. He seems to have changed his mind about this matter.

11 LaSor et al write, These business documents and letters were found on the island of Elephantine, north of the first cataract of the Nile and opposite Aswan. They belonged to a Jewish military colony established at least as early as the fall of Jerusalem in 586. The texts throw brilliant light on the affairs of the Jewish colony in Upper Egypt, especially for the period 425-400. In 410 these Jews wrote a letter to Johanan, high priest at Jerusalem (Neh. 12:22), regarding the rebuilding of their temple. In 407 they sent a long appeal in the same regard to Bagoas, governor of Judah, in which they mentioned a similar letter to 'Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat the governor of Samaria. Assuming this is the same Sanballat who was the inveterate enemy of Nehemiah (2:19; 4:1 [MT 3:33]), the Artaxerxes referred to in 2:1 must be Artaxerxes I (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 560, n. 33; See also ANET, pp. 491ff).

12 Archer writes, This Johanan was a grandson of the Eliashib mentioned in Nehemiah 3:1 and 20 and Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib. It therefore follows that when the biblical record speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (Neh 1:1) and again in his thirty-second year (Neh. 13:6), the reference must be to Artaxerxes I (yielding the date 445 and 433 respectively) rather than the reign of Artaxerxes II (which would result in the dates 384 and 372 respectively--far too late for the high priesthood of Johanan) (Gleason L. Archer, Jr. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 419-20).

13 Alden writes, Against these odds and in the midst of this despair, Haggai chided the people of God to resume the task enthusiastically taken up so many years ago and subsequently dropped. His message was simply 'build God's house.' To support his case he contended that recent crop failures (1:9) and drought (1:10-11) were God's way of reminding them of their dependence on him (Robert L. Alden,Haggai, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:573).

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Introduction to the Book of Zechariah

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I. TITLE OF THE BOOK:

A. Hebrew: In Hebrew the book is titled hyrkz meaning “Yahweh remembers”

B. Greek: In Greek the book is titled ZACARIAS, a transliteration from the Hebrew name

II. AUTHOR: Zechariah the prophet

A. About the Prophet Zechariah:1

1. Zechariah was a Levite who was born in Babylon (Neh 12:1, 16)

2. He was the son of Berekiah and the grandson of Iddo the priest (Zech 1:1; cf. 12:4, 16; Ezra 5:1; 6:14), therefore, although the name was a common one, it is possible that he was a priest2

3. Zechariah was a prophet (Zech 1:1)

4. A contemporary of Haggai the prophet, Zerubbabel, and Joshua, the high priest (cf. Ezra 5:1-2; Zech 3:1; 4:6; 6:11)

5. Unlike Haggai, Zechariah was probably a young man when he prophesied (cf. Zech 2:4)

B. Controversy over Authorship and Unity of the Book:

1. Many critical scholars have decided that chapters 9--14 were not authored by Zechariah, and the reasons have been based upon internal evidence:3

a. Unlike chapters 1--8 where Zechariah’s name was mentioned three times (1:1; 1:7; 7:1) it is not mentioned in the last six chapters

b. The last six chapters do not mention dates

c. The last six chapters do not make clear references to known historical events like the completion of the temple

d. The book of Zechariah lacks unity in its contents, style, and vocabulary4

Chisholm writes, “Arguments of this type are often subjective. Others have presented lists of stylistic and thematic similarities between the two sections.”5

2. It seems that these differences may be best explained in view of the apocalyptic genre of the material rather than through differences in authorship. Chisholm writes, “Any actual differences may be due to changes in subject matter and literary genre”6

III. DATE: 520 B.C. until later in Zechariah’s ministry (end of the sixth century B.C.)

A. The dates for the three messages in chapters 1--8 identify his ministry there in concurrence with Haggai’s ministry with a one month overlap for the first message

B. The biblical dates from Haggai & Zechariah, and Julian calendar dates are provided below in the following chart:7

Reference

Year of Darius

Month

Date of New Moon

Day

Equivalent Date, BC

Hag. 1:1

second

sixth

29 Aug.

1st

29 Aug. 520

Hag. 1:15

24th

21 Sept. 520

Hag. 2:1

seventh

27 Sept.

21st

17 Oct. 520

Zec. 1:1

eighth

27 Oct.

-----

-----

Hag. 2:10,20

ninth

25 Nov.

24th

18 Dec. 520

Zec. 1:7

eleventh

23 Jan.

24th

15 Feb. 519

Zec. 7:1

fourth

ninth

4 Dec.

4th

7 Dec. 518

C. No dates are provided in the text for the two “oracles” in chapters 9--14; this has led to debate about their chronology:

1. Preexilic Date (and thus not by Zechariah)

a. Matthew 27:9-10 refers to Zechariah 11:12-13 but is attributed in Matthew to Jeremiah8
However, as Chisholm writes, “Matthew’s quotation is probably a composite of Zechariah 11:12-13 and passages from Jeremiah (cf. 18:1-2; 32:6-9), perhaps being based on an early Christian testimonial collection. Like Mark 1:2-3, which attributes a composite quotation (from Isa. 40:3 and Mal 3:1) to Isaiah, the more prominent of the prophetic authors involved, so the quotation in Matthew 27:9-10 is ascribed to the well-known prophet Jeremiah, even though its wording is more dependent on Zechariah”9

b. The references to Ephraim and Judah, Assyria and Egypt were considered to be preexilic descriptions
However, the prophet could have been drawing on earlier prophetic passages for his terminology10

2. Post-Zecharian Date:

a. A military conflict between Israel and Greece is an allusion to the Maccabean-Seleucid struggles of the second century B.C.
However, “Greece” may be used here to symbolize the distant nations (cf. Isa 66:19) who will resist the extension of the Lord’s kingdom in the eschaton. Even if the Maccabean wars are in view, one should not necessarily presuppose the existence of a Greek empire in the author’s day. Even though Persia, not Greece, was the major power in Zechariah’s time, a keen observer might have been able to foresee Greece’s eventual rise to prominence. If so, then certainly a divinely aided prophet could have looked beyond contemporary political realities and have foreseen future developments”11

3. Later In Zechariah’s Ministry

a. Some would affirm that the book comes from a time later in Zechariah’s ministry, but not by Zechariah. They would affirm that it was written by a disciple of Zechariah. This is primarily due to the unity which the book has been demonstrated to have12

b. If the book could have been written during the life of Zechariah, there is no reason to believe that it could not have been written by Zechariah himself; it is not necessary to assume that the same author can write in different genres
In addition the canonical history of the book of Zechariah has always included all fourteen chapters in the book. Baldwin writes, “Even the tiny fragment of the Greek manuscript found at Qumran, which includes the end of chapter 8 and the beginning of chapter 9, shows no gap or spacing whatsoever to suggest a break between the two parts. Again, as P. R. Ackroyd comments, ‘The very fact that this linking of 9--14 with 1--8 took place argues for some recognition of common ideas or interests’“13

IV. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:

A. First Return: The first return from Babylonian exile was under Zerubbabel in 538 B.C. when Cyrus was King (539-530) (Ezra 1--6)

1. Return of Haggai and Zechariah: This was probably when Haggai and Zechariah returned to Jerusalem14

2. Temple Rebuilt: Haggai and Zechariah prophesied and the Temple was completed under Darius I (521-486)

a. Levitical sacrifices were reinstituted on an altar built for burnt offerings (Ezra 3:1-6)

b. The foundation for the temple was laid in the second year of the return (536 B.C.; cf. Ezra 3:8-13; 5:16)

c. Samaritan and Persian resistance ended the rebuilding of the temple for 16 years (until 520 B.C.; cf. Ezra 4:4-5)

d. Haggai and Zechariah prophesy from 520-518 B.C. encouraging the nation to rebuild the temple

e. The Temple was completed in 516 B.C. (Ezra 5--6)

B. Second Return: The second return from Babylonian exile was under Ezra in 458/57 B.C. while Artaxexes I Longimanus was King (Ezra 7--10)

1. Ezra 7:1 affirms that Ezra arrived in Jerusalem during the reign of Artaxerxes the king of Persia

2. Ezra 7:8 affirms that Ezra arrived in Jerusalem in the fifth month of the seventh year of the king (Artaxerxes)

a. The is some question as to whether this was in the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464-423 B.C.) or Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404-359 B.C.)15

b. The evidence seems to be that this was during the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus; therefore, the seventh year of his reign would have been 458/457 B.C.

1) Nehemiah 8:2 identifies Ezra as Nehemiah’s contemporary

2) The Elephantine Papyri16 [c. 400 B.C.] mentions Johanan (the grandson of Eliashib [Neh 3:1, 20])17

C. Third Return: The third return from Babylonian exile was under Nehemiah in 445/444 B.C. also while Artaxerxes I Longimanus was king (Neh 1--13).

1. Nehemiah I: Nehemiah’s first arrival in Jerusalem was probably in 445/444 B.C.

a. Nehemiah 1:2 and 2:1 affirm that the events of Nehemiah occurred in the twentieth year of king Artaxerxes

b. Nehemiah arrived the first time in Jerusalem twelve-thirteen years after Ezra arrived

2. Nehemiah II: Nehemiah’s second arrival in Jerusalem was probably in 433/432-420 B.C.

a. Nehemiah 13:6-7 reads, “But during all this time I was not in Jerusalem, for in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes king of Babylon I had gone to the king. After some time, however, I asked leave from the king, and I came to Jerusalem and learned about the evil ....”

b. Nehemiah left Jerusalem in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes

c. Nehemiah may also have returned to Jerusalem in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes (this is not certain since the text reads, “After some time, ...”

V. LITERARY GENRE:

A. This book is apocalyptic genre like parts of Ezekiel, Daniel and Revelation

B. It is characterized by symbolic visions, animal symbolism, symbolic numbers (two, four, seven), and a blending of history and imagery18

C. Apocalyptic literature was meant to offer hope to a down cast people through describing the ultimate defeat of evil and victory of God for His people

D. In some ways apocalyptic literature is like parables in that it is meant to reveal and hide truth. Ezekiel calls his apocalyptic material parables

E. It seems that the visions of Zechariah are more developed than those of Amos and Jeremiah and yet less developed than those of Daniel and later Jewish apocalyptic literature like the book of Enoch. Revelation is fully developed apocalyptic literature19

F. The literary content of Zechariah is as follows:

1. An Opening Exhortation: 1:2-6

2. Eight prophetic dream visions: 1:7--6:8

3. Historical Messages: 7--8

4. Two Prophetic Oracles: 9--14

VI. PURPOSES FOR THE BOOK:

A. To introduce glimpses of reality for the postexilic community from a heavenly standpoint, namely, that “The transcendent God is working out His eternal purpose for Judah and Jerusalem, equipping His covenant people to fulfil [sic] the spiritual role for which He chose them (Zc. 1:7--6:15)”20

B. To describe the quality of life which the postexilic community is to display (Zech 7:1--8:32)21

C. To demonstrate that the Lord will establish His kingdom, not through a gradual evolutionary process, but through struggle and tension22

D. To urge Israel to return to Yahweh so that He would return to them and continue to fulfill His word23

E. To promise that in spite of the nation’s lowly position and its spiritual insensitivity, a Deliverer will bring a time of ultimate blessing


1 F. Duanne Lindsey, Zechariah, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures by Dallas Seminary Faculty: Old Testament, 1454.

2 See Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 60-61.

3 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 62-63. She writes, The fact that these chapters are included under the name of Zechariah in our Bibles could mean no more than that they were anonymous writings, known to be authentic prophetic words but, because of their fragmentary nature, in danger of being lost and needing to be included on the scroll allocated to another prophet to save them from extinction. The Jewish Rabbis have written of cases in the prophets where they believed this principle to have operated (Ibid., 62).

4 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 62-63.

5 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 233. See also Charles L. Feinberg, God Remembers: A Study of Zechariah, 8-9.

6 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 233; Kenneth L. Barker, Zechariah, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:596-97.

7 This chart comes from Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 29.

8 This was first raised as an issue by Joseph Mede (1586-1638); see Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 63.

9 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 232. Feinberg writes, the Talmud specifically states (Baba Bathra) that Jeremiah was arranged by the Jews in their canon as the first of the prophets. In this was Jeremiah lent his name to all the prophetic books, and Matthew so treats it (Charles L. Feinberg, God Remembers: A Study of Zechariah, 8).

10 Chisholm writes, Long after the exile of the northern kingdom in 722 B.C., both Jeremiah (30:3-4; 31:6, 27, 31; 33:14) and Ezekiel (37:16), like Zechariah, envisioned the reconciliation of Israel/Ephraim and Judah. In speaking of a return from Egypt and Assyria, Zechariah may have been alluding to the promises of Isaiah (11:11-16) and Hosea (11:11) (Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 232).

11 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 233.

12 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 68-70; Ralph L. Smith, Micah-Malachi, Word Biblical Commentary, XXXII:170.

13 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 69-70.

14 Robert L. Alden, Haggai, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:572; cf. Ezra 2.

15 See Albright's early discussions. He seems to have changed his mind about this matter.

16 LaSor et al write, These business documents and letters were found on the island of Elephantine, north of the first cataract of the Nile and opposite Aswan. They belonged to a Jewish military colony established at least as early as the fall of Jerusalem in 586. The texts throw brilliant light on the affairs of the Jewish colony in Upper Egypt, especially for the period 425-400. In 410 these Jews wrote a letter to Johanan, high priest at Jerusalem (Neh. 12:22), regarding the rebuilding of their temple. In 407 they sent a long appeal in the same regard to Bagoas, governor of Judah, in which they mentioned a similar letter to 'Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat the governor of Samaria. Assuming this is the same Sanballat who was the inveterate enemy of Nehemiah (2:19; 4:1 [MT 3:33]), the Artaxerxes referred to in 2:1 must be Artaxerxes I (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 560, n. 33; See also ANET, pp. 491ff).

17 Archer writes, This Johanan was a grandson of the Eliashib mentioned in Nehemiah 3:1 and 20 and Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib. It therefore follows that when the biblical record speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (Neh 1:1) and again in his thirty-second year (Neh. 13:6), the reference must be to Artaxerxes I (yielding the date 445 and 433 respectively) rather than the reign of Artaxerxes II (which would result in the dates 384 and 372 respectively--far too late for the high priesthood of Johanan) (Gleason L. Archer, Jr. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 419-20).

18 For a fuller discussion see Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 70-74.

19 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 233-34; Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 71.

20 Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 59.

21 Ibid.

22 Baldwin writes, The book prepares God's people for the worst calamity they can ever face, the triumph of evil over good. Even God's representative dies at the hand of evil men. There is no room in Zechariah's thinking for glib optimism, but when evil has done its worst the Lord remains King, and will be seen to be King by all the nations (Ibid., 60).

23 Kenneth L. Barker, Zechariah, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:599.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Introduction to the Book of Malachi

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I. TITLE OF THE BOOK:

A. Hebrew: In Hebrew the book is titled ykalm meaning messenger of Yahweh or my messenger

B. Greek: In the Greek Septuagint the book is titled MALACIAS, a transliteration of the Hebrew title which actually has the sense of His messenger1

II. AUTHOR and Unity of the Book:

A. The traditional understanding has been that the name of the author was Malachi 1:1

B. Nothing is known of Malachi apart from this book

C. Some have understood Malachi to be a title for the work and not the name of the prophet;2 these identify Malachi as anonymous (along with Zechariah 9--14) because of the similar headings in Zechariah 9:1 and 12:1; but the similarities between the headings is not substantial3
On the other hand, the title of Malachi is similar to all of the other minor prophets which would support the notion that Malachi is a name, not a title4

D. Although some have questioned the unity of the book, (especially with reference to the last three verses (4:4-6) which some think are an appendix to the book or the minor prophets as a whole),5 there is a close relationship between 4:4-6 and the rest of Malachi6

E. Three other messengers besides the author are mentioned in the book: the priest (2:7); the forerunner of Messiah (3:1); and the Messenger of the Covenant (3:1)7

III. DATES: It is not possible to be sure but anytime from 568-433 B.C.

A. The reference to a governor points to the postexilic, Persian period (1:8; cf. Hag 1:1, 14; 2:2, 21);8 See also Nehemiah 5:14.

B. Malachi must be after 515 B.C. because that was when the temple was finished; the degeneration of worship may imply that some time has passed since its completion

C. Similarities between Malachi and Ezra-Nehemiah suggest dates around the end of the fifth century B.C.9

1. Both refer to intermarriages with foreign wives (Ezra 9--10; Neh 13:23-27; Mal 2:11)

2. Both refer to failure to pay tithes (Neh 13:10-14; Mal 3:8-10)

3. Both refer to social injustice (Neh 5:1-13; Mal 3:5)

D. A precise date is not possible to identify10

1. Malachi could have preceded Ezra and Nehemiah (468 B.C.?)11

2. Malachi could have followed Ezra and preceded Nehemiah (before 445 B.C.)

3. Malachi could belong to the unspecific interim of Nehemiah's two visits to Jerusalem (after 443 B.C.)

IV. HISTORICAL SETTING:

A. First Return: The first return from Babylonian exile was under Zerubbabel in 538 B.C. when Cyrus was King (539-530) (Ezra 1--6)

1. Return of Haggai and Zechariah: This was probably when Haggai and Zechariah returned to Jerusalem12

2. Temple Rebuilt: Haggai and Zechariah prophesied and the Temple was completed under Darius I (521-486)

a. Levitical sacrifices were reinstituted on an altar built for burnt offerings (Ezra 3:1-6)

b. The foundation for the temple was laid in the second year of the return (536 B.C.; cf. Ezra 3:8-13; 5:16)

c. Samaritan and Persian resistance ended the rebuilding of the temple for 16 years (until 520 B.C.; cf. Ezra 4:4-5)

d. Haggai and Zechariah prophesy from 520-518 B.C. encouraging the nation to rebuild the temple

e. The Temple was completed in 516 B.C. (Ezra 5--6)

B. Second Return: The second return from Babylonian exile was under Ezra in 458/57 B.C. while Artaxexes I Longimanus was King (Ezra 7--10)

1. Ezra 7:1 affirms that Ezra arrived in Jerusalem during the reign of Artaxerxes the king of Persia

2. Ezra 7:8 affirms that Ezra arrived in Jerusalem in the fifth month of the seventh year of the king (Artaxerxes)

a. The is some question as to whether this was in the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464-423 B.C.) or Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404-359 B.C.)13

b. The evidence seems to be that this was during the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus; therefore, the seventh year of his reign would have been 458/457 B.C.

1) Nehemiah 8:2 identifies Ezra as Nehemiah's contemporary

2) The Elephantine Papyri14 [c. 400 B.C.] mentions Johanan (the grandson of Eliashib [Neh 3:1, 20])15

C. Third Return: The third return from Babylonian exile was under Nehemiah in 445/444 B.C. also while Artaxerxes I Longimanus was king (Neh 1--13).

1. Nehemiah I: Nehemiah's first arrival in Jerusalem was probably in 445/444 B.C.

a. Nehemiah 1:2 and 2:1 affirm that the events of Nehemiah occurred in the twentieth year of king Artaxerxes

b. Nehemiah arrived the first time in Jerusalem twelve-thirteen years after Ezra arrived

2. Nehemiah II: Nehemiah's second arrival in Jerusalem was probably in 433/432-420 B.C.

a. Nehemiah 13:6-7 reads, But during all this time I was not in Jerusalem, for in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes king of Babylon I had gone to the king. After some time, however, I asked leave from the king, and I came to Jerusalem and learned about the evil ....

b. Nehemiah left Jerusalem in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes

c. Nehemiah may also have returned to Jerusalem in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes (this is not certain since the text reads, After some time, ...

V. PURPOSES:

A. To remind the people that Yahweh will do all that he can to help his people

B. To remind the people that Yahweh will hold them accountable for their evil when He comes as judge

C. To remind the people that Yahweh will honor them for their faithfulness when He comes as judge

D. To urge the people to repent of their evil for covenant blessings to be fulfilled


1 Robert L. Alden, Malachi, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:702.

2 The Targum of Jonathan identified the author after the title of Malachi with whose name was Ezra the scribe. In the Talmud Mordecai is identified as the author of the book (cf. Robert L. Alden, Malachi, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:702).

3 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 277. Continuing he writes, Other arguments in support of taking Malachi as a title (e.g., the alleged inappropriate nature of such a name, the absence of the name elsewhere in the Old Testament, the omission of background material about the prophet) are equally inconclusive ... (Ibid., 277-78; cf also Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 212).

4 Adlen writes, If a man named Malachi did not write the book bearing this name, he would be the only exception. Moreover, Malachi is neither an unlikely name nor an unsuitable one for the author of this last book of the prophets. After all, Malachi was the Lord's messenger. His trumpet made no uncertain sound. Clearly and unmistakably he indicted his people and the priests for their sin and summoned them to righteousness (Robert L. Alden, Malachi, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:702-03).

5 Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, 495-96.

6 See Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 267-68.

7 Mark L. Bailey, An Outline of Malachi, unpublished class notes in 305 postexilic prophets and the gospels, 1.

8 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 278.

9 Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 278; Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 213.

10 Chisholm writes, A comparison of Malachi 1:8, which seems to assume the governor accepted offerings from the people, with Nehemiah 5:14, 18, where Nehemiah refuses such offerings, suggests Nehemiah is not the governor referred to in Malachi (Robert B. Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets, 278).

11 Baldwin writes, The absence in Malachi of reference to recent legislation such as Ezra and Nehemiah introduced (Ezr. 10:3; Ne. 13:13,23-27) suggests that Malachi preceded them in time. If Ezra came to Jerusalem in 458 BC, Malachi might belong to the previous decade. This would explain the otherwise surprising reaction to Ezra's day of repentance an fasting, before he himself had had opportunity to preach (Ezr. 9:1--10:5). The words of Malachi had already quickened the public conscience (Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, 213).

12 Robert L. Alden, Haggai, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, VII:572; cf. Ezra 2.

13 See Albright's early discussions. He seems to have changed his mind about this matter.

14 LaSor et al write, These business documents and letters were found on the island of Elephantine, north of the first cataract of the Nile and opposite Aswan. They belonged to a Jewish military colony established at least as early as the fall of Jerusalem in 586. The texts throw brilliant light on the affairs of the Jewish colony in Upper Egypt, especially for the period 425-400. In 410 these Jews wrote a letter to Johanan, high priest at Jerusalem (Neh. 12:22), regarding the rebuilding of their temple. In 407 they sent a long appeal in the same regard to Bagoas, governor of Judah, in which they mentioned a similar letter to 'Delaiah and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat the governor of Samaria. Assuming this is the same Sanballat who was the inveterate enemy of Nehemiah (2:19; 4:1 [MT 3:33]), the Artaxerxes referred to in 2:1 must be Artaxerxes I (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 560, n. 33; See also ANET, pp. 491ff).

15 Archer writes, This Johanan was a grandson of the Eliashib mentioned in Nehemiah 3:1 and 20 and Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib. It therefore follows that when the biblical record speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (Neh 1:1) and again in his thirty-second year (Neh. 13:6), the reference must be to Artaxerxes I (yielding the date 445 and 433 respectively) rather than the reign of Artaxerxes II (which would result in the dates 384 and 372 respectively--far too late for the high priesthood of Johanan) (Gleason L. Archer, Jr. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 419-20).

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Argument of the Book of Leviticus

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MESSAGE STATEMENT:1

In order for Israel to live with their Holy God as an individual in the community or as a nation in the land they must approach him through sacrifice, through a holy priesthood who honors him and does not presume upon him and through established cultural patterns of separation from uncleanness and morality which are in distinction to the life of their pagan neighbors

I. APPROACHING GOD THROUGH SACRIFICE: Israel, who is in covenant relationship, can continue to walk with their righteous God through a sacrificial approach to Him 1:1--7:38

A. Instructions for the People:2 The Lord provides Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Sons of Israel concerning the burnt offering, meal offering, peace offering, and occasions for atoning sacrifices for unintentional sin 1:1--6:7

1. The Burnt Offering (hl*u)):3 The Lord provides Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Sons of Israel to offer male whole-burnt offerings form the herd (young bulls), male whole-burnt offerings from the flock (sheep or goats), and whole-burnt offerings from the birds (turtledoves or young pigeons) 1:1-17

a. Whole Burnt Offerings from the Herd: 1:1-9

b. Whole Burnt Offerings from the Flock: 1:10-13

c. Whole-Burnt Offerings from the Birds: 1:14-17

2. The Meal (Cereal) Offering (hj*g=m!):4 The Lord provides Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Sons of Israel to offer a grain offering of flour, oil, & frankincense, of unleavened cakes or wafers, of first fruits, and of early ripened things from which a memorial is to be offered up to the Lord (except for the first fruits) and the remainder belongs to the priests (Aaron and his sons) 2:1-16

3. The Peace Offering (<ym!l*v= jb@z#):5 The Lord provides Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Sons of Israel to offer peace offerings be they male or female from the herd or from the flock (sheep or goat) offering the fat to the Lord and as a perpetual statute not eating any fat or blood 3:1-17

a. Peace Offerings from the Herd: 3:1-5

b. Peace Offerings from the Flock: 3:6-15

1) Statement: 3:6

2) A Lamb: 3:7-11

3) A Goat: 3:12-15

c. Prescriptions: 3:16-17

4. Occasions for Atoning Sacrifices:6 The Lord provides for Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Israelite people concerning how to deal with unintentional sins, sins of omission, sins against the sanctuary, and sins of deception against another which require atoning sacrifices and in the last two cases restoration and a one-fifth restitution 4:1--6:7

a. The Purification (Sin) Offering (af*j*): The Lord provides for Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Israelite people (Chief Priests, congregation, leaders and individuals) concerning how to deal with guilt from unintentional sins and sins of omission through confession and appropriate sacrifice 4:1--5:13

1) For Unintentional Sin: The Lord provides for Moses from the Tent of Meeting prescriptions for the Israelite people if they unintentionally do any of the things which the Lord has commanded not to be done 4:1-2

2) Sin of Chief Priest or Collective Community--A Bull: The Lord provides for Moses prescriptions for an anointed priest or the congregation who commit unintentional sin to sacrifice a bull to the Lord as a sin offering of which part is to be brought before the Lord and part is to be burnt in a clean place outside the camp 4:3-21

a) Anointed Priest: The Lord provides for Moses prescriptions for an anointed priest who sins so as to bring guilt upon the people to sacrifice a bull to the Lord as a sin offering of which part is to be brought before the Lord and part is to be burnt in a clean place outside the camp 4:3-12

b) Congregation: The Lord provides for Moses prescriptions for the congregation when they commit unintentional sin to sacrifice a bull to the Lord as a sin offering of which part is to be brought before the Lord and part is to be burnt in a clean place outside the camp 4:13-21

3) Sin of Individual or Tribal Chief--Flock, Birds or Grain: The Lord provides Moses with prescriptions for dealing with the unintentional sin of omission by leaders and a common person which include confession and an appropriate offering to the Lord depending upon ability (e.g., from the flock, birds, or grain) 4:22--5:13

a) Unintentional Sin of Omission by a Leader--a Male Goat: 4:22-26

b) Unintentional Sin of Omission by a Common Person--a Female Goat or Lamb: 4:27-35

c) Reasons for Sin and Prescriptions: The Lord provides Moses three specific reasons for sin (not testifying, touching the unclean, and false oaths) and then prescribes the way one is to deal with one’s guilt (through confession and appropriate offering to the Lord)

(1) Guilt for Not Testifying: 5:1

(2) Guilt for Touching the Unclean--beast or Human: 5:2-3

(3) Guilt for False Oaths: 5:4

(4) Prescription for Dealing with Guilt: When one commits unintentional sin he is to confess it and bring a guilt offering for the Lord in accordance with his ability--Lamb, Goat, Two Turtledoves, Two Young Pigeons, or Flour 5:5-13

b. The Reparation Offering: The Lord explained to Moses that when one commits unintentional sin against the sanctuary or sins against another through deceptive robbery, then he is to provide restoration and a one- fifth restoration as well as a guilt offering of a ram to the Lord 5:14--6:7

1) Unintentional Sin Against the Sanctuary--A Ram and Restitution of One Fifth: 5:14-19

2) Sin of Robbery through Deception--Restoration of All, Restitution of One Fifth More, a Ram guilt offering to the Lord for Forgiveness 6:1-7

B. Instructions for the Priests:7 The Lord gave Moses commandments for Aaron and his sons concerning the ritual care of the burnt, meal, priests’, atoning, and peace offerings as well as the portions which they may and may not partake of 6:8--7:38

1. The Burnt Offering: The Lord gave Moses commandments (tr~oT) for Aaron and his sons concerning the ritual care of the burnt offerings including that the fire be burning continually on the altar 6:8-13

2. The Meal (Cereal) Offering: The Lord gave Moses commandment for Aaron and his sons concerning the ritual care of the meal offering including its sacrifice to the Lord and the portion for the priests to be eaten in the court of the tent of meeting 6:14-18

3. The Priests’ Meal (Cereal) Offering: The Lord gave Moses commandment for Aaron and his sons concerning the ritual care for the Priests’ meal offering including the stipulation that it is to be burned entirely and not eaten by the priests8 6:19-23

4. Occasions for Atoning Sacrifices: The Lord gave Moses commandment for Aaron and his sons concerning the ritual care for atoning sacrifices (both purification and Reparation) which they eat in a holy place except for those whose blood was brought into the tent of meeting9 6:24--7:10

a. The Purification Offering: 6:24-30

b. The Reparation Offering: 7:1-10

5. The Peace Offering: The Lord gave Moses commandment for Aaron and his sons concerning the ritual care for peace offerings (thanksgiving and votive) emphasizing the consequences of impurity through the Israelites who brought in the sacrifice and the portions which belong to the priests 7:11-36

a. Thanksgiving Offering: 7:11-15

b. Votive Offering: 7:16-18

c. Matters of Impurity and Disobedience for Which One May Be Cut-Off:10 7:19-36

1) Impurity: 7:19-21

2) Eating Fat and Blood: 7:22-27

d. The Priests’ Portion: 7:28-36

6. Summary: Moses proclaims that the above are the law of the burnt offering, grain offering, sin offering, guilt offering, ordination offering11 and peace offing which the Lord commanded Moses at Mount Sinai in the day that He commanded the sons of Israel to present their offerings to the Lord in the wilderness of Sinai 7:37-38

II. APPROACHING GOD THROUGH CONSECRATION AND ORDINATION: A proper approach to YHWH requires a holy priesthood who honors Him and does not presume upon Him leading to judgment in righteous indignation 8:1--10:20

A. Ordination of Aaron and His Sons: Through anointing and sacrifice, Aaron and his sons are ordained to holy service 8:1-36

1. Preparation for Anointing: 8:1-5

2. The Ceremony: 8:6-13

3. Consecration Offering: 8:14-36

B. YHWH’s Approval: In YHWH’s acceptance of sacrifice by the holy priest for himself and the people, He approved the priest 9:1-24

1. Rules for Offerings: 9:1-7

2. Aaron’s Sacrifices: 9:8-24

C. Need to Honor YHWH: In YHWH’s consuming of Aaron’s sons, the need for holy priests to treat Him as holy is stressed 10:1-20

1. Nadab and Abihu: 10:1-7

2. Drunken Priests Prohibited: 10:8-11

III. LIVING WITH GOD THROUGH ESTABLISHED CULTURAL PATTERNS: Living with a holy God requires established cultural patterns of separation from uncleanness and morality which are in distinction to the life of their pagan neighbors 11:1--27:34

A. Separation from Uncleanness: Living with a holy God requires an established cultural pattern of separation from uncleanness 11:1--17:16

1. Uncleanness: Living with a holy God requires separation from all that is unclean and atonement for defilement 11:1--15:33

2. National Cleansing--Day of Atonement: Living with a holy God requires an established cultural pattern of national cleansing through the Day of Atonement 16:1-34

a. Priestly Preparation: 16:1-4

b. The Two Goats: 16:5-10

c. The Sin Offerings: 16:11-22

d. Rituals for Cleansing: 16:23-28

e. Enactment of the Day of Atonement: 16:29-34

3. Sacrificial Blood: Living with a holy God requires that the blood of sacrifice be for the altar representing the life given for atonement 17:1-16

B. Morality in Life and Ritual: Living with a holy God requires an established cultural pattern of morality in life and ritual for one to continue in the community and for Israel to continue in the land 18:1--27:34

1. Characterized by Holiness: Living with a holy God requires each individual and priest to be characterized by holiness in their daily life: 18:1--22:33

a. Various Laws and Punishments: 18:1--20:27

1) Basic Principles of Sexual Behavior: 18:1-30

2) Principles of Neighborliness: 19:1-37

3) Capital and Other Grave Crimes: 20:27

b. Rules for Priestly Holiness: 21:1--22:33

1) The Holiness of Priests: 21:1-24

2) The Holiness of Cultic Gifts and Offerings: 22:1-33

2. Required Convocations of Scheduled Worship for the Nation--Consecration of Seasons: 23:1-44

3. Holiness in Ritual--Rules for the Tabernacle: 24:1-9

4. Death in Blasphemy--A Test Case: 24:10-23

5. Treatment of the Land and Consequences--Sabbath Years: 25:1--26:46

a. Sabbatical and Jubilee Years: 25:1-55

b. Announcement of Blessings and Cursings: 26:1-46

1) Blessings: 26:1-13

2) Cursings: 26:14-39

3) The Rewards of Contrition: 26:40-46

6. Dedicatory Gifts: The possessions of YHWH, designated by gift or divine right, are to be treated as Holy 27:1-34

a. Persons: 27:1-8

b. Animals: 27:9-13

c. Property: 27:14-29

d. Redemption of Tithes: 27:30-34


1 The outline is developed with the use of the following sources: R. K. Harrison, Leviticus An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1980); Gordon Wenham The Book of Leviticus (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979); Martin North, Leviticus: A Commentary (Translated by J. E. Anderson, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1962, 1965, 1977); Philip E. Powers, Analysis of Leviticus (a paper presented in 371 Seminar in the Pentateuch, DTS, Fall 1989); Elliott E. Johnson, Analytical Outline of Leviticus (notes given in 371 Seminar in the Pentateuch, DTS, Fall 1989).

2 These chapters are addressed to the people in general (including the priests) prescribing the basic modes of sacrifice to be presented to God in the sanctuary. The sacrifices prescribed in chapters 1--3 could be offered on a variety of celebrations be they public, private, voluntary and obligatory.

3 Baruch A. Levine writes, Chapter 1 deals with the sacrifice called ‘olah which was burned to ashes on the altar of burnt offerings. No part of it was eaten, either by priests or donors. The ‘olah could consist of male herd cattle (vv. 3-9), or male flock animals (vv. 10-13), or of certain birds (vv. 14-17). Despite some differences in detail, the procedures for all burnt offerings, or holocausts, were quite similar: The sacrifice was presented at the entrance of the Tent of Meeting; the donor laid his hand on the victim, thereby designating it for a particular rite; and blood from the sacrificial victim was dashed on the altar in appropriate ways (Leviticus hrqyw The JPS Torah Commentary: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation. [Philadelphia: The Jewish Publiication Society, 1989], 3-4).

4 This offering could also be used for a number of occasions and was less costly than the burnt offerings above. Levine writes, Chapter 2 outlines the different types of minhah, listing them according to their different methods of preparation. The ingredients were usually the same for the various offerings: The minhah was made of semolina, the choice part of wheat that was taken from the inner kernels; olive oil was mixed into the dough or smeared on it; and frankincense was applied to it, enhancing the taste. The minhah could be prepared on a griddle, in a pan, or in an oven. A fistful of the dough, with the oil and frankincense added, was burned on the altar. The rest was prepared in one of the accepted ways, to be eaten by the priests in the sacred precincts of the sanctuary. Since the first of dough was burned on the altar, grain offerings could not be made with leavened dough, as is discussed further on, and they had to be salted.

Verses 14-16 digress somewhat from the pattern of the chapter as a whole. They ordain a special minhah of first fruits (bikkurim), which consisted of nearly ripe grain from the new crop. The grain was roasted and then made into grits (Leviticus, 9).

5 Levine writes, Whereas the ‘olah of chapter 1 was completely consumed by the altar fire, an in this way given over to God entirely, the zevah was a sacred meal in which sections of the sacrifice were shared by the priests and donors of the offering. Only certain fatty portions of the animal were burned on the altar as God's share. Continuing, Whereas the minhah could be eaten only by priests, the eating of the zevah was not so restricted. Thus it clearly represents a distinctive mode of sacrifice whose presentation expressed its purpose: to afford the worshipers the experience of joining together with the priests in a sacred meal at which God Himself was perceived to be the honored guest (Leviticus, 14).

6 Levine writes, Offered for the purpose of securing God's forgiveness, their presentation was obligatory, pursuant to transgressions of religious law, committed either by omission or through inadvertent violations. In most cases, the sacrifice served to remove the charge against the offenders and to restore them to a proper relationship with God and to fit membership in the religious community.

It should be emphasized here, as the workings of the sacrificial system are introduced to the reader, that the laws of the Torah did not permit Israelites to expiate intentional or premeditated offenses by means of sacrifice. There was no vicarious, ritual remedy--substitution of one's property or wealth--for such violations, whether they were perpetrated against other individuals or against God Himself. In those cases the law dealt directly with the offender, imposing real punishments and acting to prevent recurrences. The entire expiatory system ordained in the Torah must be understood in this light. Ritual expiation was restricted to situations where a reasonable doubt existed as to the willfulness of the offense. Even then, restitution was always required where loss or injury to another person had occurred. The mistaken notion that ritual worship could atone for criminality or intentional religious desecration was persistently attacked by the prophets of Israel, who considered it a major threat to the entire covenantal relationship between Israel and God (Leviticus, 3).

7 Whereas the earlier chapters provided the people with the mechanics of preparation and ingredients for the sacrifices, these verse provide the priests with the ritual for each of the sacrifices so that they may not be defiled. They also delineate which portions of the sacrifices are for the priests as their share (except for the whole burnt sacrifices). Levine writes, it should be remembered that--except for the burnt offering of chapter 1, the priestly minhah of 6:12-16, and the priestly hatta't of 4:1-21--most sacrifices were meant to be eaten, usually by priests and on occasion even by the donors (Leviticus, 34).

Elsewhere Levine says concerning the logic of this unit, We observe in chapters 6-7 an administrative order that begins with the most sacred public offerings that are usually relegated to private worship. The law then proceeds to outline offerings of lesser sanctity that also fall within the category of private worship. Finally, 7:35-38 summarizes the allocations of parts of the sacrificial offerings as the share (mishhah) of priests, their portions of the Lord's offerings by fire (Ibid., 35).

8 Levine writes, The priests received their emoluments in several forms, all in return for their services on behalf of the Israelite people. This principle is reflected in the provisions of 6:12-16 [Hebrew], namely, the law governing the High Priest's grain offering, which was completely burned on the altar. This passage illustrates the rule that priests may not be compensated for sacrifices performed on their own behalf but only for services rendered to others.

The occurrence of this law in chapter 6 has been viewed as a problem because it seems to interrupt the continuity of the rest of the chapter. It was most likely inserted here because of its general topical relationship to grain offerings, the subject of verses 7-11, which immediately precede it (Leviticus, 34).

9 See 4:1-21; 8:17; 16.

10 This was a matter of concern because so many parts of the peace offerings were handled by ordinary Israelites outside of the sanctuary (Leviticus, 44).

Concerning being cut off Levine writes, At some early stage karet probably involved actual banishment. Karet was often combined with more stringent punishments, even death. It is sometimes perceived as punishment meted out directly by God, in contrast to that imposed by the community and its leaders for offenses committed against God. Karet was inflicted for a variety of religious sins, such as desecration of the Sabbath, eating leaven on Passover, or committing adultery. Although this group excluded most crimes against persons, it included certain crimes 'between man and man' when those involved oaths taken in God's name or the misappropriation of sanctuary property. Even the withholding of testimony had a sacred aspect to it (Leviticus, 18).

11 See 8:22 where an offering was done for the investing of Aaron and his sons with their office.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Argument of the Book of Deuteronomy

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MESSAGE STATEMENT

Subject:

Covenant history and stipulations

made with Israel

at Mount Horeb

and

interpreted by Moses

in Moab

across from Beth-peor

Compliment:

necessitate committed obedience

on behalf of the nation and its leaders
(though ultimately through YHWH)

to experience blessing, rather than cursing,
in their future occupation of the Land

I. PROLOGUE: A SETTING: Through a historical setting of Israel in the transjordan of Mob after wandering for forty years since their exodus from Egypt, the context is provided for the unfolding of a necessary renewal of the covenant for the nation to experience blessing in the land (1:1-5)

A. Words of Moses: These are the words (rbd) which the Lord had commanded Moses to speak to all Israel in the transjordan forty years after what should have been an 11 day journey 1:1-4

B. After the Defeat of Sihon and Og: This occurred after the defeat of Sihon (the king of the Amorites) and Ogk (the king of Bashan) [cf. Numbers 21 with 1:4] while Israel was in Mob (Numbers 22-25 where they sinned at Beth-poor) 1:5a

C. Exposition of the Law: Moses expounded the Law (tr*oTh^-ta# ra@b@) 1:5b

II. MOSES’ FIRST ADDRESS: Through a rehearsal of covenant history, Moses traces Israel’s experience with the Lord from Horeb, to Kedesh-barnea, through their wilderness wandering and up to their taking of the land from Beth-peor so that they will remember the character of the Lord and obey Him as they prepare to enter the Land (1:6--4:43)

A. Horeb to Kadesh-Barnea: Moses recounts the experience of the nation from Mount Horeb to Kedesh-barnea where they rebelled and were sentenced to wander in the wilderness (1:6-46)

1. Moses recounts how YHWH told Israel to leave Horeb and go to possess the land from the Negev, the hill country, the sea coast, to Lebanon and the Euphrates 1:6-8

2. Moses recounts how he distributed the authority among the leaders of the tribes for judging the people because the people had grown too much under YHWH’s blessing for him to care for them alone 1:9-181

3. Moses recounts the journey from Mt. Horeb to Kadesh-barnea where the people rebelled against the Lord by not taking the Land as it was promised, and then by trying to take the land after they had been judged to die as a generation in the wilderness before the next generation would come to take the land 1:19-46.

B. Entrance into the Transjordan: Moses recounts the nation’s return and entrance into the transjordan as the Lord led and defeated Simon and Ogk (2:1--3:11)

1. Moses briefly tells of the nation’s return to the wilderness under YHWH’s command and then their return to the land under YHWH’s command with the awareness of YHWH Elohim’s provision for them for 40 years and that they were not to take land that He had given to others (Edom, Mob, Ammon) just He would give their land to them (2:1-23)

a. The nation is told to leave the land for the wilderness (2:1)2

b. The nation is told that their wanderings are enough and thus to head back north through the land of the sons of Esau but not to take their land (2:2-6)

c. The nation is reminded of YHWH Elohim’s sustenance of them for 40 years in the wilderness (2:7)

d. The nation is told by YHWH to pass North beyond Heir by Mob but not to touch their land since he gave it to the descendants of Lot for a possession as he later would Canaan to Israel (2:8-12)

e. It took 38 years for Israel to pass from Kedesh-barnea to the brook Zered: until YHWH’s judgment was complete upon the nation’s men of war (2:13-18)

f. The nation is to cross over into Mob but it is an inheritance to the sons of Lot so they are not to fight the sons of Amman (2:19-23)

2. Under the command of YHWH and the hand of YHWH Elohim Israel took the kingdom of Sihon up to the southern boarder of Amman and the kingdom of Og including northern Bashan 2:24--3:11

a. Israel is commanded by YHWH to take the Ammorite land under Simon the king of Heshbon through which He will bring a fear of Israel upon the people (2:24-25)

b. Moses recounts how he asked Simon for permission to pass through his land and YHWH hardened his heart in order to give the land over to Israel (2:26-31)

c. In a battle with Simon, The LORD God delivers the kingdom over to Israel to the land of Amman (2:32-37)

d. In a battle with Ogk, the LORD God delivers northern Bashon over to Israel (3:1-11)

C. Final Preparations to Enter the Land: At Beth-peor Moses makes final preparations for the nation to enter the land by the allotment of the transjordan, by exhortations to the transjordan tribes to fight with the nation until the land is all occupied, by strengthening Joshua in what the Lord has done, by stating that he will not enter the land, and by encouraging his replacement--Joshua (3:12-28)

1. Moses allots the transjordan including Gilead from Bashan in the north to the red sea in the south to the Reunites, Gadites, and the half tribe of Manasseh [south to north] (3:12-17)

2. The tribes of Reuben, Gad and Manasseh are told that the land is theirs for a possession, but the valiant men are to continue to fight with the nation until all of the land is possessed across the Jordan (3:18-20)

3. Moses reminds Joshua of all the Lord has done so that he will not fear those in the land against whom the Lord will also fight (3:21-22)

4. Moses mentions that he pleaded with YHWH to be allowed to enter but was forbidden except to see it form Mit. Pisgah. He was also told to strengthen Joshua as his replacement to take the people into the land to give them the inheritance (3:23-28)

5. The historical setting is in the valley opposite of Beth-poor (3:29)

6. At Beth-poor Moses warns Israel in many ways that disobedience to the Lord’s Law will result in judgment in the Land while obedience will bring life in the Land (4:1-40)

a. In a solemn charge, Moses warns Israel at Beth-poor to watch themselves to listen to, not change and pass on to their children the statutes and judgments from Moses which have been shown to give life at Banal-poor and were designed to separate Israel from all other people of the earth 4:1-20

1) Moses speaks a solomn charge to the nation Israel at Beth-peor to listen to and not change the statutes <yq!j%h^ (these are the engraved codes or the Law [cf. BDB p. 349. s.v. qj) ])and judgments <yf!P*vh^ (together they comprise the whole Law as in 4:8) he is giving in order for them to live, go in and take the land, and obey YHWH Elohim (4:1-2)

2) Just as the LORD gave life to those who obeyed him at Baal of Peor (cf. Num. 25:1-9), so will obedience to the statutes and judgments bring life in the land and attracts the barren neighbors of Israel to their God (4:3-8)

3) Moses warns the nation to pay attention to themselves to not forget but to remember and make known to their offspring what they have seen of God lest they depart form His ways, namely their experience at Horeb where they heard but did not see God and Moses received the covenant and the statutes and judgments for the people to keep in the land (4:9-14)

4) Moses warns the nation to watch carefully lest they forget what they saw at Mit. Horeb and do evil by making an image of God or worshiping heavenly bodies since they have been separated from all peoples on earth as His possession (4:15-20)

b. Using himself, a future prophecy of judgment upon the nation for its evil, and a historical reminder of God’s unique revelation to the nation, Moses warns the nation against sinning against God which will result in judgment rather than blessing for obedience in the land (4:21-40)

1) Using himself as an example of one who is the recipient of the judgment of God for disobedience, Moses warns the nation to not forget the covenant of their God by making images against what He has commanded since He will bring judgment (4:21-24)

2) Moses warns of the judgment which will come upon the nation in several generations when they act corruptly and provoke The Lord to anger leading to their expulsion from the land under the servitude of “false gods” but not their ultimate extinction since God is compassionate and will not forget the covenant He made with their fathers (4:25-31)

3) Reminding the nation that God’s work with them in bringing them out of Egypt, revealing Himself in the fire and speaking to them is beyond anything He has done with any people in all of history, Moses affirms that He is the only God and thus to be obeyed for life in the Land (4:32-40)

7. Moses sets aside three cities of refuge: one for each tribe in the transjordan (4:41-43)

III. MOSES’ SECOND ADDRESS: Through a rehearsal of Israel’s covenant responsibilities with glimpses of national prophetic history, Moses proclaims obedience as the means by which the Lord will bless the nation in the Land (4:44--26:19)

A. Setting: A setting is given of Israel after the Exodus, the wilderness wandering, and the defeat of Simon and Ogk, opposite of Beth-poor where Moses set before them the Law (4:44-49)

B. Ten Commandments: After summoning all Israel, Moses exhorts them to hear the 10 commandments which they heard at Mt. Horeb and which led them in fear to have Moses act as mediator between them and the Lord for the rest of the Law (5:1-33)

1. Moses summons all Israel and speaks to them (5:1a)

2. Moses exhorts the nation to hear the statutes and ordinances which he is speaking to them now and which were given to them at Mit. Horeb face to face with Moses between them and God (5:1b-5)

3. Moses states the 10 Commandments (5:6-21)

a. No gods are to be placed before YHWH Elohim who redeemed Israel from Egypt (6-7)

b. No Idols are to be made and/or worshiped because YHWH Elohim will punish those households who do not honor Him while showing loyal love to those who do love Him with obedience (8-10)

c. YHWH Elohim’s name is not to be taken in vain lest one receive punishment (11)

d. The Sabbath is to be kept separate unto YHWH Elohim by not working in any way and by remembering the redemption He provided for them from Egypt (12-15)

e. Parents are to be honored as YHWH Elohim has commanded so that life may be long and prosperous in the land (16)

f. One shall not commit murder (17)

g. One shall not commit adultery (18)

h. One shall not steal (19)

i. One shall not bear false witness against one’s neighbor (20)

j. One shall not covet anything which belongs to one’s neighbor (21)

4. Moses recounts how the nation after hearing God speak the 10 commandments pleaded that Moses would mediate between them and the Lord so that they would not be destroyed by Him whereupon the Lord agreed dismissing the nation to their tents and keeping Moses to hear, and teach the nation the law to observe in the land 5:22-33

C. Great Commandment & Blessings and Cursings: Moses recounts the great commandment of full commitment to the Lord and warnings of cursings and blessings to the Nation so that they may be blessed in the Land (6:1--11:32)

1. Shema: For the sake of blessing rather than judgment in the Land, the nation is to be fully committed to YHWH and to communicate their commitment to the next generation (6:1-25)

a. The commandment which Moses is about to give to the nation is so that they and their generations might fear the Lord so as to obey with the result that they might receive blessing: days might be prolonged, it may be well with them, and that they might multiply as YHWH promised in the Land (6:1-3)

b. Since the nation’s YHWH is all there is to God (a unity), each person is to willfully commit himself to Him with all of his motives (heart), his person (soul) , and his ability (strength) (6:5-6)

c. Moses’ command to love God is to be taught to children in the patterns of live, and made a common part of one’s life (6:7-9)

d. The nation is warned of the danger of coming to the prosperous land that they might forget YHWH who delivered them form Egypt (6:10-12)

e. The nation is warned of judgment which the Lord will bring upon them if they follow other gods in the land as well as blessing which will come upon them if they obey God in the Land (6:13-19)

f. The history of the establishment of the nation from Egypt as well as the giving of the Law is to be told to the children so that they will obey and be blessed by YHWH in the land (6:20-25)

2. Destruction of Nations: Israel, as a people graciously separated unto YHWH, is to destroy, with the power of the Lord, the nations in the land without contaminating herself with them so that she will not also experience the judgment of God upon her but blessing (7:1-26)

a. Israel is to destroy the nations in the land, to not intermarry with them because they will turn Israel’s heart away form the Lord to serve other gods which will result in judgment upon Israel (7:1-5)

b. The reason Israel is to judge and not compromise with the nations in the land is because she is to be a people separate unto YHWH who chose her, not out of merit, but out of love and commitment to the Abrahamic covenant (7:6-8)

c. Because the Lord is a faithful yet a just God (bringing judgment upon the nations who do not follow him), Israel is to keep the commandments which Moses is proclaiming to them so that they might be blessed by Him: keeping the Abrahamic covenant with them, bringing about furtility, health, cursing their enemies and making them victorious in battle (7:9-16)

d. When Israel is fearful of the nations which they will fight against, they are to remember the powerful deliverance which the Lord worked for them in Egypt as well as the promises He is now making to deliver the nations and their detestable gods over to them in accordance with His timetable (7:17-26)

3. Awareness of Yahweh as Provider: Israel is to enter the land with an awareness from their own history that it is the Lord alone who has graciously and abundantly provided for them in their evil to this point and thus will bless them in the land if they obey and curse them if they disobey (8:1--11:32)

a. Israel is to remember the humbling, training, yet sustaining way in which YHWH led them for forty years in the wilderness in order to test and discipline them so as to produce obedience because obedience will result in blessing for them when they enter the fruitful land (8:1-10)

b. Israel is warned that they will perish under the judgment of God like the nations the Lord is making to perish before them if they forget that they have been and are dependent upon the Lord for their blessing and begin to consider themselves as the ones who have provided for themselves and begin to worship other gods (8:11-20)

c. Israel is to remember as the Lord goes before them to defeat the nations so that they will disposes the land that it is not because of Israel’s righteousness that they are entering in but because of the wickedness of the nations and because of the Abrahamic covenant that the Lord is acting on their behalf (9:1-6)

d. Moses confirms the wickedness of Israel by recounting their rebellion against the Lord and his need to intercede for them in order that the Lord would not destroy them during the journey from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea (9:7--10:5)

1) They rebelled at Horeb (9:8-21)

2) They rebelled at Teberah, Massah and at Kiboroth-hatta-avah (9:22)

3) They rebelled at Kadesh-barnea (9:23--10:5)

e. After all of this evil and the forty years of wandering the Lord commanded the people to go to possess the land (10:6-11)

f. Israel is exhorted to willing obey the Lord who alone is God, covenant keeping, just, has blessed and whom they themselves know and have experienced in history so that they may enter and be blessed and overtake the nations in the fertile land where YHWH dwells rather than be cursed there (10:12--11:28)

g. As a reminder the promises of blessing are to be written in the land on Mit. Gerizim and the curses are to be written on Mit. Ebal so that the nation will be careful to do all that the Moses has commanded (11:29-32)

D. Specific Laws of Covenant & Prophetic History: Specific laws of the covenant and glimpses of prophetic history are expounded so that Israel will obey and be blessed in the land (12:1--26:15)

1. Worship: After Israel possesses the land and destroys all of the pagan places of false worship, she must not assimilate their behavior but offer all sacrifices (meat for home use excluded) and worship at the central place which the Lord will proclaim in order to receive blessing in the land (12:1-32)

a. When Israel enters the land they are to completely destroy all of the pagan places of false worship (12:1-3)

b. Unlike the nations in the land and even unlike the practice of the nation in the wilderness, all worship and sacrifice when established in the land will take place at a central location which the Lord will establish (12:4-14)

c. Although meat may be slaughtered within one’s particular city for consumption according to the standards of the Law, all tithe offerings from the harvest to the Lord must be partaken (being sure to provide for the Levite) at the central location to be announced by the Lord (12:15-27)

d. Israel must be careful to obey the Lord for blessing and not to follow the practice of the people toward their gods whom they will dispossess in the land (12:28-32).

2. False Teachers: If anyone (prophet, relative, or entire city) attempts to lead the nation away form the Lord to other gods they are to be resisted and destroyed in order to turn away YHWH’s anger and to continue to receive blessing from Him (13:1-18)

a. If a prophet or dreamer performs a sign or wonder and then attempts to lead anyone from the Lord to other gods, he is to be ignored, and killed while YHWH is to be obeyed (13:1-5)

b. If a relative or friend entices anyone to leave the Lord for other gods, he is to be resisted and unmercifully killed as a warning to all else in the nation (13:6-11)

c. If those in a city of Israel begin to lead the people away from the Lord to other gods, the entire city is to be destroyed and placed under a ban to turn the Lord from his burning anger and to bring about blessing for the rest of the nation (13:12-18)

3. Separation of Israel: Israel is to demonstrate her separation to the Lord from the other nations of the land by how they mourn for the dead and how they even eat their food (14:1-21)

a. Israel is to demonstrate its separateness to YHWH from all people of the land by not participating in the Canaanite rituals of mourning for the dead (14:1-2)

b. Israel is to demonstrate its separateness to YHWH from all the people in the land by not eating any animal, fish, or bird, which YHWH declares to be unclean (by virtue of its non-conformity to wholeness), but by only eating those which YHWH declares to be clean (and thus naturally whole) (14:3-21)

4. Tithing: Israel is to tithe (physically or monetarily) to the Lord all of the produce which comes out of the field every year in a celebration before the Lord in that place where He will establish His name except for every third year where it is to go to the Levite in his town remembering that he has no other portion among the nation in order to receive blessing from the Lord (14:22-29)

5. Sabbath Year: The end of the seventh year is to be a time when everyone in Israel is to grant a remission of all debts to her own people who were willfully and generously helped in their need because the Lord has blessed the nation and will continue to do so if they will obey (15:1-18)

a. Every seventh year Israel is to grant a remission of debts whereby every creditor shall release what he has loaned to those within the nation [excluding foreigners] (15:1-3)

b. The Lord promises that if the nation will obey that He will bless them so that they will not be poor and indebted to other nations but will lend to other nations (15:4-7)

c. If one in the nation comes upon a poor brother in need (as one always will) and even if it is near the seventh year, one is to willingly and generously lend to him a sufficient amount for his need because the Lord will bless the giver for this (15:8-11)

d. If one of Israel’s kinsmen (a Hebrew man or woman) is sold to them in slavery, it is to be for only seven years after which one must either release him with a liberal amount of produce, which the Lord has given and which he has worked double time for, or one is to mark him as his servant forever at his desire (15:12-18)

6. Consecration of First Born Males: All of the first-born males of the herd and flock are to be consecrated, separated from work and then sacrificed in a family meal before the Lord in the place which He chooses except for those which have a defect which are not to be sacrificed before the Lord but are to be legally partaken of in one’s own city (15:19-23)

7. Three Feasts of Israel--Passover, Weeks, Booths: Three times a year all of Israel’s males are to appear before the Lord in the place which He chooses to celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks, and the Feast of Booths, with a sacrifice as the Lord has blessed (16:1-17)

a. Passover: In the month of Abib (March-April) the nation is to observe the Passover in the place where the Lord chooses to establish His name by making a sacrifice from the flock or the herd and not eating leaven bread for seven days according to His prescriptions to remember His deliverance of them from Egypt (16:1-8)

b. Feast of Weeks: Seven weeks from the beginning of the grain harvest the nation is to celebrate the Feast of Weeks with a free-will offering proportionate to as the Lord has blessed with a feast in the place where the Lord chooses to establish his name as a reminder of their liberation from Egypt (16:9-13)

c. Feast of Booths: Seven days after the ingathering from the wine vat and threshing floor Israel is to joyfully celebrate the Feast of Booths for seven days in the place which the Lord chooses because of the Lord’s blessing (16:13-15)

d. In summary: three times a year all of Israel’s males are to appear before the Lord in the place which He chooses, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks, and the Feast of Booths, with a sacrifice as the Lord has blessed (16:13-15)

8. Appointing of Judges: Israel is to appoint judges for herself in each town which the Lord has given to judge uprightly all offenses of the people or to take any offense beyond their ability to the place of the Lord were the matter will be decided by a Levite or judge appointed there to be executed explicitly by the local judge in order to purge all evil from the land so that the Lord may bless the land (16:18--17:13)

a. Israel is to appoint judges for herself in each town which the Lord has given to her who will judge the people with righteous judgment and not be corrupted with any favoritism for the Lord to bless in the land (16:18-21)

b. If one does anything to turn the peoples’ hearts away from the Lord to the false gods in the land, they are to be tried by the judges and given the death penalty by stoning to purge the evil from the land (16:22--17:8)

c. If the particular case is too difficult for the local judges, it is to be brought to the place where the Lord chooses to establish His name for a Levitical priest or Judge there in office to decide the matter and to be followed explicitly under penalty of death in order to purge the evil from the land (16:22--17:13)

9. Appointing a King: When Israel enters the land they and desire to appoint a king he is to be one of the Lord’s choice from their countrymen, who is not to multiply hoses, wives or gold and silver to himself and is to copy, read and obey the Law of the Lord so that he behaves properly and is allowed to continue his line upon the throne (17:14-20)

a. When Israel enters into the land and desires to set a king over them as the nations around them, it is to be one whom the Lord chooses from their countrymen and not a foreigner (17:14)

b. The king over Israel is not to do three things: multiply horses for himself or especially go back to Egypt to multiply horses since the Lord forbids going back that way, and he shall not multiply wives for himself lest they turn his heart away form the Lord, and he shall not multiply sliver and gold for himself (17:15-17)

c. The king is to write for himself in the presence of the Levitical priests a copy of the Law to be read by him so that he may fear the Lord and thus obey His word resulting in a proper perspective with his countrymen, obedience and the continuation of his line on the throne (17:18-20)

10. Provisions for Levitical Priests: The Levitical priests from the whole tribe of Levi shall have no portion of the inheritance of the land with Israel but shall be specifically provided for in addition to any of their own assets through the offerings to the Lord since He is their inheritance (18:1-8)

a. The Levitical priests from the whole tribe of Levi shall have no portion of inheritance with Israel but shall be provided for through offerings to the Lord since He is their inheritance (18:1-2)

b. The priest’s due from the people was the shoulder, two cheeks, and the stomach from an offered ram or lamb, the first fruits of the grain, new wine, oil and shearing of the sheep because the Lord has chosen them to serve Him (18:3-5)

c. If a Levite chose to come to the central sanctuary to serve he was entitled to the renumerations from the sacrifices there in addition to anything he received from the selling of his possessions (18:6-8)

11. Prohibition against Spiritual Practices of the Nations: When Israel enters into the land, the Lord does not permit them to imitate the detestable spiritual practices of the nations: child sacrifices, divination, witchcraft, interpreting omens or sorcery, casting spells, or acting as a medium or spiritist by calling up the dead so that they will not be driven out of the land as the nations before them are being driven (18:9-14)

12. Prophet Like Moses: The Lord will raise up a prophet like Moses to speak as a mediator between the people and the Lord, as the people requested of Moses, bringing judgment from the Lord upon all of those who do not listen to him (18:15-19)

13. Test of a Prophet: Any “prophet” who speaks for another god or who says that he speaks for the Lord but is proven to be false since his words do not come true is to be killed by the people (18:20-22)

14. Cities of Refuge: Israel is to prepare at least three and upto six cities of refuge (under God’s blessing) so that the nation might protect the unintentional manslayer from an angry avenger but not to protect the premeditated manslayer who must be brought before his avenger so that the Lord will continue to bless the land (19:1-13)

a. Israel is to prepare three cities of refuge as well as roads to the cities in the midst of the land where the unintentional manslayer may flee from an angry pursuer(19:1-7)

b. If the Lord blesses Israel with more land promised to the fathers in Israel’s obedience, they are to establish thee more cities to protect the nation from the shedding of innocent blood (19:8-10)

c. If someone commits premeditated manslaughter he is not to be protected by the cities of refuge but to be handed over to his avenger so as to purge the nation from innocent blood and so that God might bless them (19:11-13)

15. Moving Neighbor’s Boundary: Israel is not to move his neighbor’s boundary mark from where the ancestors placed it to mark off the inheritance of the Lord (19:14)

16. Two or Three Witnesses: A matter against a man is never confirmed on the witness of one person but on the evidence of two or three witness with false witnesses receiving the punishment they intended for their brother so as to purge the evil from the land and to be a deterrent to others (19:15-21)

a. A matter against a man is never confirmed on the witness of only one person but on the evidence of two or three witnesses (19:15)

b. If it is determined in a hearing before a priest, a judge and the Lord that a man is a malicious witness, then he is to receive the judgment he had intended for his brother thereby purging the evil from the people and providing a deterrent for others who might do such a thing (19:16-21)

17. Yahweh as Protector: When Israel comes to battle against powerful enemies they are to realize that it is the Lord who is fighting for them, send home those who have unfinished beginnings in the land and to either wage a measured attack on distant cities or an unmeasured destruction on those peoples near to them (20:1-20)

a. When Israel comes to battle against their powerful enemies they are not to be afraid because the Lord who brought them up from Egypt is with them (20:1)

b. When Israel approaches their enemies to fight the priest is to come before the people and encourage them to not be afraid or panic because the Lord is with them to fight for them against their enemies (20:2-4)

c. When Israel is approaching their enemies the offerciers are to come before the people and dismiss from battle the man who has built but not dedicated his house, the man who planted a vinyard but has not begun to use its fruit, the man how is engaged but has not married, and the man who is afraid and fainthearted so that he will not discourage others before they appoint commanders of the armies (20:5-9)

d. When Israel comes to a city that is far from them they are to offer peace and place the people into forced labor if they accept, but if they refuse, God will give it into their hands and they are to strike all of the men down and take the women, children and the spoil as booty as from the Lord (20:10-16)

e. When Israel comes to a city of the people near to them (the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites) they are to utterly destroy it (except for its fruit trees) in order that the people will not lead them astray to detestable spiritual practices leading to sin against the Lord (20:17-20)

18. Undetected Homicide: In the event of an undetected homicide in the open country, the elders of the nearest city had to make atonement by breaking the neck of a heifer and then confessing their innocence before the priests above the dead heifer whereupon God would remove the bloodguiltness from upon the people (21:1-9)

19. Laws concerning the Family Are Expounded: marrying a captive woman, blessing the first born of an unloved wife and stoning a rebellious son (21:10-21)

a. Marrying a Captive Woman: If one is attracted to a woman taken captive in battle he is to take her to his home, allow her one month to grieve her family loss and then to have relations with her thus making her his wife but he may also free (or divorce) her if she does not please him, though he may not mistreat her (21:10-14)

b. Blessing the First Born of an Unloved Wife: If a man has two sons, a first born from an unloved wife and the second from a loved wife, he must give the rights of the first born to the first born son since he is the beginning of his strength (21:15-17)

c. Stoning a Rebellious Son: If a man has a rebellious son who will not obey his parents but is disruptive, he is to be taken to the elders and stoned to remove the evil from their midst and to speak to the rest of Israel (21:18-21)

20. Laws concerning Community Life in the Land Are Given: burial of a criminal, responsibility toward neighbors, dress, animal life, building codes, purity rather than mixture in all of life, men who rape women, and children with stepmothers (21:22--22:30)

a. Burial of a Criminal: A man hung on a tree for a sin worthy of death is to be buried before evening of the same day so that he does not defile the land which the Lord has given (21:22-23)

b. Responsibilities towards Neighbors: Israelites are responsible to care for the possessions (oxen, sheep, garments, anything) of their countrymen so as to return or restore them to his countryman as soon as possible (22:1-4)

c. Dress: It is an abomination to the Lord for a man or woman to dress as the opposite sex (22:5)

d. Animal Life: If one comes upon a bird’s nest with the mother sitting on her young, it is only permissible to take the young but not their mother for the Lord’s blessing (22:6-7)

e. Building Codes: Whoever builds a house needs to build a wall about their roof to keep anyone from falling so that they are not guilty of blood [someone’s death] (22:8)

f. Purity rather than Mixture: One is to not mix seeds in a vineyard, animals at a plow or materials together in clothing. There is to be natural purity (22:9-11)

g. Tassels on Garments: Israel is to tie tassels on the four corners of their garments to remind them to obey the Law [if. Bum. 15:37] (22:12)

h. Charge of Not Being a Virgin: If a man charges his wife with not being a virgin at their marriage, the parents have an opportunity to defend her with the garment of proof; if the man is wrong he must be whipped by the elders, pay the father silver and remain with his wife; if the man is right the woman will be stoned to purge the evil from Israel (22:13-21)

i. Various laws are given for men lying with women: (1) if she is married they are both to be stoned to purge the evil from Israel, (2) if he lies with an engaged woman in a city they must both be stoned: the girl because she did not cry out and the man for violating his neighbor, (3) if he lies with an engaged woman in a field only the man shall be stoned for violating his neighbor; the girl could not be heard, (4) if a man lies with a virgin and is discovered he must pay the father 50 pieces of silver and marry her with no hope of divorce (22:22-29)

j. Marriage to Stepmother: A man may not marry his stepmother since that would be a dishonor of his father’s authority (22:30)

21. Laws concerning Congregational Life Are Given: whom to allow into the assembly, what to do with bodily functions, how to deal with runaway slaves, not to seek furtility from pagan gods (23:1-18)

a. Whom to Allow in the Assembly: The assembly of the Lord may not be entered by anyone who: is emasculated, of illegitimate birth to the tenth generation, Ammorite, or Mobite to the tenth generation because of their hostility toward the nation in the wilderness when Israel came from Egypt; however the assembly of the Lord may be entered by Edomites who are Israel’s brothers and by Egyptians because Israel was an alien in their land (23:1-6)

b. Bodily Functions: All bodily functions (nocturnal emissions, excrement) are to be cared for outside of the camp so that the camp will be clean for the presence of the Lord (23:7-14)

c. Runaway Slaves: Runaway slaves shall not be handed over to their (foreign) masters, but shall be allowed to live in one of Israel’s towns without being mistreated (23:15-16)

d. Fertility from Pagan Gods: None of the children of Israel may be cult prostitutes and Israel may not heir any harlot to seek furtility from pagan gods since this is an abomination to the Lord (23:18)

22. Laws concerning the Weak and or Vulnerable Are Given: charging interest, vows, eating when hungry, divorce, marriage taking pledges, kidnapers, leprosy, paying wages, responsibility for sin, widows, orphans and aliens, punishment of the wicked, leverite barrage, talionic justice, measuring weights, dealing with the ruthless Amalekites (23:19--25:19)

a. Charging of Interest: Although interest may be charged to a foreigner, it may not be charged to anyone of Israel’s countrymen to receive the Lord’s blessing (23:19-20)

b. Vows: All vows to the Lord must be paid to Him therefore it is best to be careful before making a vow (23:21-23)

c. Eating when Hungry: When one passes through a neighbor’s vineyard or field, he may take what he can eat but he may not take any more (23:24-35)

d. Divorce: When a man divorces his wife for any reason and she marries another and becomes available again because of divorce or the death of her spouse, the first husband may not remarry her since she has been defiled and to do so would be to bring an abomination upon the land (24:1-4)

e. Obligations for the Newly Married: When a man takes a new wife he is not to go out with the army or to be charged with any duty but is free to be at home to make his wife happy (24:5)

f. Illegal Pledges: No one is to take as a pledge a handmill or an upper millstone [those things which are central to the grinding of bread and thus his livelihood] (24:6)

g. Kidnappers: If a man kidnaps any of his countrymen from Israel and hurts or sells him, he is to be put to death so as to purge the evil from among them (24:7)

h. Those Infected with Leprosy: In case of an infection of leprosy, Israel was to follow the prescriptions of the Levitical priests (24:8-9)

i. Forbidden Pledge: No pledge may be taken from a man which threatens his life [a cloak over-night] (24:10-13)

j. Wages to Hired Servant: No one is to oppress a hired servant (whether Israelite or alien) by not giving him his wages because he needs it and for him to cry against one is to be a sin before the Lord (24:14-15)

k. Death for Sin: Death for sin shall not be the responsibility of family members; each suffers his own consequences (24:16)

l. Protection of the Weak: No one is to pervert the justice of an alien or orphan or take a widows garment as a pledge remembering that Israel was once a slave in Egypt (24:17-18)

m. Provision for Needy: When one harvests in the field, the olive tree and/or the vineyard it is not to be gone over twice; what is left is to be for the orphan, the alien and the widow remembering that one was a slave in Egypt (24:19-22)

n. Limit of Punishment for the Wicked: If at court the judges decide in favor of the righteous and against the wicked, the evil one may be beaten up to forty times but no more lest he be degraded before other men (25:1-4)

o. Leverite Marriage: If a man marries and then dies without children, the wife is not to marry outside of the family but to allow her husband’s brother to marry her and raise up seed to the name of his dead brother to prevent his name from being blotted out; but if the brother will not fulfill his duty he is to be disgraced before the whole community (25:5-10)

p. Talionic Justice: If two countrymen are in a brawl and the wife of one of them seeks to stop the fight by squeezing the other’s genitals she is to have her hand cut off (perhaps implying talionic justice: part of life for taking his ability away to produce life (25:11-12)

q. Fair Weights: One is to always have the same weights for measuring produce to be blessed by the Lord; otherwise it is a an abomination to the Lord (25:13-16)

r. Destruction of the Amalekites: Because of the abuse of the Amalekites to Israel when they attacked them in the wilderness [Ex. 17:8-16], they are to be destroyed when the nation has rest from their surrounding enemies (25:17-19)

23. Offering of First Fruit when Entering the Land: When Israel enters the land they are to offer the first fruits to the Lord at the place where He chooses to dwell declaring the Lord’s faithfulness to him and on the third year he is to give it to the Levite, stranger, orphan, and stranger in his city asking for the Lord’s blessing in obedience (26:1-15)

a. Entering the Land: When Israel enters the land and receives the first fruits of the harvest they are to take them to the place where the Lord chooses to establish His name and declare to the priest and the Lord God’s gracious faithfulness in bringing them from Aram to this day in the land with rejoicing for all the Lord has done for them (26:1-11)

b. In the Third Year: In the third year the Israelite is to take the Lord’s offering in purity according to the prescriptions of the Law and give it to be eaten by the Levite, stranger, orphan, and widow in his town so that the Lord will bless all of Israel (26:12-15)

E. Summary Charge: In a summary charge the Lord commands Israel to do all of the statutes and ordinances given with all of their heart and soul since they are in covenant relationship with Him so that in their obedience He may exalt the them as a people separated unto Him (26:16-19)

IV. MOSES’ THIRD ADDRESS--Covenant Renewal: Through a covenant renewal with the nation on the plains of Mob, Moses proclaims the blessing and/or cursing which will come upon the nation depending upon whether they obey or disobey the word of the Lord (27:1--30:27)

A. Exhortations to Keep the Commandments of the Lord--Mts. Ebal and Gerizam: Moses, the elders, and the Levities, exhort Israel that day to keep all of the commandments of the Lord and to proclaim them to the nation by writing the curses on Mt. Ebal where an alter and sacrifice are also to be placed, and by writing the blessings on Mt. Gerizim by proclaiming them from each mountain as they cross the Jordan to the people (27:1-26)

1. Mt. Ebal: Moses and the elders of Israel exhort Israel to keep all of the commandments of the Lord, to write the Law on white washed stones and to place them on Mt. Ebal as well as to build an alter on Mt. Ebal in order to offer sacrifice since on this day they have become a people of God to obey Him (27:1-10)

2. Mt. Gerizim: When Israel crosses the Jordan six tribes (Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Joseph and Benjamin) are to stand on Mt. Gerizim to bless the people and six tribes (Reuben, Gad, Asher, Zebulun, Dan, and Naphtali) are to stand on Mt. Ebal to curse the people with the Levities saying in a loud voice to all of the people that they will be cursed if they disobey specific laws of God: (making an idol, dishonoring parents, moving a neighbor’s boundary, misleading a blind person, distorting justice, lying with one’s father’s wife, lying with an animal, lying with one’s sister, lying with one’s mother-in-law, striking one’s neighbor in secret, accepting a bribe) [27:11-26]

B. Blessings & Cursings: The Lord promises to either bless or curse Israel in the land according to whether or not she follows Him in diligent obedience (28:1-68)

1. Blessings: If Israel will be careful to diligently obey the Lord, He promises to bless them in the city and country, with furtility, with food, on their way, against their enemies, in their work, in their relationship to Him, before the nations, in furtility, as a supplier of other nations, as a leader (28:1-14)

2. Cursings: If Israel will not obey the Lord, He promises to curse them in the city and country, with food, with furtility, on their way, general curses, confusion, and rebuke in all their actions, pestilence, sickness, bad weather, drought, defeat before their enemies, physical and emotional illness, oppression, being overtaken by enemies, servitude to another nation, no crops, indebtedness to other countries, a besieging of Israel by a ruthless nation leading to savageness on behalf of the refined in the nation, destructive plagues, and discouraging captivity (28:15-68)

C. Covenant Renewal: Moses renews the covenant with Israel at Mob by reviewing their historical relationship with the Lord, presenting it before those present and a future generation, telling of a future time when the nation will remember this covenant and be restored to its blessing, reminding them that these words are reachable so that they might obey the Lord, and reminding them that disobedience will bring about judgment from the Lord so they should choose obedience and life (29--30)

1. Covenant Renewal: Moses renews the covenant which He made with Israel while in Mob which is distinct in time from the one made at Horeb (29:1)3

2. Rehearsal of Salvation History: Moses once again rehearses the Lord’s historical deliverance of the nation from Egypt, through the wilderness, and against Simon and Ogk as a motivation for the nation to obey the covenant so that they might prosper in all that they do (29:2-9)

3. Presentation before Generations: As all of the nation stands before Moses on that day to enter into a renewed Mosaic covenant with God which has been revealed with its incumbent responsibilities, it is presented to all of those present who might one day rebel and reap judgment as well as to all of those of a future generation who will recognize the judgment as form the Lord due to the nation breaking the covenant (29:10-29)

4. Future Captivity & Deliverance: When the nation in captivity remembers all which Moses has said to them and repents, the Lord will restore them from captivity with compassion gathering them from wherever they may be to be back in the land with a circumcised heart to then inflict the curses upon Israel’s enemies and prosper the nation as they obey (30:1-10)

5. Commands within Reach: The commands of the Lord are not beyond the reach of the nation but very near to her so that she may do it (30:11-14)

6. Choice of Life or Death: Moses concludes his charge by telling Israel before the witness of heaven and earth that they may choose either life or death by choosing obedience or disobedience to the commands set before them; he encourages them to choose life through obedience (30:15-20)

V. Moses’ Fourth Address--Final Charge: In the final words of Moses, he charges the Nation to take the land, read the Law, know that his words will be a witness against them beside the arch of the covenant, listen to prophetic history to know that they will need to be obedient to be blessed and he blesses the nation with respect to the land tribe by tribe (31:1--33:29)

A. Do Not Fear--Enter the Land with the Law: In a recounting of final charges Moses encouraged the Nation and Joshua to not fear but enter to take the Land, he gave the completed Law to be read to the nation each Year of Remission before the Lord, he was told by the Lord to write a song as a witness against the nation when Joshua was commissioned by the Lord, and he had the Law placed by the ark of the covenant as a witness against the nation (31:1-27)

1. Exhortation to the People to Take the Land: Because Moses is 121 years old, no longer able to move about, and forbidden by the Lord to enter across the Jordan, he encourages the Nation and their new leader Joshua to not fear but to take the land remembering that the Lord will be the one fighting before them as He has to this point (31:1-8)

2. Giving of the Law to the Priests: Moses wrote down this Law and gave it to the priests and to all of the elders of Israel with the commanded that at the end of every seven years during the year of remission, at the feast of booths when all of Israel was together at the Lord’s chosen place, this law was to be read to all of gathered Israel in order that they may fear the Lord and obey it all (31:9-13)

3. Song of Moses--A Witness against the People: As Moses and Joshua come before the Lord at the tent of meeting, the Lord appeared and told Moses to write a song as a witness against the people for when they sin against the Lord as well as commissioned Joshua to be strong and courageous since he will bring the nation into the Land (31:14-24)

4. Law Next to the Ark as a Witness: When Moses finished writing the Law it was placed by the Levities next to the ark of the covenant as a witness against the nation whereupon Moses assembled the elders and officers to speak to because he knew of their future rebellion against the Lord (31:24-27)

B. Exhortation to Obedience in View of Future: Gathering all of Israel together to proclaim one last time the need for obedience on their behalf for there to be blessing, Moses proclaims in prophetic history the Lord’s magnificent character which Israel will rebel against, and thus suffer judgment under the hand of the nations and then be delivered after they realized that the Lord alone is God (31:28--32:47)

1. Proclamation of Moses’ Song to the People: Moses gathers the leaders of Israel together and proclaims his song as a witness against them (31:28-30)

2. Heaven and Earth as a Witness: Moses beseeches all of heaven and earth to his penetrating song which proclaims the character of the Lord who is great, like a rock, perfect in His work, just, faithful, righteous and upright in His ways (32:1--4)

3. Rebuke of Israel: Israel is rebuked for their corruption, defection, perversion and lack of thoughtfulness for the Lord who has redeemed and established them (32:5-6)

4. The Lord’s Choice of Israel: The Lord’s historical creation of Israel from insignificance to blessing is recounted from the dividing of the nations (Gen. 10-11), through the choosing of Jacob, their deliverance from Egypt, their protection and training and their experience of blessing in the transjordan (32:7-14)

5. Israel’s Rebellion: Israel, in her blessing, rebelled against the Lord by forgetting Him and going after other gods (32:15-18)

6. Future Judgment: The Lord will bring about severe judgment through another nation upon Israel for their evil, but it will not be complete lest the other nations consider that they had been the ones who where triumphant rather than God allowing them to be victorious (32:19-33)

7. Future Vindication: The time will come when Israel realizes that the god’s are powerless and it is the Lord who rules over life and death that He will vindicate His people with deliverance under the judgment of their enemies (32:34-43)

8. Warning to Be Obedient: After proclaiming all of these words to the people Moses warned them once more that they need to take them to heart since it is by obedience to them that they will have life in the Land (32:44-47)

C. Blessing of the People: Before Moses goes to Mt. Nebo to see the land which he may not enter due to his sin and then to be gathered to his people in death, He prophetically blesses the nation tribe by tribe (32:48--33:29)

1. Mt. Nebo: The Lord tells Moses to go to Mount Nebo in Mob to see the land of Canaan and then die to be gathered to his people since he was not allowed to enter the land due to his sin against the Lord at Meribah-kedesh where he did not treat the Lord as holy in the midst of the people (32:48-52)

2. Blessing of Israel: Before his death Moses blessed the sons of Israel in a prophetic manner concerning their place in the Land: by recounting the Lord’s advance with His people from Sinai, by blessing each tribe in particular: Reuben, Judah (who later absorbed Simeon who is not mentioned in this list [Joshua 19:1-9]), Levi, Benjamin, Joseph (represented by Ephraim and Manasseh), Zebulun, Issachar, Gad, Dan, Naphtali, Asher and by concluding that God is an eternal refuge for His people (33:1-29)

VI. EPILOGUE: A SETTING CONFIRMING THE TRANSFER OF LEADERSHIP: As the last days of Moses came, he was shown the land from Mt. Nebo by the Lord, died and was buried in the plains of Mob according to the word of the Lord, mourned over by Israel, replaced in leadership by Joshua, but not replaced in Israel as a supreme prophet before the Lord (34:1-12)

A. The Death of Moses: The last days of Moses are recounted including his journey up Mt. Nebo to the top of Pisgah where the Lord showed him all of the land which he was not allowed to enter, his death according to the word of the Lord, his burial in the valley of Mob, and the weeping of the nation for 30 days (34:1-8)

B. Moses’ Replacement--Joshua: Joshua was filled with the Spirit of wisdom as the one commissioned by Moses and the nation listened and did as he commanded as they had with Moses (34:9)

C. Awaiting a Prophet like Moses: No prophet has risen in Israel like Moses since Moses whom the Lord knew face to face for the sake of representing Him in such a powerful way before the nations and Israel (34:10-12)


1 The chronology does not seem to be central since Deuteronomy 1:6-8 followed 1:9-18 sequencially. There is a thematic order (cf. Ex. 18-19ff and Num. 10:11 which occures almost 1 year later cf. Ex. 19:1 w/ Num. 10:11).

2 Note that only one verse describes the wanderings of the people (2:1).

3 Supprot for placing this verse as a part of the previous context is the following: (1) in the Hebrew text it is connected with the previous verses numbered verse 69, (2) there is no waw disjunctive as in 5:44 which marks off the setting for this major section, Jack S.Deere, p. 313-314. However von Rod connects this with chapter 29 (p. 178-79) and in fact it is more natural throughout the book for this type of passage to be an introduction to that which follows (cf., 29:12). Also there is no connective at all with the first word which could in itself set this off as an introduction to a new unit.

In the end the placement of this verse does not really make all that much difference with respect to interpretation since either context describes another covenant being made in Palestine. Also there is not any substantial change from the Mosaic covenant in chapters 5--28 or 29--30.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

An Argument of the Book of Joshua

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Message Statement:1

Israel’s occupation, distribution, and maintenance of the promised land reaches fulfillment in accordance with YHWH’S sovereign initiative and the people’s obedient response to their covenant with him under joshua

I. THE BOOK OF WAR--CONQUERING THE PROMISED LAND--POSSESSING THE PROMISE:2 Israel’s occupation and distribution of the land reachers fulfillment following the initiatives of YHWH and the obedient response of the people under Joshua 1:1--12:24

A. Preparation for the Conquest:3 YHWH prepared Joshua and His people for the conquest by restoring their spiritual vitality and unity through exhortations to prepare to take the land, a victorious reconnaissance mission which revealed the peoples fear of Israel, a miraculous crossing of the Jordan river, and the cultic preparation of the people to follow the Prince of the Lord’s army into victory over the peoples of the land 1:1--5:15

1. Introduction and Main Themes--A Consolidation and Establishment of Leadership in Word: After the YHWH commissioned Joshua as the new leader of the people to courageously and obediently take all of the Land which He is giving, Joshua exhorted the people to prepare to posses the land whereupon, they responded with whole hearted support to obey him 1:1-18

a. God’s Charge to Joshua--Exhortation and Encouragement--Divine Marching Orders: As the leadership transfers from Moses to Joshua, YHWH commissioned Joshua to take all of the Land which He is giving the sons of Israel without fear and in obedience to His revealed word 1:1-9

1) Transition from Moses to Joshua: 1:1-2

2) Description of the Land the Lord Has Given: 1:3-4

a) Southern Boarder--The Wilderness of Arabia

b) Northern Boarder--Lebanon

c) Eastern Boarder--The Euphrates River

d) Western Boarder--The Mediterranean Sea4

3) Encouragement to Take the Land: 1:5-6

4) Exhortation to Obey YHWH’s Word: 1:7-8

5) Exhortation Not to Fear: 1:9

b. Joshua’s Charge to Leaders--The Participation of All Israel: Joshua exhorted the people, through the officers, to prepare to posses the land and they all responded with whole-hearted support to obey him 1:10-18

1) Commanding the Officers: Joshua commanded the officers of the people to exhort the people to prepare to posses the Land and he reminded the Transjordan tribes that they were obligated to fight for their brothers 1:10-15

a) Exhortation to All to Prepare to Posses the Land: 1:10-11

b) Exhortation to the Transjordan Tribes5 to Fight for Their Brothers: 1:12-15

c. Support from the People: The people responded with whole-hearted support to obey Joshua as they obeyed Moses and to put to death anyone who does not obey Joshua’s words 1:16-18

2. A Reconnaissance Mission--Spies Sent to Jericho--The People’s Faith Encouraged:6 Through a reconnaissance mission where Joshua sent two spies to Jericho and they were protected by Rahab, Joshua became encouraged that the Lord has given the land to them and has caused the people to be frightened of them and their God; and Rahab and her family has been promised deliverance for her faithfulness to the spies 2:1-24

a. Commission: When Joshua sent two men as secret spies to visit Sittim7 and spy out Jericho they found lodging in the house of Rahab the harlot8 2:1

b. Protection by Rahab: When the king of Jericho learned that the sons of Israel had come to spy out the land, he sent word to Rahab to turn them over, but she protected them by hiding them and affirming that although they had been there, they had left already through the gates of the city causing the king’s men to pursue them through the gates9 2:2-7

c. Information from Rahab: Rahab informed the spies who were hiding on her roof that she and the people know that the Lord has given the land to them thus they and are fearful because of reports which they have received concerning the Lord’s work over Egypt at the Red Sea and over the two kings of Moab, Sihon and Og 2:8-11

d. Promise to Rahab: As Rahab was helping the spies to escape through her window, she requested that they spare her and her family when they take the city and they agreed as long as she kept all in her house, tied a scarlet thread on her window for them to recognize it, and not tell of this to any others in the city; whereupon she agreed. 2:12-21

3. Return to Joshua: After the spies waited for three days in the east in the hill country as Rahab had suggested, they returned to Joshua, reported all that had occurred and encouraged him with the words of Rahab that the Lord had given all of the land into their hand and the inhabitants were fearful before them 2:22-24

4. Crossing the Jordan to Conquer the Land at the Word of YHWH:10 As a means of confirming Joshua to the people and the certainty that the Lord will enable the people to posses the land, Joshua prepared the people to cross the overflowing Jordan where they were encamped for three days, had the priests lead the crossing by stepping in the river whereupon it was stopped at Adam, set up twelve memorial stones in the river and twelve memorial stones in the camp at Gilgal as a reminder of the great work which the Lord had done for the sons of Israel 3:1--4:24

a. The Crossing: After preparing the people to cross the Jordan by having them camp before it for three days and informing them of how they were to consecrate themselves and follow the priests, Joshua strengthened the people’s confidence in God’s use of him and their ability to conquer the land by ordering them to cross the Jordan as they passed by the priests in the center of the river since when the priests stepped in the river, it would be stopped upstream at Adam and they would cross on dry land 3:1-17

1) Preparation for the Miracle Crossing: On the morning after the return of the spies Joshua and the sons of Israel broke camp, set out from Shittim and lodged before the Jordan three days11exhorting the people through the officers to consecrate themselves and to follow the ark, which will be carried by the priests, at a distance of 2,000 cubits (3,000 feet) 3:1-6

2) The Miracle Crossing: As a confirmation to the people that the Lord was with Joshua as He was with Moses and that He was going to give them the land, Joshua commanded the sons of Israel to select one man from each tribe12 and then to follow the priests who are carrying the arch because when they step in the overflowing13 river it will stop flowing at Adam14 and they will all cross on dry land with the priests and the arch standing in the center of the Jordan 3:7-17

b. Remembering God’s Acts--The Memorial Stones:15 After the people, including those from the two and a half Transjordan tribes, crossed over the Jordan on dry land, Joshua set up a memorial of twelve stones in the center of the river and twelve men, each from one of the tribes, took a stone to the other side of the river to set up in the camp at Gilgal for the following generations to remember the greatness of the Lord; whereupon the priests crossed over the Jordan; it returned to its flood level, and the people camped at Gilgal on the eastern boarder of Jericho 4:1-24

1) The Erection of Memorial Stones in the Jordan: While the priests stood in the center of the Jordan, the people crossed over, twelve men from the tribes of Israel took up twelve memorial stones to set up in the camp (at Gilgal) on the west side of the Jordan as a reminder of what the Lord had done, Joshua set up twelve stones in the center of the river where the priests stood as a reminder of what the Lord did, and 40,000 from the tribes of Reuben, Gad and the half tribe of Manasseh crossed over the Jordan in military array to support the nation in the conquest causing the people to exalt Joshua in the sight of all of the people 4:1-14

2) The Erection of the Memorial Stones at Gilgal: On the tenth of the first month the priests came out of the Jordan, the waters returned to their flood stage and they people camped about 1¼ miles from the Jordan at Gilgal on the eastern edge of Jericho where the twelve stones from the Jordan were set up as a memorial for their children to remember that He had dried up the Jordan just as He dried up the Reed Sea and was thus to be regarded as might and to be feared forever 4:15-24

5. Becoming Cultically Correct for Conquest:16 After Israel became cultically correct through circumcision and the celebration of the Passover for the conquest of the nations who were fearful from hearing the report of the Lord’s provision for their crossing of the Jordan, the wilderness wandering ceased, the reproach of Israel ended and the Lord appeared in a confirming theophany before Joshua as the commander of His army ready to do battle in the Conquest of the land 5:1-15

a. Covenant Sign and Meal:17 In view of the preparation of the inhabitants of the land for their defeat by the sons of Israel, the people of God also prepared for the conquest by circumcising all of those from the wilderness wandering generation, naming the camp Gilgal because the Lord had taken away their reproach by Egypt, celebrating the Passover on the fourteenth day of the first month, and eating of the produce of the land from the sixteenth day forward resulting in the cessation of the manna which the Lord had provided during the wilderness wandering 5:1-12

1) Response to the Crossing: When the Ammorites, to the west of the Jordan, and the Canaanites, but the sea, heard of how the Lord had dried the Jordan for the sons of Israel to cross over, they became frightened 5:1

2) Circumcision:18 In view of how the people of the land were prepared for their conquest (5:1) the Lord required the generation which grew up in the wilderness wanderings to be circumcised and to remain until they healed in the camp which was called Gilgal (because the Lord had rolled away [gilgal] the reproach from Egypt from the sons of Israel) 5:2-9

3) Passover: On the fourteenth day of the month the sons of Israel who were now circumcised19 observed the Passover on the plains of Jericho and on the next day ate unleavened cakes of the produce of the land which resulted in the cessation of the manna20 as they ate from the land of Canaan 5:10-12

b. The Captain of the Lord’s Army:21 Through a confirming Theophany the Angel [of the Lord?]22 appears before Joshua as a super-human warrior ready to go into battle [his sword is drawn] and coming to save Israel23 resulting in Joshua prostrating himself and worship and being told to remove his sandals from his feat because the ground where he was standing is holy 5:13-15

B. The Conquest:24 Through YHWH’S initiation and direction of the military campaigns He utilizes the skill and obedience of Joshua to lead the people in a conquest of the land 6:1--12:24

1. The Central Campaign: Characterized by both obedience and disobedience to God’s word Israel experienced success at overtaking Jericho and initial failure in their attack upon Ai only to be followed by ultimate success when they dealt with the rebellion of Achan and obeyed YHWH fully in His prescriptions concerning those things which were dedicated to Him and those things which they may take from the plunder 6:1--8:35

a. Positive--Covenant Obedience and the Taking of Jericho:25 After the Lord instructed Joshua and he instructed the people on how to circle the secured city of Jericho for seven26 days, they obeyed and the walls of the city fell leading to its complete defeat, but Rahab and her family were delivered and the land was aware that the Lord was with Joshua 6:1-27

1) Instructions to Joshua:27 6:1-5

2) Instructions to the People: 6:6-7

3) Obedience of the People and the City Destroyed:28 6:8-21

4) Deliverance of Rahab and Her Family: 6:22-25

5) Curse on Jericho:29 6:26

6) Effect of the Conquest: The Lord was with Joshua and his reputation was in all of the Land after the defeat of Jericho 6:27

b. Negative--Covenant Disobedience and Its Consequences:30 Although Israel first suffered defeat at the hands of the people from Ai because of the disobedience of Achan who took goods under the ban at Jericho, they dealt with Achan, and then under obedience to YHWH took Ai through the tactical move of an ambush destroying the city and its inhabitants and only taking the cattle and the spoil as the Lord prescribed 7:1--8:29

1) The Defeat at Ai and Punishment: Because of the disobedience of Achan who took goods under the ban at Jericho, Israel suffered defeat at Ai, and the Lord identified Achan whereupon he and his family were judged by the people causing the anger of the Lord to turn away from Israel 7:1-26

a) Setting--The Reason for the Defeat--Breaking of the Ban by Achan: Achan, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah, from the tribe of Judah31 took some of the things under the ban causing the Lord to be angry with the Israelites 7:1

b) The Defeat at Ai: After spies reported that only a few men needed to be sent in order to take Ai, Joshua sent about 3,000 men to take the city, but they had to flee from the people of Ai and thirty-six of them were killed causing Israel’s heart to fear 7:2-5

c) Joshua’s Prayer:32 In fear Joshua prayed to the Lord God expressing regret for coming into the land, fear that they would be destroyed by the people of the land and concern for the Lord’s reputation in their defeat 7:6-9

d) The Lord’s Response:33 The Lord curtly exhorts Joshua to arise because Israel has sinned by taking that which was under the ban thereby breaking covenant, and then describes how he is to consecrate himself and the people for the next day when the Lord will identify the one who has broken the ban through lot34 by tribe, family, household, and man resulting in judgment through fire 7:10-15

e) Achan Identified: Through the lot Achan, son of Carmi, son of Zabdi, son of Zerah, from the tribe of Judah was identified as the one who broke the ban 7:16-18

f) Achan Judged and the Lord’s Anger Turned: When Achan confessed that he had taken a beautiful mantle (rob) from Shinar, two hundred shekels of silver and a bar of gold fifty shekels in weight, Joshua sent messengers to find them in his tent, brought the stolen goods as well as Achan’s family35 and the congregation stoned them in the Valley of Achor (“trouble”) causing the Lord to turn away from His anger 7:19-26

2) Ai Conquered and Burned: In response to a command from the Lord to take Ai, Joshua and his people completely destroyed the city and its inhabitants only taking the spoil and cattle as the Lord commanded through the tactical move of an ambush 8:1-29

a) Command to Take Ai: The Lord told Joshua not to fear, but to take all of the warriors with him and to take Ai which would also be under the ban except for its spoil and cattle36 8:1-2

b) Ambush of Ai--Proleptic:37 Joshua sent 30,000 [5,000]38 men to ambush Ai at night from the west side of the city while he stayed among the people39 8:3-9

c) Sequence of Preparation at Ai: Joshua gathered his army early in the morning and camped with them north of the city and sent an ambush of 5,000 men to the west side of the city; then Joshua spent the night with the people in the valley on the north side of the city 8:10-13

d) Israel’s Tactical Deception of Ai: When the men of Ai saw the people from Israel they quickly pursued them and were led away from the city by Israel pretending to flee from them along the “Way of the Wilderness”40 thereby leaving the city unguarded for the ambush to take it 8:14-17

e) YHWH Initiates the Charge: While Joshua and his people were fleeing from the people of Ai YHWH told him to point to Ai with his javelin41 whereupon the ambush overtook the city and burned it, and then both they and the men of Joshua turned on the warriors from Ai and destroyed them only taking the king of Ai alive and bringing him to Joshua 8:18-23

f) Report of the Destruction: When Israel had finished destroying all the inhabitants of Ai 12,000 men and women were dead, the city was burned, the king was hung on a tree42 and then thrown in the entrance of the city gate with a heap of stones over it43 and the people only took the spoil and the cattle as the Lord had commanded Joshua 8:24-29

2. Fulfilling Moses’ Orders--Blessings and Curses Proclaimed in Canaan: 8:30-35

3. The Southern Campaign--Southern Canaan Subdued:44 9:1--10:43

a. Israel’s Treaty with Gibeon:45 9:1-27

b. The Lord’s Battles at Gibeon and in Southern Canaan 10:1-43

1) The Battle at Gibeon 10:1-27

2) The Southern Campaign 10:28-39

3) Summary comment and concluding statement 10:40-43

4. The Northern Campaign--North Canaan Delivered into Israel’s hands:46 11:1-15

5. A Review of the Victories: 11:16--12:24

a. Summary Concerning the Conquered Areas--God’s Hand: 11:16-23

b. Summary Concerning the Conquered Kings--God’s Kingship over the Kings of Canaan: 12:1-24

1) Kings East of the Jordan: 12:1-6

2) Kings West of the Jordan: 12:7-24

II. THE BOOK OF DISTRIBUTION--ALLOCATING THE PROMISED LAND--LOTS FOR THE LAND:47 Israel distributes the land for an inheritance following YHWH’s sovereign allotment of the land 13:1--21:45

A. Introduction--God’s Command to Divide the Land: 13:1-7

B. The Distribution of the Land: 13:8--21:42

1. Peoples--Two and One Half Tribes--Reviewing the Transjordan Allotment: 13:8-33

2. Individual--The Portion for Caleb: 14:1-15

a. Introduction: 14:1-5

b. Caleb at Kadesh Barnea: 14:6-9

c. Caleb during the Wilderness Wanderings and the Conquest 14:10-11

d. Caleb at Hebron: 14:12-14

3. Peoples--Nine and One-Half Tribes--The West Jordan Allotment: 15:1--19:48

a. Judah’s Allotment: 15:1-63

b. Joseph’s Allotment: 16:1--17:18

1) General Boundary Description: 16:1-4

2) Ephraim’s Inheritance: 16:5-10

3) Manaaseh’s Allotment: 17:1-13

4) Complaint of the Josephites: 17:14-18

c. The Allotments for the Remaining Tribes: 18:1--19:48

1) Land Distribution Continued at Shiloh: 18:1-10

2) Benjamin’s Allotment: 18:11-28

3) Simeon’s Allotment: 19:1-9

4) Zebulun’s Allotment: 19:10-16

5) Issachar’s Allotment: 19:17-23

6) Asher’s Allotment: 19:24-31

7) Naphtali’s Allotment: 19:32-39

8) Dan’s Allotment: 19:40-48

4. Individuals--Joshua, Manslayers, and Levites 19:49--21:42

a. Joshua’s Inheritance--The Allotment Concluded: 19:49-51

b. Cities of Asylum--God’s Justice in His Land: 20:1-9

1) Command to Set Up Cities of Refuge for the Unintentional Sin of Murder 20:1-6

2) Cities East of the Jordan from North to South*Kedesh, Shechem, and Hebron 20:7

3) Cities West of the Jordan from South to North*Bezer, Ramoth in Gilead, and Golan 20:8

4) Summary Statement: 20:9

c. Levitical Cities--Claimed and Assigned: 21:1-42

1) The Levites Claim their Rightful Share: 21:1-3

2) Broad Statements*The Levitical Cities Determined by Lot: 21:4-8

a) The sons of Aaron received thirteen cities from the tribes of Judah, Simeonites, and Benjamin 21:4

b) The sons of Korath received ten cities from the tribes of Ephriam and Dan, and the half tribe of Manassah 21:5

c) The sons of Gershon recived thirteen cities from the tribes of Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Manasseh 21:6

d) The sons of Merari received twelve cities from the tribes of Reuben, Gad and Zebulun 21:7

e) Summary: The sons of Israel gave the Levites cities with their pasture lands as the Lord commanded Moses (cf. Num 35:2; cf. Gen 49:5-7) 21:8

3) Particular Cities*The Levitical Cities Listed by Name: 21:9-40

a) The Cities of the Aaronites from the Tribes of Judah, Simeon and Benjamin: 21:9-19

b) The Cities of the Remaining Kohathites from the Tribes of Ephriam, Dan and the Half Tribe of Manasseh: 21:20-26

c) The Cities of the Gershonites from the Tribes of Manassah, Issachar, Asher, and Naphtali: 21:27-33

d) The Cities of the Merarites from the Tribes of Zebulun, Reuben, and Gad: 21:34-40

C. Conclusion--Summary of the Conquest Distribution--Greatful Recognition of God’s Faithfulness:48 21:43-45

III. THE EPILOGUE--KEEPING THE PROMISED LAND--LIFE IN COVENANT OBEDIENCE:49 A renewed covenant with Israel provides the basis for her to remain in the land 22:1--24:33

A. A Boarder Dispute: 22:1-34

1. Joshua’s Admonition to the Transjordanian Tribes: 22:1-8

2. The People’s Unity Preserved: 22:9-34

a. Threat to Unity--An Unauthorized Altar in the East: 22:9-12

b. Investigation of the Alleged Offense--A Threat of War: 22:13-20

c. Apology and Reconciliation of the Tribes: 22:21-34

B. The Last Days of Joshua--Exhortations to the People: 23:1--24:28

1. A Finale Challenge to the People: 23:1-16

a. The First Call to Covenant Obedience: 23:1-8

b. The Second Call to Covenant Obedience: 23:9-13

c. The Third Call to Covenant Obedience: 14-16

2. Covenant Renewal at Shechem: 24:1-28

a. An Assembly Called at Shechem: 24:1

b. Prophetic Survey of Redemptive History: 24:2-13

c. Exhortation and Response: 24:14-24

d. Covenant Documentation: 24:25-28

C. Epilogue of Faithfulness--Three Graves in the Promised Land: 24:29-33


1 The broad structure of this outline has been adapted from the following sources: Trent C. Butler, Joshua, Word Biblical Commentary, vii-viii; Robert G. Boling, Joshua: A New Translation with Notes and Commentary, The Anchor Bible, vii-x; Martin H. Woudstra, The Book of Joshua, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, 42-44; Donald K. Campbell, Joshua, in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, I:326-327; Elliott E. Johnson, Analysis of Joshua (unpublished class notes in 372 Seminar in Old Testament Historical Literature. Dallas Theological Seminary, Spring 1989), 4; Elliott E. Johnson, Joshua (unpublished class notes in 302 Old Testament History I. Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1980), 13.

2 Elliott Johnson writes,YHWH has delivered out of the generation of the Exodus Joshua and Caleb. With these He would effect the entrance into the land. Yet in effecting a fulfillment of His promise through Joshua He continues to prepare them through the ministry of the Word and the Spirit (Joshua, [unpublished class notes in 302 Old Testament History I, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1980), p. 13.

3 Johnson writes, Only as Joshua and the people are under the control of YHWH's Word can there be faith necessary for conquest. So there is a final stage of preparation establishing the generation in the words and works of YHWH (Joshua, [unpublished class notes in 302 Old Testament History I, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1980), p. 13.

4 The land of the Hittites probably referred to North Syria.

5 Reubenites, Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh.

6 Butler writes, The setting changes to Shittim (v 1). The interest shifts from crossing the Jordan (.e.g. 1:11) to spying out Jericho (e.g., 2:1). Chapter 2 then carries out a complete narrative from the commission of Joshua (v 1) to the report back to Joshua (vv 23-24). Chapter 3 then returns to the narrative of the Jordan crossing. Thus chap. 2 must be handled as a complete unit within itself (Joshua, 27).

It seems that the story is placed in front of the conquest in order to encourage the people as they learn something through the report of the spies about themselves and their God. Again Butler writes, Conquest narratives begin in Israel with the dispatch of spies (Num 13--14; Judg 1:22-26; 18, etc.). Only in the conquest do spy stories play a role for Israel. This must be set beside the fact that the intent of spy stories is to show that God has given the land into the hands of his people. Human spying and divine gift are not self-exclusive realities. God sends human spies. Why? The obvious explanation would be that spies should help develop military strategy. That is not the case with the biblical materials, in every case. Rather, the biblical spies convince Israel that God can and will give the land to Israel. God uses human spies to convince his people to do what he had called them to do. This is very evident in the present context. The first chapter has demonstrated the need for strong, courageous leadership through both divine (vv 1-9) and human (vv 16-18) exhortation. The second chapter gives a concrete example showing how God is fulfilling his promises and how weak Israel's opposition is. A common prostitute is more intelligent than the intelligence agents of the king. Yet even she is no match for Israel's spies. Israel can easily get its opponents to chase shadows while she occupies the enemy fortresses. Israel behind strong, courageous leadership will face an enemy king without intelligence and an enemy people scared stiff in the face of Israel and her mighty God (Ibid., 34-35).

7 Probably Abel-shittim (Num 33:49)--the place where Israel sinned with Baal-peor (Num 25:1).

8 Perhaps she was both an innkeeper and a harlot (e.g., a house of illrepute?). The men may not have intended to engage in sexual misconduct. It may have be a natural place for them to go to escape detection (cf. Woudstra, Joshua, 70).

9 Woudstra writes, Several commentators call Rahab's words a lie. Others point out that the account does not contain a value judgment, which it is left to the reader to supply from the wider biblical context. B. Holwerda (Jozua, p. 8) argues that 'truth' in Israel is something different from 'agreement with fact.' It means 'loyalty toward the neighbor and the Lord.' Thus viewed, Rahab's words need not be called a lie (Joshua, 71 n. 14).

10 This unit establishes Joshua as the leader of the people under YHWH by setting him apart as authoritative.

Woudstra writes, It will be well, in reading these chapters, to keep in mind the Hebrew narrative technique employed here.... In this technique the narrator concludes a certain matter (3:17; 4:1), stating that the crossing was completed; yet at a later point (4:5, 15ff.), he resumes his description of the crossing when necessary for the development of his topic. We prefer this manner of reading the account to that adopted by those who see these chapters as a composite of various traditions woven together by a redactor [C. Steuerngel, J.A. Soggin, H. J. Kraus, Noth, Butler, 41-44] (Joshua, 78).

Note that each of the paragraph units begins with a command to Joshua and is followed by an indication that it was communicated to the people and then carried out (ibid., 78-79).

11 This may not be the same three days as in 1:11. That may have even been a longer period than three days including the time that the two men spied out Jericho (see Woudstra, 78, 65 n. 2; Hos. 6:2; Esth. 4:16; Ex. 19:11).

Perhaps this time before the Jordan in its flood stage would have heightened the impact of this miraculous work of God.

12 These men will later be used to set up the memorials (cf. 4:2ff).

13 The river was in a flood stage.

14 Woudstra writes, The city of Adam is probably to be identified with Dâmiyeh, 19 miles upstream from Jericho.... Taking the alternate reading, the waters stood and rose up at a point not visible to the Israelites. This would have resulted in a very wide stretch of river bottom suitable for crossing (Joshua, 87). The difference is between the Qere (spoken) <dam and the Ketib (written) <dab.

15 Memorials are established to YHWH in order to remember His work among the people (4:1-9, 20-24). Woudstra writes, If the chief purpose of ch. 4, the erection of the memorial stones, is kept in mind, the apparent lack of order and of composition, which many have thought to characterize the account at this point, ceases to be a pressing problem (Joshua, 90).

16 These cultic works are done in order to establish the people in separation and commitment to the Promise of YHWH.

17 Woudstra writes, This section deals with the observance of two important ceremonies, both related to God's covenant with his people, namely circumcision and the Passover. The word 'covenant' is not mentioned explicitly, but when this section is read in the larger context of Gen. 17 and Exod. 12 (see Exod. 12:48b), the connection is obvious. Though circumcision was essential to the celebration of the Passover (Exod. 12:48), the signal manifestation of God's goodness as shown in the Jordan crossing was not as such dependent on the nation's circumcised or uncircumcised state. Insistence upon the observance of law under the Old Covenant, through in a very real sense a condition of the covenant, was not to be construed along the lines of righteousness by works. For after all, the very code of the covenant had been given to Israel after the people had been redeemed from Egyptian bondage (Joshua, 98).

18 Woudstra writes, The story of the circumcision presented here may have been intended as another parallel between the lives of Joshua and of Moses (...compare 3:13 with Exod. 15:8; 3:17 with Exod. 14:21-22, 29). Just as before fully entering upon his task as the people's deliverer Moses was reminded of the need to circumcise one of his sons (Exod. 4:24-26), Joshua receives the command to circumcise all of those who had not received this rite. This command precedes his role as the captain of the Lord's people during the Conquest (Joshua, 99).

19 This was a necessary prerequisite for observing the Passover (cf. Exodus 12:48).

20 Exodus 16:15ff. This marks the end of the desert period for the sons of Israel. Woudstra writes, The lesson taught by the manna (Deut. 8:3) had been sufficient. God's pedagogy could now resort to other means, namely those of ordinary providence (Joshua, 103).

21 Woudstra writes, Some interpreters consider this pericope to be incomplete, assuming the part of the original tradition has no longer been preserved. Some judge that v. 15 should contain more instructions than it does now. Others' prefer to read 5:13-15 in conjunction with 6:2-5, thus making 6:1 a parenthetical statement. A third view considers these verses to be sufficiently self-contained as to make further supplementation superfluous. We believe the inherent drama of the encounter described makes this last view plausible, and it is adopted here.

A connection between this appearance to Joshua and a similar appearance to Joshua's predecessor, Moses (Exod. 3:1-22), is evident (Joshua, 104).

Continuing he writes, If there was still any doubt about the essentially superhuman nature of this mysterious appearance, v. 15 removes it. Joshua is told: take off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you stand is holy ground. Moses (Exod. 3:5) and Joshua have an identical experience. Holiness in the OT has its basis and origin in God. Things, places, and people can be called holy only insofar as they have been set aside for God or claimed by him. We believe, therefore, that the theophany as reported here is self contained and needs no further supplementation. Joshua has been made aware of the presence of One greater than man whose drawn sword clearly speaks of combat readiness, and whose army is nothing less than that of the Lord himself. What more is there to know before the Conquest is to being in earnest (ibid.)?

22 See also Genesis 16:7-4; 21:14-21; Judges 2:1; 6:12, 22.

23 Woudstra writes The book of Psalms knows of a 'coming' that is pregnant with redemptive meaning; see Ps. 40:8 (Eng. 7); 50:3; 96:13 = 98:9. Such instances are sufficient to treat the words of the visitor to Joshua as in need of no further definition (Joshua, 105).

24 Johnson writes, With very clear evidence the victory was effected at the word of YHWH. Yet YHWH will allowed for human strategy and faith through which to fulfill the promise. He also permitted Israel to suffer the consequences of sin in their midst (Joshua, [unpublished class notes in 302 Old Testament History I, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1980), p. 13.

25 This unit was designed to establish God as the Power of deliverance. Woudstra writes, Within the scope of the book of Joshua, this chapter means to celebrate the most outstanding instance of God's 'giving' of the land to Israel. This motif runs through the entire book (Joshua, 108).

26 Woudstra writes, The number seven (seven priests each carrying a signal horn) is doubtless symbolical, recalling God's works at creation. The Lord who creates also works in the history of redemption. On the seventh day he will act on his people's behalf (Joshua, 110).

27 The horns which are to be blown may be a reminder of the theophany at Sinai (Ex 19:16, 19; cf. 2 Sam 6:15).

28 It seems that the Lord is identified with the Ark. He is invisibly present there. Woudstra writes, Moreover, the narrator is conscious of the close association between ark and deity: The priests who carry the seven horns do so before the Lord, for the ark is the Lord's ark, and he is as if identified with it (cf. Num. 10:35-36; 2 Sam. 6:14). The ark, moreover, follows the priests as if by locomotion, although actually borne by priests ... (Joshua, 111; cf. also 112).

29 Woudstra writes, This curse is not meant for those who, as is known from 18:21; Judg. 3:13; 2 Sam. 10:5, used the site of Jericho for habitation. Only he who will use Jericho as a city with a 'foundation' and 'gates' will be affected by the curse. Of him it is said that at the cost of his oldest he will lay its foundation, and at the cost of his youngest he will set up its gates. The exact meaning of this curse is disputed. It is clear that 1 K. 16:34 reports the fulfillment of the curse. Some have held that foundation sacrifices were practiced at that time, but others question this. Even if in Ahab's days such sacrifices were practiced, this may have been due to Phoenician influences (Joshua, 117).

30 This unit was designed to expose the essential presence of obedience in victory.

As Woudstra writes, The purpose of this chapter, to be read in close conjunction with ch. 8, is easy to recognize. The Lord, who 'gives' the promised land to his people, and who has just furnished a striking instance of this in the capture of Jericho, demands of his people loyalty to the covenant he has made with them. When the covenant is violated (see v. 11), Israel receives a setback before Ai, God's wrath blazes, and his pardon must be gained. Only then will Israel again be assured of victory (8:1).

It is also clear from this chapter that the book of Joshua, and Hebrew historiography as a whole, means to do more tan offer a chronicle of events. It wishes to let the light of revelation fall upon the events so that through them the principles by which God writes redemptive history will become clear for later generations of readers and for the church through the ages (Joshua, 119).

31 This order will be reversed through the discovery of Achan by lot in 7:14ff.

32 Woudstra writes, The prayer Joshua offers uses language similar to that used by Moses under similar circumstances. By addressing God as Sovereign Lord (Heb. 'adonay yhwh) Joshua expresses a note of perplexity shown elsewhere by the use of this dual address to God (cf. Jer. 1:6; Ezek. 4:14; Also Deut. 3:24).

Blind to the great things the Lord had done at the time of the crossing and at the fall of Jericho, Joshua raises the daring question of the 'why' of it all. Did God mean to bring Israel into Palestine only to destroy it by the hands of the Amorites? These are bold words and can be explained only as an utterance of supreme grief. Out of context these words resemble the murmuring of Israel in the desert (Num. 14:3), but there is also an element close to self-reproach (Joshua, 124).

33 If our understanding of Joshua's prayer has been correct, the Lord's displeasure with Joshua's grief arises not from the nature of his plea but from the Lord's great anger which blazes toward all Israel on account of its sin (v. 1). Corporately they are all involved in the offense of Achan (Woudstra, Joshua, 125).

34 Perhaps by the Urim and Thummim (see Num 27:21; 1 Sam 14:42).

35 In view of Deuteronomy 24:16 it seems that the family was also involved in this evil of Achan. They may have agreed to the hiding of the goods in the tent.

36 This ban is not as strict as the one in Jericho. It is closer to the pattern in Deuteronomy 2:34-35; 3:6-7.

37 This may be a general summary of the execution of the divine command and the details are given beginning in verse 10. See Woudstra, Joshua, 136-37 for more details.

38 There is some question about this number, especially in view of verse twelve which says that 5, 000 men were set in ambush between Bethel and Ai. Woudstra writes, Since in vv. 4ff. these men are addressed as to their prospective duty in the ambush, the question arises as to how to understand the difference between the figures used in vv. 3, 12. Moreover, even if the figure in v. 3 should be retained, the larger number of troops used for a mere ambush causes wonderment, and not least in light of Ai's total population, which is said to be twelve thousand (v. 25). Perhaps the best solution is to assume a scribal error in one of the two entries. Since at an earlier point in the scribal tradition numerals were indicated by the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, such an error could have occurred quite easily. In light of what was said earlier, the lower of the two figures would be the accurate one (Joshua, 137-38). By the lower of the two figures Woudstra means 5,000 as in verse 12. See also Keil and Deilitzsch, Joshua, Commentary on the Old Testament, 2:86.

39 This is probably the chief force located north of the city (cf. 8:13).

40 This may have been a specific route from near Bethel to the Jordan Valley (see The Macmillan Bible Atlas, 43).

41 Joshua is again being described as following in Moses footsteps as he holds the javelin out until the city is destroyed.

42 This emphasizes that he is under a curse (Dt. 21:22-23). He is taken down before dark so that they may comply with YHWH's word in this land which He is giving them.

43 These piles of stones are almost Israel's trade mark as they set up memorials to what God has done (cf. the Jordan, Achan, Jericho).

44 This unit along with the Northern campaign which follows is descriptive of the execution of the conquest of the land.

45 This unit exposes the importance of consulting God in decisions.

46 This unit, along with the Southern campaign which preceded it, is descriptive of the execution of the conquest of the land.

47 Johnson writes, Although the land had been conquered it still remained to be possessed as an inheritance. YHWH wills to effect this aspect of the promise through the faith of tribes and their leaders. They were also part of this prepared generation (Joshua, [unpublished class notes in 302 Old Testament History I, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1980), p. 13.

Concerning the literary structure of this book Gunn writes, As in Numbers (or Chronicles), listing subdues narrative here, building a land and community out of names and connectives, though occasionally narrated speech and activity push through, as when Caleb (14:6-15) and the daughters of Zelophehad (17:3-6) remind Joshua of special treatment promised by Moses, or the tribe of Joseph grumbles at its lot (17:14-18), or surveyors are sent out on behalf of seven reluctant tribes (18:2-10). But we miss something of the book's special texture if we allow our taste for action or character development to deflect us from this more static, administrative, prose. For out of it arises a powerful sense of the myriad elements that constitute 'the people.' 'Israel' takes on substance, as does the task at hand; for the challenge to Israel is to translate those lists and allotments into an actual community in actual possession of the Promised Land. The taking of Jericho and Ai and the other campaigns dramatically recounted in chapters 1--12 sweep us along in a vision of easy success. Chapters 13--21 implicitly suggest that occupation involves much more. They also establish a sense of ambivalence which will not readily be resolved (Joshua and Judges, in The Literary Guide to the Bible, 102).

48 This is a difficult passage to understand since it seems to be affirming that the Lord completed all of His promises in Joshua's day, yet the reader knows that Israel does not have possession of all of the land! A couple of words of comment may help.

The word for possess in the phrase, and they possessed it (******) describes taking possession of an inheritance contextually (Jos 21:43-45) and is a summary of Joshua has just finished doing as he distributed the land. The term for all in the statement, So the Lord gave to Israel all the land (ÇÜ-ïî-äÇÿò) describes all parts of the land (cf. 13:8*21:24). This is a figurative use of the term all (a synecodeche of genuis*a statement of the general for the specific). The term all looks at a series of parts which represent all of the land.

Joshua 24:43 (So the Lord gave Israel all the land which He had sworn to give to their fathers, and they possessed it and lived in it) is an enclusio to Joshua 1:6 (Be strong and courageous for you shall give this people possession of the land which I swore to their fathers to give them). God's word would fail if Israel believed it, obeyed it, and it did not occur. However, as they steped on the land, they experienced the promise.

49 Johnson writes, The question of national leadership was now changing. Continued national existence in the land depended on local leadership. With these local leaders the Word of the Covenant was renewed committing them to faith in YHWH (Joshua, [unpublished class notes in 302 Old Testament History I, Dallas Theological Seminary, Fall 1980), p. 13.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

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