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8. 1 and 2 Chronicles

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First And Second Chronicles1

I. Historical background.

A ray of hope appeared in 560 B.C. with the elevation of Jehoiachin, former king of Israel, by Ewal Marduk, King of Babylon. A brighter ray came in 539 B.C. with the invasion of Babylon by Cyrus who then issued his famous decree allowing captive peoples and religions to return home: “. . . I returned to (these) sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I (also) gathered all their (former) inhabitants and returned (to them) their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the command of Marduk, the great lord, all the gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus has brought into Babylon to the anger of the lord of the gods, unharmed, in their (former) chapels, the places which make them happy.”2 Isa 45:1 speaks of Cyrus as the anointed of the Lord. Cyrus had already conquered most of the territory controlled by the Medes and was now conquering that controlled by Babylon.

The band of Jews that returned to the homeland faced a long up‑hill battle. Myers says, “Almost everything detrimental to the purity and vigor of religious devotion is to be found there [in the book of Malachi].”3 The economic situation was most difficult, and many of the returning Jews married into the surrounding peoples. The temple was begun in 536 B.C. but not finished for another twenty years. The golah (exile) was under constant threat from the Samaritans and the Edomites who had moved into the Negev after the defeat of Jerusalem and under pressure from the Arabs. Myers says again, “Strict cult orthodoxy, exclusivism and the support of a more broadly based cult personnel were of the utmost importance if the community was to succeed in its efforts.”4

The Chronicler, writing at least a century after that initial return, is presenting to the Jewish community an outline of the plan of God in history that centers first on David and then the returning community of Jews as the faithful remnant in God’s eternal program. Even the genealogies, beginning with Adam and ending in the golah, are written from the perspective of God’s grace in delivering a people through their apostasy, judgment and restoration.

The Chronicler deals with the faithful remnant and either ignores or speaks judgmentally of northern Israel. As a result, he omits virtually all the history of the northern kingdom, even the great prophetic sections of Elijah and Elisha, because that part of Israel apostatized and were forever judged for their sin.

The Chronicler is aware of the necessity of purity of worship. All the sources from which he is working show both Israel and Judah steeped in idolatrous practice that pulled them away from Yahweh. Consequently, much of the emphasis of this history is on the establishment of proper worship in the temple. Large passages in the Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah and Josiah narratives deal with the keeping of the Passover, the liturgical order of worship, the officers and servants of the temple, and the music and the musicians.

The person of David increasingly becomes a type of the ideal king—the Messiah. Much stress is put on the Davidic genealogy. A large section is devoted to David’s preparation for the temple which Solomon built. The Chronicler continues this emphasis by stressing that Solomon built the temple and developed the services connected with it. It may be that the stress on David as the messianic ideal leads the chronicler to omit portions of David’s life that reflect negatively on him. This was not to suppress the information, (it was already in the public domain through Kings), but simply to use David as a picture of the king God is going to raise up who will fulfill the Davidic ideal.

II. The major sections that differ with Kings, illustrating the Chronicler’s methodology.

A. Genealogies (1 Chronicles 1‑9).

These lists are incomplete and fragmentary. See Keil for a discussion of their emphasis and composition. He says, on the importance of these genealogies:

“The Chronicler’s supposed predilection for genealogical lists arose also from the circumstances of his time. From Ezra ii. 60 ff. we learn that some of the sons of priests who returned with Zerubbabel sought their family registers, but could not find them, and were consequently removed from the priesthood; besides this, the inheritance of the land was bound up with the families of Israel. On this account the family registers had, for those who had returned from the exile, an increased importance, as the means of again obtaining possession of the heritage of their fathers; and perhaps it was the value thus given to the genealogical lists which induced the author of the Chronicle to include in his book all the old registers of this sort which had been received from antiquity.”5

1. Early history from the creation of man to Israel for whom the nation is named (1:1‑54).

a. The line of Adam (1:1‑4).

b. The line of Japheth (1:5‑7).

c. The line of Ham (1:8‑12).

d. The line of Canaan (1:13‑16).

e. The line of Shem (1:17‑27).

f. The line of Abraham (1:28‑34).

g. The line of Esau (1:35‑42).

h. A list of the Edomite kings (1:43‑54).

2. Genealogies from the twelve clans of Israel with the focus on Judah down to David (2:1‑55).

a. A summary of the sons of Israel (2:1‑2).

b. The genealogy from Judah to David (2:3‑17).

c. Alternate lines of Hezron (2:18‑24).

d. The line of Jerahmeel (2:25‑41).

e. The line of Caleb (2:42‑55).

3. The kingly line from David (3:1‑24).

a. David’s immediate family (3:1‑9).

David’s line born in Hebron (3:1‑4).

David’s line born in Jerusalem (3:5‑9).

b. The kingly line to Zedekiah (3:10‑16).

(Athaliah not mentioned.)

c. David’s line in the exilic and post-exilic periods (3:17‑24).

4. Genealogies of the twelve tribes (4:1—8:40).

a. The line of Judah (4:1‑23). (Fourth born.)

b. The line of Simeon (4:24‑43). (Second born.)

c. The line of Reuben (5:1‑10). (First born.)

d. The line of Gad (5:11‑22). (Seventh born.)

e. The line of the half tribe of Manasseh in the east side of the Jordan (5:23‑26). (Son of eleventh born Joseph.)

f. The line of Levi (6:1‑81). (Third born.)

The amount of space devoted to the descendants of Levi, and only three families at that, indicates the emphasis the Chronicler is placing on the Levitical work in the temple.

g. The line of Issachar (7:1‑5). (Ninth born.)

h. The line of Benjamin (7:6‑12). (Twelfth born.)

i. The line of Naphtali and the rest of Manasseh (7:13‑19). (Sixth born.)

j. The line of Ephraim (7:20‑29). (Son of the eleventh born Joseph.)

k. The line of Asher (7:30‑40). (Eighth born.)

l. The line of Benjamin (8:1‑40). (Twelfth born.)

This second (and different) list of Benjamin is placed here because of the importance of the tribe and its first king. The direct ancestry of Saul is given a second time in 9:35‑44. Dan and Zebulon are not even mentioned.

5. The record of the remnant back in the land (9:1‑44).

a. Introduction—the southern kingdom was taken into exile (9:1).

b. A listing of the important people inhabiting Jerusalem in the post-exilic period (9:2‑34). (They are identified with the jobs their predecessors had before the exile.)

Introduction—the people are divided into four groups—Israel (the people), priests, Levites, and the temple servants (9:2).

A list of the important people in the city (9:3‑9).

A list of the important priests in the city (9:10-13).

A list of the important Levites in the city (9:14-16).

The gatekeepers (9:17‑27).

A list of the temple servants in the city (9:28-34.)

The singers (9:33‑34).

c. Saul’s family (9:35‑44).

This list is similar to that in 8:29‑40.

B. The Chronicler’s perspective on Saul (10:1‑14).

1. All of First Samuel is compressed into one chapter.

2. Saul’s death is recorded (10:1‑10).

3. The deed of the Jabesh-gileadites is recorded (10:11‑12).

4. Saul’s rejection and the reason for it are recorded (10:13‑14).

a. He did not carry out the Herem war against Amalek (10:13a).

b. He consulted the witch of En Dor (10:13b‑14).

It was necessary to mention Saul to get him out of the picture and to bring in David, the messianic ideal.

C. The Chronicler’s perspective on David (11:1—29:30).

1. All David’s early years, his seven-year rule at Hebron, and the Ish-bosheth rule in the north are ignored by the Chronicler because he is interested in the established David.

2. David is made king in Hebron by all Israel (11:1‑3).

3. David captures Jebus (11:4‑9).

4. The special soldiers are listed as in Kings (11:10‑47).

5. A list is given of men who joined David at Ziklag before he became king (12:1‑22). (Benjamin, Gad, More Benjamin, Judah, and Manas-seh.)

6. A numbers list of men who joined David at Hebron is given (12:23‑40).

7. David brings up the ark (correctly) and appoints Levites to places of ministry (15:1—16:6).

8. Asaph, et al., write the first Psalm for the new dwelling of the ark (16:7‑36).

9. A list of servants to the ark/tent is given (16:37‑43).

10. Significantly omitted are the accounts of Amnon, Bathsheba, and Absalom.

11. The plague on Israel because of David’s sin in numbering the people is recorded because the site of the temple is determined by the termination of the plague and subsequent sacrifice (21:1—22:1).

12. A long section detailing David’s preparation for the temple (which he was prohibited to build) is given including the recognition of Solomon not only as the temple builder, but also as the next king (22:6‑13; 23:1; 28:5‑10; 29:1), but 29:22b‑25 reflect a later period when Solomon was anointed by Nathan at Gihon (22:1—29:30). (The rebellion of Absalom no doubt took place after the events of Solomon’s recognition as the next king and so overshadowed him that he was bypassed in the attempt of Adonijah to become king. It is also possible that David lived longer than anticipated in 1 Kings 1-2 and established Solomon.)

D. The Chronicler’s perspective on Solomon (2 Chronicles 1‑9).

1. The transitional struggle is omitted by the Chronicler because, as with David, he wants to deal with an “established” Solomon.

2. The construction of the temple is recorded, but there is more in the Kings account than in Chronicles, because this activity of Solomon’s was as important to the prophetic writer of Kings as to the Chronicler (2 Chronicles 1‑7).

a. Solomon is established (1:1‑17).

b. Singers and priests are established (5:11-14).

c. Fire comes down from heaven at the dedication (7:1‑3).

3. The appointment of Jeroboam by God and the promised division of the kingdom is passed over.

4. The Chronicler passes over the fact that Solomon’s pagan wives influenced him away from the Lord (1 Kings 4:29‑34).

E. The divided kingdom to the exile (2 Chron 10:1—36:23).

1. The northern kingdom is passed over as though it had never existed except to note that Jeroboam impiously began the calf cult and whenever the two kingdoms impinge on one another. The movement of the Levites from Israel to Judah is given in Chronicles but not in Kings (11:13‑17).

2. He gives the message of Shemaiah the prophet in the days of Rehoboam when Shishak invaded (11:5‑8).

3. The Chronicler records a scathing message about the rebellion of the northern tribes when Abijah, of Judah, fought Jeroboam (13:1‑20).

4. The Chronicler records more on Asa and his reform and his battle against the Ethiopians (Egypt) (14:2‑15). The message of Azariah the prophet to encourage Asa and Asa’s response is found in 15:1‑19.

5. The Chronicler records a warning against Asa by Hanani and Asa’s wicked response (16:7‑10).

6. The Chronicler devotes four chapters to Jehoshaphat because he was a good king (17:1—21:3).

a. He sent teachers throughout Judah (17:7‑9).

b. The Chronicler records the alliance of Jehoshaphat with Ahab as in 1 Kings 22, but he adds a section of the stinging rebuke of Jehoshaphat by Jehu (19:1‑3).

c. Jehoshaphat extends reform (19:4‑11).

d. Jehoshaphat is delivered from Edom (20:1‑30).

e. Jehoshaphat’s navy sinks before it sails because it was an alliance with the northern kingdom as Eliezer prophesied (20:35‑37). (Cf. 1 Kings 22:47‑49.)

7. Only one chapter is devoted to Joram because he is wicked (21:4‑20).

a. He kills his brothers (21:4).

b. God preserves him because of his covenant with David (21:5‑7).

c. A posthumous letter from Elijah rebukes him for his sinfulness like the house of Ahab. Jehoram was married into the Ahab dynasty. Elijah probably wrote the letter to be sent at the appropriate time (21:8‑15).

8. The Chronicler records the destruction of the last of Ahab’s dynasty (22:1‑12).

a. Ahab’s influence, as Ahaziah’s grandfather, is extended to Judah (22:1‑5).

b. He was killed by Jehu at the Lord’s behest (22:6‑9).

(There is no way to reconcile this statement about the death of Ahaziah with Kings, because of its summary nature. See my notes at the Kings passage.)

9. The Chronicler records the earlier good days of Joash as well as his departure from the faith (22:10—24:27).

a. Jehoiada the priest establishes more offices for the Levites (23:16‑21).

b. The sins of Joash and his stoning of Zechariah are recorded (24:15‑22).

c. The Syrian defeat of Gath and the putting of Judah under tribute are recorded (24:23‑24).

10. The Chronicler records Amaziah’s expedition against Edom as well as other material in Kings (25:1‑28).

a. He hires Israelite mercenaries and is rebuked by a man of God (25:7‑10, 13).

b. b. He worships the gods of the Edomites (25:14‑16).

11. The Chronicler records some additional items about Uzziah’s successes and defeats (26:1‑23).

a. Zechariah the seer apparently influenced Uzziah for a time (26:5).

b. Uzziah had success in building and battles (26:6‑15).

c. The Chronicler gives more details about the way Uzziah contracted leprosy (26:16‑23).

12. The Chronicler records that Jotham was a good king. He also records his victory over the Ammonites (27:1‑9).

13. The Chronicler records more information on the Syro-Ephraimite war and other attacks against Ahaz (28:5‑19).

a. He records a great captivity of Judah (28:5‑8).

b. The captives were released through the intercession of a prophet named Oded (28:9‑15).

c. Judah suffers from other invasions (28:16‑19).

14. The Chronicler devotes four chapters to Hezekiah because he is basically a good king (29:3—32:31).

a. He records in a long section the cleansing of the temple (29:3‑36).

b. Hezekiah celebrates the Passover, even trying to take it north (30:1—31:1).

c. He establishes proper order in the temple services (31:2‑21).

d. He builds the wall and digs the Siloam tunnel in preparation for Sennacherib’s invasion (32:1‑8).

15. Some additional material is recorded about Manasseh (33:11‑20).

a. He is carried captive to Babylon where he repents and is returned to Jerusalem (33:11‑13).

b. He effects some reform and rebuilds walls, but he has already done great spiritual damage (33:14‑20).

16. Not much is said about wicked Amon (33:21‑25).

17. The Chronicler devotes two chapters to perhaps the best of all the southern kings, Josiah (34:1—35:27).

a. He begins to seek the Lord at age 16 (34:3‑7).

b. The Levites are mentioned in connection with the repair of the temple (34:11‑13).

c. The long listing of iconoclastic activity in 2 Kings 23:4‑14 is omitted.

d. The celebration of the Passover is recorded in great detail (35:1‑19).

e. The Chronicler records the Egyptian Pharaoh’s speech telling Josiah not to meddle since the Lord has sent the Pharaoh against the Babylonians (35:21‑25).

18. The Chronicler says that Zedekiah “stiffened his neck” and was carried into captivity (36:13‑16).

F. The closing note in the Chronicler’s account is that Cyrus the Persian in 536 B.C. allowed the Jews to return to their homeland in fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy (This is also the only place where the seventy years are tied into the Sabbath rest of the land. The land had not lain fallow for 490 years which would also help explain Daniel’s 490 years in the future) (36:22‑23).


1For a running comparison of Chronicles and Kings, see Heater, God Rules Among men.

2ANET, p. 316.

3Myers, First Chronicles, p. XXXVII.

4Ibid., p. XXIX.

5Keil, I and II Chronicles, p. 22.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

9. Ezra and Nehemiah

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I. Persian Period (550-330) and Background of Ezra/Nehemiah

“When Cyrus entered Babylon in 539 B.C., the world was old. More significant, it knew its antiquity.”1

“The story of the ancient Orient is drawing to its close. And yet, by a strange contrast, on the very eve of the final crisis it achieves its maximum extension, unification and power. Up to and beyond its boundaries, from India to Libya, a single empire is built up from diverse peoples, and the synthesis which had existed momentarily under the Assyrians now becomes a stable condition, reinforced by an enlightened policy of liberality and tolerance.”2

The chief actors in this new phase of history are Indo-Europeans, known to be present long since on the Iranian plateau, but who form strong political organisms only during the first millennium.

The prologue to the new chapter of history is provided by the empire of the Medes, who are of Iranian stock and closely related to the Persians. In the seventh century B.C., they established a powerful state and, under king Cyaxares, defeated Assyria and penetrated into Armenia and Anatolia, checked only at the river Halys by the resistance of the Lydians (along with Nabopolassar,3). The empire disappeared soon after its rise. In the middle of the following century, Cyrus’ Persians threw off its yoke, took over the power and set out along the open road of expansion (note maps for Median expansion alongside the Neo-Babylonian empire). The ancient name Hakhamanish or Achaemenes becomes the dynastic title and the Persian rulers are henceforth known as the Achaemenids.

A. Cyrus II (550-529)

The story of Astyages, king of the Medes who married his daughter to an unimportant Persian (Cambyses I a king but under Median thumb) is recounted by Herodotus.4 Of this marriage was born Cyrus who was destined to death by Astyages (because of a dream that his daughter gave birth to water which flooded the world) but was kept alive by a herdsman. Harpagus had been assigned the task of killing the child, and when Cyrus grew up, Astyages discovered him and cooked Harpagus’ son and fed him to him.

Cyrus became king of Anshan in 560 or 559 B.C.5 and made his move against the Medes in 550 B.C., and Harpagus deserted to his side. “Ecbatana was captured, and its wealth of gold, silver, and precious objects was carried off to Anshan.”6 Cyrus became the ruler of the Medes and the Persians and conquered an empire that stretched to India in the East and to the western edge of Anatolia. This vast empire, with its disparate peoples could only have come about through a policy of the Persians that differed immensely from their predecessors. Cyrus allowed a measure of local autonomy and allowed the return of various gods, the rebuilding of temples, and the recognition of local cultures. Isaiah (40-45) tells us that God raised him up as his anointed (Isa 45:1-2). The Jews benefited from the policy in that they were allowed to return to their land, rebuild their temple, and restore their worship system.7 The decree of Cyrus, found on the Cyrus Cylinder is on p. 348. in a foot-note.8

Three major military expeditions (in addition to the many minor ones) were necessary to bring this about (note the three ribs in the Bear in Daniel’s vision ch. 7). The Lydian campaign began in 547 B.C. when Croesus moved to take over the part of the empire left by the now defunct Medes. Cyrus moved west to interrupt this action and forced the old Assyrian/Median groupings to submit to him. He defeated Croesus in the winter of 547 even though he had called on his allies the Babylonians and the Egyptians to help him. Cyrus also began the process of forcing the Ionian Greeks to submit to him as well.9

The capture of Babylon took place some eight years later.9 10 The reason for the delay is not clear. Since the Greek sources talk about his developing a number of canals north of Babylon (with which Herodotus says he diverted the Euphrates River to allow him to invade Babylon), some argue that he was developing irrigation projects while waiting for Babylon to fall into his hands.11 Sippar fell on 10 October and Nabonidus fled to Babylon where he was captured when the Persian forces entered the city. Cyrus himself entered on 29 October, 539 B.C., and the Babylonian territories became Persian thereafter. These territories included the “Abar Nahara” satrap, encompassing Syria and Palestine and thus the Jews. Cyrus’ son Cambyses was appointed the king of Babylon. Cyrus was killed in a campaign of 530 B.C., and his son Cambyses became king in his place.

B. Cambyses II (529-522 B.C.).

Some identify him with Darius the Mede (Dan 5:31ff), since he ruled Babylon under his father, but that is not likely.12 Cambyses as the King’s son “took the hands of Marduk” in 538 B.C. and was called king of Babylon.13 Cook believes that Cambyses irritated the priests at Babylon and that he was not king again until 530 when his father went to the battle in which he was killed.14 But Olmstead says he ruled as governor the entire time.15

Cambyses began the Egypt campaign in 526 B.C. (the third major thrust) and conquered all Egypt in 525 B.C. Darius was a spear bearer in Cambyses’ army, and Cook argues that he may have been moving in the highest circles at that time.16 Amasis the resourceful pharaoh died as Cambyses began his campaigns and the Greek mercenaries deserted to Cambyses. The new pharaoh was defeated in the delta and at Memphis. Cambyses became the king of upper and lower Egypt. He campaigned further south, but it is difficult to sort out malicious rumor and legend from the truth.

C. Gaumata (522-521 B.C.)

In Cambyses’ long absence, there was a usurpation back home. The details are conflicting and confused. Cambyses’ manner of death is disputed. He died in Syria in 522, some of the Greek sources say due to a wound suffered when he fell on his dagger. There is confusion in the empire during this time, and the details are hard to determine. Darius, whose vested interested in the story clouds his reliability, claims that a usurper had pretended to be Cambyses’ brother, Bardyia (the Greeks pronounced it Smerdis), had taken over the throne and was killed by Darius and/or the nobles. It may be that Bardyia had indeed taken over the throne in the extended absence of Cambyses and was killed by Darius who was an officer in the army.17

D. Darius I (Hystaspes, 521-486 B.C.).

Darius the Great was the great imperialist, noted for the Behistun inscription.18 He is mentioned by Ezra (he was not a direct descendant of Cyrus but of royal blood). Darius immediately faced rebellion in the empire. After much bloody fighting, he succeeded in establishing his rule. This was accomplished by 520 B.C. He claims that he fought nineteen battles and took captive nine kings in one and the same year.19 It was in this year that Zechariah began his ministry (Zech 1:1). All the world was at peace, but Israel was unhappy. Work on the temple was resumed in 520 B.C., and the Cyrus decree was found in Ecbatana (they first looked in Babylon, Ezra 6:1-2), the temple was finished in 516 B.C. twenty years after it had been started. The Persian wars against the Greeks began in 492 and continued under Xerxes. Darius was defeated by the Greeks at Marathon in 490 B.C. Egypt revolted four years later, and Darius died as he was setting out to put down the revolt.

E. Xerxes I (Ahasuerus, 486-465 B.C.).

This is the mad king who in a mighty combined operation sought to avenge Marathon, and whom the Greeks defeated at Salamis (480 B.C.) and Plataea (479 B.C.). The feast and assembly of Esth 1:3 is plausibly equated with Herodotus 7:8 (the king pays attention to his harem), while Esth 2:16 may be a reference to the events of Herodotus 9:108, 109, according to Blaiklock.20 [Xerxes wanted the wife of a friend but refrained from taking her. He brought her daughter to the palace and married her to his son but took liberties with her himself. Through a series of events, his wife learned of it and mutilated the mother of the girl (Herodotus).]

F. Artaxerxes I (Longimanus, 464-424 B.C.).

It was this monarch who permitted Ezra to go to Jerusalem to restore the affairs of the Jewish community (Ezra 7, 8—458 B.C.) and who promoted the mission of his cup-bearer Nehemiah thirteen years later (445 B.C.).21 Malachi is usually dated through internal evidence to the first half of the fifth century (c. 450 B.C.).

G. Later Persian Kings, 424-330 B.C.

Xerxes II (Promptly murdered by half-brother, Sogdianus)

Sogdianus (Murdered after a few months by half-brother, Ochus)

Ochus known as Darius II (423-404)

Arsaces known as Artaxerxes II (404-358)

Ochus known as Artaxerxes III (358-338)

Arses (338-336) murdered by Darius III

Darius III (336-330)

The last one hundred years of Persian rule were chaotic. The kings tended to weaknesses, were often dominated by their women, and were filled with cruelty. The Satraps often revolted and declared indepen-dence.

II. The Political Structure of Judah under the Persians.

The Assyrians had effectively destroyed independent entities in Syria-Palestine except for Tyre, Sidon, and Judah. The native dynasts were re-placed by Assyrian governors. Judah also lost her independence to Babylon. When Cyrus took over the Babylonian territory these provinces submitted to Persia and were incorporated into the structure of the empire.22

“For the government of this wide-extending territory, he [Cyrus] adopted in principle the organization first devised by the Assyrians, who replaced the states they had conquered by formal provinces. Each was ruled by a governor with a full staff of subordinates, and all kept in close touch with the central power through frequent exchange of orders and reports.”23 The word Satrap means “protector of the Kingdom.” The hereditary position of the Satrap created problems of loyalty which were handled by making the military directly responsible to the King.

Palestine was part of the very large satrap called Abar Nahara (Ezra 4:10, 11, 16, 17, 20; 8:36). This word means the “Cross River” area. Stern says that the term was already in use as early as the Assyrian period.24 Abar Nahara was combined by Cyrus with the whole of the territory captured from Babylonia.25 The Satrap seat was in Damascus. Therefore, when Nehemiah and Ezra returned, that Satrap was already in existence.

The many changes in the satrap of Abar Nahara that took place over the years, obviously affected Judah as well. Presumably, the divisions and subdivisions of Palestine were already in effect under the Babylonians. Two of the more significant units were Samaria and Palestine (see map, p. 365). The information on this era is sparse indeed, but more information is coming to light. Cross shows that there were a series of Sanballats who ruled as governor of Samaria.26As for Judah as a province, the Bible speaks of Sheshbazzar as “prince of Judah” and Zerubbabel as “the governor of Judah” as it does also of Nehemiah. The Elephantine papyri speak of a certain Bagohi as a governor after Nehemiah. Stern also refers to a group of coins from the end of the Persian period that bear the legend: “Jehezekiah the governor.”27 As a summery, Avi-Yonah lists six known governors of Judah during the two hundred years of Persian rule (there may even have been times when there was no governor): Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel, Nehemiah, Bigoai or Bagohi, Yehoezer, Ahio.28 He also argues for the separate Jewish province in spite of the interference of the Samaritans in the Book of Ezra. He says that the loose Persian rule lent itself to disputes among the provinces.29

“In summary, Palestine in the Persian period was apparently organized into a number of provinces or ‘states’ (medinoth). Each unit was ruled by a dynasty of governors, generally of a local family: Samaritans in Samaria (according to the wadi Daliyeh papyri) and Arabs in the south (according to the Tell el-Maskhuta inscriptions), and possibly also in Judah (as is suggested by stamp impressions, bullae, and coins of Jehezekiah). These governors had small courts, imitating those of the satraps, and they stood at the head of small administrative organizations. They were probably in charge of small military garrisons and were allowed to keep official stamps of the ‘state’ in their possession, one of the most frequent finds of that period at sites excavated in the province. The governors also seem to have been permitted to strike the small silver coins, which are now known as ‘Palestinian’ coins. Thus far the inscriptions of four of the provinces are clearly legible: Samaria, Judah, Ashdod, and Gaza. The provinces were subdivided into ‘parts’ (pelek; Neh 3:9, 17).”30

III. Introduction to the books.

A. The relation of the two books.

The evidence in all the versions and ancient records points to the fact that Ezra and Nehemiah were once one account of the “new exodus” from Babylon to rebuild the temple, walls and community. “We may therefore conclude by affirming that there is good reason to approach Ezra and Nehemiah as two parts of a single work and that this work is to be regarded as complete as it stands.”31

B. Authorship and composition of the books.

There is much controversy over the dates, chronology and inter-relationship of the books. For background information see the most recent studies in Fensham, The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah, New International Commentary on the Old Testament; Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah in Word Biblical Commentary; and Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah in Anchor Bible. The trend in the past was to see Ezra-Nehemiah as part of the overall “Chronicler’s” work (1‑2 Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah) and Albright argued for the Chronicler to be Ezra.32 Williamson denies that Ezra wrote the Chronicles.33

Fensham suggests five major sources for the books: (1) Ezra 1‑6 describing the history prior to the arrival of Ezra.34 (2) Ezra 7‑10 constituting the first part of the memoirs of Ezra. (3) Neh. 1:1—7:72a comprising part of the Nehemiah memoir. (4) Nehemiah 8‑10 continuing the Ezra memoir (5) Neh. 11:1—13:31 continuing the Nehemiah memoir.

C. Broad outline of the books.

1. Return under Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel to build the temple (538 B.C.) (Ezra 1-6).

2. Return of Ezra for spiritual reform (458 B.C.) (Ezra 7-10).

3. Return of Nehemiah to rebuild the walls (445-433 B.C.) (Neh. 1-7).

4. Revival of the people (Nehemiah 8-12).

5. Nehemiah’s second return (Nehemiah 13).

D. The chronological sequence of the books.

1. Events under Cyrus, first king of Persia (539‑529 B. C).

a. Edict issued returning people and temple contents (538 B.C.).

b. Temple foundation laid (536 B.C.).

2. Events under Cambyses, Cyrus’ son (529‑522 B. C).

No biblical events. Cambyses conquered Egypt (referred to in the Elephantine papyri).

3. Events under Darius, the great, Persian general (522‑486 B. C).

a. Darius defeats usurper to throne (Gaumata) and struggles to put down rebellions (done by 518).

b. Zechariah begins his ministry in second year of Darius.

c. The temple was completed in 516.

d. Darius was defeated at Marathon by Greeks in 490.

4. Events under Xerxes (Ahasuerus) (486‑465 B. C).

a. Xerxes was defeated at Salamis in 480.

b. b. The events of Esther may have taken place after his return.

5. Events under Artaxerxes I (465‑424 B.C.).

a. Accusations against the Jews (Ezra 4:6).

b. Ezra’s return to promote religious reform (458 B.C.)

Fensham says the Egypt Satrap revolted in 460 B.C., and the revolt was suppressed in 456 B.C. Artaxerxes needed loyal people in Judah and may have sent Ezra for this purpose (Ezra 7:8).35

c. Nehemiah’s first return (445 B.C. Neh 5:14).

IV. The work of Ezra the Priest.

“To judge from the Ezra material, it appears fairly clear that the great religious leader was concerned primarily with the reorganization of the cult on the basis of the Pentateuchal legislation . . . it is becoming increasingly certain that Ezra did not function as governor. What he came to do was more significant in the long run—laying the foundations of Judaism that was to make an incalculable impact upon the world in the following centuries. . . It is perhaps not too much to say that what Nehemiah did for the body of Judaism, Ezra did for its soul.”36

The idea of a scribe is an old one, but the only early biblical reference to the word (sopher) is in the poetic section of Judges 5. Under the monarchy they served as court secretaries. Baruch was a scribe to Jeremiah. However, it is with Ezra that the New Testament type of scribe emerges. He is one who is trained in the law of Moses to copy it and to interpret it. (KJV has “ready scribe”; NASB has “a scribe skilled.”) The Hebrew phrase sopher maher means first a fast writer and then a skilled writer and then a competent person. As Samuel was to the prophetic movement, so Ezra was to the scribal movement.37

Ezra’s purpose was to study the law, to practice it, and to teach the statutes and ordinances to Israel (7:10). Williamson says, “The scribe, we should note, was not only a student of Scripture, but explicitly a practitioner and especially a teacher of its requirements. And these qualities we find exemplified in Ezra’s ministry.”38

Artaxerxes had sent a special decree with Ezra (7:11‑26). Fensham says that the “Jewishness” of the letter is to be explained by the fact that Ezra probably drafted the letter that went out in the name of the king.39 He permitted people to go with Ezra and permitted him to collect money for the undertaking. Ezra was to take utensils to be used in the temple back with him. Artaxerxes gave him an expense voucher and freed certain temple workers from taxes. He commissioned Ezra to appoint officers to enforce the Mosaic law.40

Williamson says, “It has been widely accepted since Schaeder’s work that ‘the scribe of the law of the God of heaven’ was an official Persian title, so that some have gone so far as to translate ‘minister/secretary of state for Jewish affairs.’”41

Ezra’s purpose in coming to Jerusalem was two‑fold: (1) He was to “inquire concerning Judah and Jerusalem according to the law of your God which is in your hand” (7:14). Williamson suggests that this facet of the commission took three directions. First it would investigate how closely the temple worship related to the Mosaic law. Second, the concern with mixed marriages may have in part been concerned with who legitimately came under this law. Third, it may have involved checking up on the use of state aid for the temple worship.42 (2) The second purpose is more difficult to understand (7:25). He was to appoint “magistrates and judges” (shaphetin wedayyanin שָׁפְטִין וְדַיָּנִין). This was no doubt designed to regulate the lives of those in the Abar Naharna Satrap who considered themselves to be Jews.

V. The work of Nehemiah.

Hanani (shortened form for Hananiah) is referred to as Nehemiah’s brother. This reference should be understood in a literal sense because of 7:2. There is another Hananiah connected with the Elephantine community, but whether they are the same man is not clear. The breaking down of the walls is debated. Sometime during the first 20 years of Artaxerxes, an attempt was made to rebuild the city and walls (Ezra 4:7-22). The attempt was thwarted, and the present state of the walls was worse than in 586 B.C. The walls continued to lie in ruins even though the temple had been built. The people were vulnerable to attacks from all those around them.

Sanballat the Horonite is known from the Elephantine Papyri as the governor of Samaria. The date of that papyrus is 408 B.C. There he was older, and his sons were representing him. The Nehemiah context is over thirty years earlier. The reference to him as a Horonite is not clear. It may refer to the town of lower Beth Horon or it may refer to a deity.

Tobiah the Ammonite is an obscure figure. Quite a bit is known about the Tobiads of the third century. Josephus tells us that they played an important part in the events leading up to the Maccabean revolt. “The great man of the family was Joseph, the son of Tobiah, who was active under Ptolemy III Euergetes (246-221 B.C.).”43 A tomb inscription, Tobiah, is dated by Mazar in the sixth or fifth centuries. He concludes that, “This Tobiah [in Nehemiah] was not only a Jew (not half-Ammonite and half-Jew, or even pure Ammonite, as some scholars hold to this day), but one of the heads of the Jews and a relative of the high priest, exactly like Tobiah the father of Joseph a hundred and fifty years later. Nehemiah states expressly (vi, 18) that ‘there were many in Judah sworn unto him.’”44 The use of the phrase in Nehemiah “the Ammonite servant” is for Mazar to be equated with “servant of the king,” i.e., of the king of Persia, and thus concludes that Tobiah may have been the governor of Ammon.45 Williamson argues that he was probably an associate of Sanballat and may have had some temporary responsibility in Judah in the absence of a governor.46 “Ammonite” is certainly a pejorative term. Nehemiah recorded a past event in which Eliashib had become related by marriage to Tobiah. Eliashib had prepared a special room for him in the temple when he visited (Neh 13:5). Fensham argues that this is not the same Eliashib as the high priest since this one is over the chamber.47

An additional adversary appears in 2:19 by the name of Geshem the Arab. This man is well-known as a powerful Arabian operating within the Persian empire with a fair amount of independence. There is no way of knowing why he is hostile to Nehemiah, who could have posed little threat to him, unless he simply does not want any strengthening of the Persian influence in a neighboring province.48

Fensham says the Persian general who defeated Egypt became angry at Artaxerxes and revolted against him. Later he declared loyalty and was restored, but again Artaxerxes would want loyal leaders in the west and so may have sent Nehemiah.49

50

A. Ezra apparently came back a second time early in Nehemiah’s period (Neh 8‑10; 12:36).

B. Nehemiah returns a second time (after 432 B.C. Neh 13:6).

VI. Outline notes on Ezra-Nehemiah.

A. The return under Sheshbazzar/Zerubbabel to build the temple (from the first year of Cyrus to the second year of Darius: 538 B.C. to 516 B.C.) (Ezra 1:1—6:22).

1. The return from Babylon (1:1—2:70).

The edict was issued to return.51 Most people will argue that the reference to Jeremiah is to the seventy-year prediction (ch. 25, 29). Williamson argues that it should be related to Jeremiah 51, tied in with Isaiah 41, 44, and 45, but I would still go with the seventy-year element as the Chronicler does. The leaders were chosen, and the material of the temple returned. Sheshbazzar (1 Chron 3:18) is either another name for Zerubbabel or another person who must have died before the edict was carried out.52 The list of the people returning is given (2:1‑70).

Zerubbabel

Levites

Jeshua

Nehemiah

Jeshua and Kadmiel

Seraiah

Hodaviah

Reelaiah

Mordecai

Singers

Bilshan

Mispar

Asaph

Bigvai

Rehum

Gatekeepers

Baanah

Shallum

Men of the people

Ater

Talmon

Parosh

Akkub

Shephatiah

Hatita

Arah

Shoba

Pahath‑moab

Jeshua and Joab

Temple servants

Elam

Zattu

Ziha

Zaccai

Hasupha

Bani

Tabbaoth

Bebai

Keros

Azgad

Siaha

Adonikam

Padon

Bigvai

Lebanah

Adin

Hagabah

Ater of Hezekiah

Akkub

Bezai

Hagab

Jorah

Shalmai

Hashum

Hanan

Gibbar

Giddel

Bethlehem

Gahar

Netophah

Reaiah

Anathoth

Rezin

Azmaveth

Nekoda

Kiriath‑arim

Gazzam

Chephirah

Uzza

Beeroth

Paseah

Ramah

Besai

Geba

Asnah

Michmas

Meunim

Bethel

Nephisim

Ai

Bakbuk

Nebo

Hakupha

Magbish

Harhur

Elam

Bazluth

Harim

Mehida

Lod

Harsha

Hadid

Barkos

Ono

Sisera

Jericho

Temah

Senaah

Neziah

Hatipha

Priests

Jedaiah of house of Jeshua

Immer

Pashhur

Harim

2. The Beginning of the temple construction (3:1‑14).

a. Jeshua and Zerubbabel led in building the altar (3:1‑6).

Jeshua was the grandson of the last officiating high priest before the exile (cf. 2 Kings 25:18 and 1 Chron 6:15). Jeshua himself soon assumed that office and was prominent in Zechariah 1‑8. Zerubbabel was a descendant of the Davidic family. 1 Chron 3:19 lists him as a son of Pedaiah, a younger son of Jeconiah rather than Shealtiel. Shealtiel could have had a levirate adoption of this son, but the text does not explain what happened. The altar of burnt offering was erected and offerings began to be made.

b. They began the temple construction (3:7‑13).

5:16 indicates that Sheshbazzar was the one who laid the original foundation whereas this passage indicates that it was Zerubbabel. Either the two are to be equated or Sheshbazzar was the real governor while Zerubbabel worked under him. Williamson argues that 3:7—4:5 are a “recapitulation” of the events that actually only began under Darius. This, however, assumes chronological inaccuracies in ch. 3 which is unacceptable.

3. There was continued opposition to the work of the Lord by enemies of the returning Jews (4:1‑24).

The native Jews and Samaritans (as they will later be called) were refused when they offered assistance. Mention is made of Ahasuerus (Xerxes) and a letter53 to Artaxerxes I is given to show that there was opposition to the returning Jews for about 100 years.54 The opposition was successful in having the temple construction halted.

4. Work was resumed on the temple under the urging of Zechariah and Haggai (5:1—6:22).

a. The work was resumed, and the Governor of the Satrap of Abar Nahara (including Jerusalem) investigated the work (5:1‑5).

b. A letter was sent to the court of Darius asking if this permission had ever been granted (5:6‑17).

c. Darius replied favorably since the original document authorizing the return was found (6:1‑12).

d. The governor carried out the orders, and the temple was com-pleted in 516 B.C. The temple was dedicated, and the Passover was observed (6:13‑22).

B. The return of Ezra for spiritual reform (in the seventh year of Artaxerxes: 458 B.C.) (7:1—10:44).

Fifty-eight years have elapsed between chapters 6 and 7.

1. Ezra prepared the people and made the trip (7:1—8:36).

a. Ezra was a priest descended through Phinehas and Zadok (Num. 25:7, 11; 2 Sam 8:17ff) (7: 1‑5).55

Ezra’s theology of the priesthood:

Ezra listed Aaron as the first High Priest, followed by seven Priests.

He omitted the next six priests, followed by Azariah who was High Priest when Solomon dedicated the temple.

He then listed seven other priests and concluded with himself.

Jehozadok would have been in that slot, but since he was identified with the captivity, Ezra wants us to know that he is identified with the return, and then, in a sense, supplants Jehozadok.56

b. Ezra was a competent scribe (7:6).57

c. Ezra brought more temple servants with him (7:7‑9).

The Nethinims (Heb: nethinim נְתִינִים = given ones) are considered by many to be temple slaves as were the Gibeonites. The trip to Jerusalem took four months (a distance of eight or nine hundred miles). He attributed his success to the “good hand of God on him” (see 7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; Neh. 2:8, 18 for this expression).

d. Ezra’s purpose was to study the law (derosh דְּרוֹשׁ), to practice it (aśoth עֲשׂת) and to teach (limmed לִמֵּד) the statutes and ordinances to Israel (7:10).

Williamson58 says, “The scribe, we should note, was not only a student of Scripture, but explicitly a practitioner and especially a teacher of its requirements. And these qualities we find exemplified in Ezra’s ministry.”

e. Artaxerxes had sent a special decree with Ezra (7:11‑26).

Fensham says that the “Jewishness” of the letter is to be explained by the fact that Ezra probably drafted the letter that went out in the name of the king.59 He permitted people to go with Ezra, and permitted him to collect money for the undertaking. Ezra was to take utensils to be used in the temple back with him. Artaxerxes gave him an expense voucher and freed certain temple workers from taxes. He commissioned Ezra to appoint officers to enforce the Mosaic law.

On Persian interest in local religions, Porten says, “Darius’ effect on religious matters in his empire is also worth noting. In Asia Minor he ordered the satrap Gadates to respect certain rights and privileges of the sacred gardeners of Apollo. In Judah he ordered the pehah Tattenai to supply whatever material was necessary for the building of the Temple there to provide sacrifices to be offered in the name of the royal family (Ez. 5:17‑6:12). In Egypt he restored the House of Life of the goddess Neith at Sais, contributed to temples at Edfu and Abusir, and displayed his liberality toward other sanctuaries as well. It was probably he who constructed the temple to Amon‑Re in the oasis of Kargeh.”60

See p. 344, for the idea of a Minister of state for Jewish Affairs.

f. Ezra praised God for this provision (7:27‑28).

The narrative moves from third to first person through the device of the prayer of Ezra. In like manner, it goes from first to third through prayer in 9:15.

g. Ezra has a genealogical list with some names like those in chapter 2, but with significant differences (8:1‑14).

Some of the same twelve family names occur in both chapters. This indicates only that some of the same families contributed immigrants to both returns.61 The list is somewhat stylized (that is, only selected names are given). The priesthood is mentioned first, then the royal house (Hattush), and finally twelve families are listed. There would have been probably about 5,000 people returning with Ezra.

h. Ezra needed more Levites and rounded some up (8:15‑20).

There were already Levites at Jerusalem, and apparently there was not a great deal of enthusiasm to return in the second wave. That thirty‑eight came on such short notice caused Ezra to recognize the “good hand of God” on him.

i. Ezra fasted and prayed for God’s protection (8:21‑23).

The long journey was fraught with danger, and they needed God’s care, but Ezra wanted to preserve his testimony that he trusted in God. God heard his prayer.

j. Ezra consigned the gold and silver to certain priests (8:24‑30).

He gave them all the collected money (8:24‑25). It was a large sum of money.62 He reminds them of the sacredness of the trust (8:28‑30).

k. The wealth was delivered to the temple in Jerusalem (8:31‑34).

They completed the journey safely but waited three days to deliver the money to the temple (perhaps they arrived just before the Sabbath). They delivered the money.

l. The people carried out their task (8:35‑36).

They made their offerings and delivered the king’s commissions. The shift from first to third person for these last two verses probably indicates that Ezra added them to the account later.

2. Ezra dealt with spiritual problems (9:1—10:44).

We learn in 10:9 that chapter 9 took place in the ninth month or four months after Ezra’s return. He must have been carrying out the king’s decrees for four months and only now was free to deal with the problem.63

Why did Ezra not know about the mixed marriages for four months, and why does he act so strongly at this point if he did know? Williamson64 argues that he did know about it and had already given advice that it be dealt with. He derives this from 10:3 where the crucial word is “my Lord.” The MT has pointed this word to mean “the Lord.” There are some MSS that even have Yahweh. One MS has “my Lord” as in NASB. Since the reference is to the “counsel” it sounds more like human advice than divine revelation. I suspect Williamson is correct.

If Ezra knew about it, why does he conduct himself in such a violent way here as if he were learning about it for the first time? It is important to note that Ezra shows his frustration, anger and rage in front of the temple where people could see him. This is a public display of spiritual grief. Even though Ezra knew of the problem, he waited for the elders and the people to react themselves. Now he could identify with them in their confession of culpability.

a. The problem was presented: intermarriage with unbelievers (9:1‑2).

This issue was not racial but religious. Foreign wives were not unknown to the patriarchs and many of the people of Israel. Some foreign wives (Rahab, Ruth) are extolled. The problem is intermarriage with Canaanites who would take the people away from Yahweh. The text does not tell us whether they had con-verted to Yahwism.

From Ezra’s point of view, the purest people were those who had returned from the exile (the golah). These had been purged from idolatry. On the other hand, the vast majority of Jews had not gone into exile (Jeremiah indicates 4,600 to Babylon while Kings indicates 10,000). Only some 50,000 returned with Zerubbabel. It is likely that those who remained in the land continued in semi-paganism. Is it possible that Ezra referred to these as “foreigners”? Williamson thinks not. Below is a chart of the three groups of people.65

b. Ezra reacted with confession (9:3‑15).

Ezra pulled out his hair as a sign of mourning, and others joined him in the confession. After a day of fasting, he arose to pray: (1) he spoke of the sins of the fathers; (2) he spoke of God’s grace in bringing them back from captivity;66 (3) He lamented the sin of intermarriage (Exod 23:32; Deut 7:3) and (4) he prayed for mercy.

c. The elders suggested that the foreign wives be divorced (10:1‑8).

The people gathered contritely. The elders suggested divorce and promised to stand with Ezra. Ezra adjured them to carry out this suggestion. He then called a general assembly of the people.

d. The assembly came confessing and agreed on a method to implement this covenant (10:9‑17).

The people agreed that what had happened was sin, and they confessed it. They agreed to divorce the wives but asked that the implementation be handed over to local leaders since the weather was too bad to do anything at that time. Some opposition was expressed (10:15) by some who may have wanted to proceed forthwith.

e. A list of the priests who were compromised in the matter is given (10:18‑44).67

Nehemiah

C. The return under Nehemiah to build the wall (Neh 1:1—7:73).

Much debate surrounds the chronological relationship between Ezra and Nehemiah. Some will argue that Ezra actually came to Jerusalem after Nehemiah in spite of the statements to the contrary in the books themselves. Some will rearrange the material between the two books.68

1. The person involved is Nehemiah, son of Hacaliah (1:1).

Nehemiah means “Yahweh comforts.” Hacaliah is otherwise un-known. The setting is Susa, the winter palace of the Persian kings.

2. Nehemiah’s brother brings a report about Jerusalem (1:2‑3).69

3. Nehemiah responds in prayer (1:4‑11).

Weeping, mourning, fasting, and prayer were part of Nehemiah’s worship. He addressed God in covenantal terms and identified with his people as he confessed. He reminded God of the Deuteronomic covenant and closed with an entreaty for God to hear his prayer and grant him an open door with the king.

4. Nehemiah approached King Artaxerxes with a bold petition (1:1b—2:8).

a. Nehemiah was in a strategic position (1:11b—2:1).

He was the king’s cupbearer.70 For a Jew to arrive at this position speaks well of Nehemiah and of God’s providence. Some would argue that he was a eunuch because of the tendency in the Persian empire to make eunuchs of those who served the king and came into contact with the harem. What a contrast this would be with Ezra who was a priest. Nehemiah does not make his move until he had had extended prayer and until a propitious moment arrived. This was not a sign of weakness (we know from his later action that he is a resolute man), but because he recognized the priority of seeking God before acting. It was the 20th year of Artaxerxes I (445 B.C.) in Nisan (March/April). He had a sad countenance. Williamson argues that the month Nisan may have been a time when Persian kings granted favors. Thus, Nehemiah waited until this moment to let his emotions show through.

b. Nehemiah used his strategic position (2:2‑8).

The king asked about Nehemiah’s countenance. Given the capriciousness of Persian kings, Nehemiah was in a precarious position (cf. the book of Esther). Nehemiah explained that he was sad because of the desolation of Jerusalem. The king gave him an opportunity to make a request, and he asked for leave to go and rebuild Jerusalem. The king asked for a time frame. Nehemiah gave him one and boldly asked for papers and a voucher.

5. Nehemiah went to Jerusalem and began the work (2:9‑20).

a. He presented his letters to the governors of the provinces of the Satrap of Abar Nahara (Beyond the river) (2:9). (He was accompanied by Persian troops.)

b. The governors were not happy to see him (2:10).

Myers71 says there were four provinces around Judah: Samaria, Ammon, Ashdod, and Arabia.72

c. Nehemiah made a night survey (2:11‑16).

He spent three days in Jerusalem, during which time, he went with a few of his men at night to reconnoiter the broken walls.

He went out the valley gate

Dragon’s well
Refuse gate
Fountain gate
King’s pool
Ravine—valley gate

He kept all this quiet.

The locations of these sites as well as the extent of the city traversed and rebuilt by Nehemiah are all debated.73

d. Nehemiah presented his plan to the Jews, priests, nobles, and officials (2:17‑20).

The situation required immediate action. Nehemiah argued that the circumstances were conducive to building the walls (he cited the way God had worked to this point). The three enemies mocked them, but Nehemiah gave a testimony to God.

6. Nehemiah rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem (3:1‑32).

a. The Sheep Gate and onward (3:1‑5).

Eliashib the high priest began the work with the construction of the Sheep Gate (this gate would probably have been north of the city to admit sheep to the sheep pool and to the temple area). The men of Jericho/son of Imri built the wall, and then more of the wall was built.

b. The Old Gate and onward (3:6‑27).

Joiada and Meshullam repaired the Old Gate. More of the wall was built.74

The Valley Gate (3:13).
The Refuse Gate and onward (3:14).
The Fountain Gate and onward (3:15‑27).

The Water Gate is included (this gate is probably the access gate to the Gihon spring).

c. The Horse Gate and onward (3:28‑31).

The Inspection Gate is included in this section.

d. Back to the Sheep Gate (3:32).

Provinces Around Judah75

7. Opposition to the building intensified (4:1‑23).

a. Sanballat and Tobiah tried mockery, but Nehemiah committed them to the Lord’s justice and kept on working (4:1-6).

b. Sanballat & Co. planned to kill the Jews but were frustrated (4:7‑14).

Representatives from the provinces planned to attack the Jews. Nehemiah prayed for protection and set up a guard against them. Nehemiah was informed of their plan on ten different occasions (this may have been done intentionally to discourage him). “They will come up against us from every place where you may turn” is difficult (4:12). Literally, the Hebrew says, “from all the places which you will return upon us.” Williamson translates, “Thus it was that ‘time and again’ groups of concerned relatives and fellow villagers were coming to Jerusalem to implore their menfolk: ‘you must return to us.’” The people were so frightened that Nehemiah had to encourage them.

c. The work continued with much watchfulness (4:15‑23).

Nehemiah’s action is a good pattern to follow when one is trying to accomplish something worthwhile but is receiving opposition. Nehemiah trusted the Lord, armed the people, organized them well, and kept up the work until it was finished.

8. Problems arose within the community in the matter of usury (5:1‑19).

The events of this chapter apparently came about because the absence of the men to work on the wall exacerbated an already difficult agrarian situation.76 The concluding verses indicate that the writing of the chapter took place at the end of Nehemiah’s twelve-year stint as governor. It is placed at this point to show that not only were there external problems faced by the Jewish community, there were also serious internal problems.

a. A shortage of food and money caused some poorer Jews to mortgage their property, borrow money to pay taxes and to make slaves of their children to richer Jews (5:1‑5).

b. Nehemiah demanded that the situation be rectified because this bondage was wrong. He had been loaning money and goods as well, but this candid admission may have helped win the people to his side. He asked them to return what had been taken as usury. He graphically illustrated (shaking out the garment) what would happen to those who did not comply (5:6-13).

c. Nehemiah spoke of his own unselfish work (5:14‑19).

He had not taken the normal governor’s allowance from the people (previous governors had). He dedicated himself to the wall, not even buying land and had fed 150 Jews and others who showed up. He called on God to remember him. One is reminded of Paul’s “boasting” on his own behalf to the Corinthians.

This unit (5:14‑19) gives us some important historical data: (1) Nehemiah was appointed governor by Artaxerxes (2) his first term lasted twelve years (445‑433 B.C.) (3) provincial governors were entitled to take certain taxes and (4) previous governors (most of them unknown to us) had taken full advantage of their perquisites.

9. The opposition took a different tack (6:1‑19).

a. The wall was finished although all the doors had not been set up (6:1).

b. Sanballat and Geshem tried to lure Nehemiah into a trap (6:2‑9).

Nehemiah refused their invitation to come to the plain of Ono. They sent five different letters and finally threatened to tell the king of Persia that Nehemiah was leading a revolt with himself as king. Nehemiah denied their charge.

c. Shemaiah tried to lure Nehemiah into the temple so that he could be charged with improper activity (6:10‑14).

Shemaiah told him he would be safe in the temple. Nehemiah refused to go, perceiving that subterfuge was involved. Nehemiah prayed, committing himself to the Lord. (If Nehemiah were a eunuch, he would have been banned from the temple. Was Shemaiah trying to trick him so that he would be charged with improper conduct?)

Shemaiah was not the only prophet trying to mislead Nehemiah. A certain Noadiah the prophetess and the rest of the prophets were trying to frighten him as well.

d. The task was completed in spite of the fifth column in the city (6:15‑19).

The wall was finished in 52 days. This was a phenomenal achievement! It may be that the walls were not entirely destroyed by the Babylonians, or that the quality of his work was not of the highest nature, but even so Nehemiah accomplished a gigantic task. As a result, the enemies were discouraged. Communication had been going on between the enemies and certain Jews in the city. As a matter of fact, Jehohanan was the offspring of Tobiah who had married a Jewish girl. Tobiah is a Jewish name, but he seems to be excluded from the Jewish community by Nehemiah, so he may in actuality be a foreigner. This would be another case of mixed marriage and would explain the hesitancy of some Jews to follow Nehemiah.77

10. Nehemiah organized the city and reviewed the genealogy (7:1‑73).

a. He organized a watch for the city (7:1‑4).

The gates were installed, and Nehemiah appointed his brother and another man in charge of the city. The number of people in the city was small and the entire area was therefore quite vulnerable.

b. He reviewed the genealogy as found in Ezra 2 (7:5-73a).

The completion of the walls of the city was viewed by Nehemiah as a milestone in their history. Consequently, he reviewed the genealogies as they came from Babylon almost a century before. Myers (Ezra, Nehemiah) argues that Nehemiah may have used this list to encourage people to move into Jerusalem. The list, with a few exceptions, probably due to textual transmission, is the same as that in Ezra 2.

Ezra 2:70—3:1

Now the priests and the Levites, some of the people, the singers, the gate keepers, and the temple servants lived in their cities, and all Israel in their cities. Now when the seventh month came, and the sons of Israel were in the cities, the people gathered to-gether as one man to Jerusalem. Then Jeshua the son of Josadak and his brothers the priests, and Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, and his brothers arose and built the altar of the God of Israel, to offer burnt offerings on it, as it is written in the law of Moses, the man of God.

Nehemiah 7:73—8:1

Now the priests, the Levites, the gatekeepers, the singers, some of the people, the temple servants, and all Israel, lived in their cities. And all the people gathered as one man at the square which was in front of the Water Gate, and they asked Ezra the scribe to bring the book of the law of Moses which the Lord had given to Israel.

c. The people returned home in the seventh month (7:73b).

The genealogical list of Ezra 2 concluded with the people coming together under Zerubbabel and Jeshua to build the altar and to resume their worship in the land. Nehemiah used the same list and concluded with the people coming together to read the law under Ezra. This is a deliberate effort to link the two events: the altar was finished (Ezra 3) and the wall was finished (Nehemiah 7).

D. Revival of the people under Ezra and Nehemiah (8:1—12:47).

1. The reading of the Law of Moses began to play a very significant part in the lives of the people (8:1‑18).

Because of the sudden introduction for the first time in Nehemiah of Ezra, and because of the emphasis Ezra placed on the law in his own “memoirs” (Ezra 8), many scholars believe this chapter should follow Ezra 8 (or some such configuration). To do this, they must reject the mention of Nehemiah (8:9) as a later addition by the redactor.78 Fensham (The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah) argues for chap. 8 in its present location.

a. The reading of the law (8:1‑8).

The people called for Ezra the Interpreter (scribe) to bring the Book of the Law of Moses. Ezra brought the law before the people: (1) It was the first day of the seventh month, (2) he read to men and women who could understand (mebin lismo‘a מֵבִין לִשְׁמעַ = “discerning to hear”), (3) he read in the “wide place” before the water gate which probably gave access to the Gihon Spring, (4) he read it from early morning until noon. (Lit.: “from the light to the middle of the day.”) Ezra was surrounded by thirteen men as he spoke. The people stood when the law was about to be read, and Ezra led an invocation to which the people replied, “Amen, Amen” and bowed to the ground. The law was explained and translated to give the sense by thirteen men in addition to the Levites: (1) The word “explained” is מְבִינִים (mebinim) as in v. 2. It means to give understanding, discernment, i.e., to explain. (2) The word “translating” is מְפרָשׁ (meporash) and may mean “to translate” (from Hebrew to Aramaic) or “to interpret.” A literary device was created after the exile to handle the language problem called the “Targum.” This was an Aramaic paraphrase so that the people, whose Hebrew was rusty, could understand. That may be what is going on here.

b. The people responded favorably to the reading of the law (8:9‑18).

The leaders encouraged the people (8:9‑12).

Ezra, Nehemiah and the Levites told the people not to weep since this was a holy day. He (probably Ezra) told them to enjoy food and to rejoice in the Lord. The Levites quieted the people who then went away rejoicing. They sent gifts to one another and kept a great feast because they had understood the word of the Lord.

The assembly kept the feast of weeks or Succoth (Lev 23:39‑44) (8:13‑18).

The reading in the Law brought more information which they proceeded to carry out. The feast of booths was to remind them of the exodus from Egypt and was celebrated on the 15th of the seventh month. They built booths and lived in them. Ezra read from the book of the law of God for the seven days of the feast.

How do we understand 8:17 (“The sons of Israel had indeed not done so from the days of Joshua the son of Nun to that day”) in light of Ezra 3:4 that says Zerubbabel (in 538/7) led them in the celebration of Succoth? It is said of Josiah’s Passover: “Surely such a Passover had not been celebrated from the days of the judges who judged Israel, nor in all the days of the kings of Israel and of the kings of Judah” (2 Kings 23:22). This verse uses the word “like,” but the sentiment is similar. Nehemiah must be referring to the circumstances or the spirit of the celebration rather than to the celebration itself. However, Williamson (Ezra, Nehemiah) says, “They were enacting the ‘exodus’ from Babylon in Jerusalem (hence, the reference to Joshua) whereas previous booths may have been those used in the fields as part of the harvest.”

A logical question is why the Day of Atonement is not men-tioned here since it was to be observed on the tenth day of this same month between Trumpets and Succoth. Williamson argues that Succoth was more tied in with the reading of the law, and Atonement was now primarily a priestly matter. I assume he means that it was observed, but quietly, and by the priests.

2. Another day was set aside to read Scripture and worship the Lord (9:1‑38).

a. The people gathered on the twenty-fourth day of the seventh month with fasting (9:1‑4).

They were fasting and humbling themselves. They separated themselves from foreigners. They read from the law for one fourth of the day and confessed their sins for another fourth. The Levites were leading the worship from a platform.

b. The Levites led in a psalm of confession and praise (9:5‑38).

(This “recital of the acts of God” will become a stock form in the future presentations [cf. Stephen in Acts 7]). Yahweh is the creator God who made a covenant with Abraham (9:5‑8). Yahweh brought Israel from Egypt and made a covenant with them (9:9‑15). In spite of Israel’s arrogant disobedience, God was gracious to them for forty years and brought them into the promised land (9:16‑25). In spite of Israel’s sin in the land, God was continuously gracious until he sent them into captivity (9:26-31). The Levites called upon God to be gracious to them in their present distress and vowed to put their names in writing to separate themselves from the people of the land and to keep the covenant with God (9:32‑38).

3. The list of names and the vow were presented (10:1‑39).

a. The list contains the names of Nehemiah the governor, Zedekiah, and twenty-one priests; seventeen Levites and forty-four leaders of the people (10:1‑27).

b. They committed themselves to obey the Law of Moses (10:28‑31).

They promised to avoid mixed marriages (10:28‑30). (Some of those involved later in mixed marriages may not have taken this vow.)

They promised to keep the Sabbath holy and not to sell to Gen-tiles on that day (10:31a).

They promised to forego the crop of the seventh year (Sabbath year) and every loan made on pledge (release of debt, slaves) (10:31b).

c. They committed themselves to an annual temple tax (10:32-33).

There was no specific provision in the law for temple support on an ongoing basis, but some precedent was established in the half shekel of Exod 30:11‑16 and 38:25‑26.

d. They committed themselves to bring wood, first fruits, and tithes to the temple. In fine, they agreed to support the temple (10:34‑39).

4. The problem of the occupancy of the newly fortified city of Jerusalem was confronted and a name list was given (11:1—12:26).

The problem of the occupation of the city of Jerusalem was first addressed at 7:4. From that problem came the review of the census list with the end in mind of bringing people into the city. The solution to the problem is given in this chapter.

a. The leaders were already living in Jerusalem, but they cast lots to see which people would move in (11:1‑2).

b. The religious leaders moved to the city even though they owned property in the country (11:3).

c. The names of the Judahites and Benjamites who lived in the city are given (11:4‑9).

d. The names of the priests are given (11:10‑14).

e. The names of the Levites are given (total 284) (11:15‑18).

f. Other names are given. Gatekeepers are listed (total 172). Other people (priests, Levites and others) were living in their various cities. The temple servants were living in Ophel (11:19-21).

g. The Levitical leadership was controlled indirectly by the king of Persia (11:22‑24).

h. A list of various areas outside of Jerusalem is given (11:25‑36).

Verse 36 indicates that some of the Levites assigned to Judah were given to Benjamin.

i. The priests and Levites who came up with Zerubbabel (12:1‑7).

j. The Levites who were in charge of worship (12:8‑11).

Jeshua (538), Joiakim (?), Eliashib (458), Joiada (417, 40 years), Jonathan (377, Johanan? 40 years), Jaddua (337, 40 years).79 Williamson says (1) this list could be incomplete (another Johanan is known to have served, but is not in this list), (2) Josephus is wrong to date Jaddua as late as Alexander, or (3) there were two Jaddua’s.80 Cross says that Jaddua had to take office before 404.81

k. A list of priests is given (12:12‑21).

l. A list of Levites is given (12:22‑26) (who served in the period of Joiakim, Ezra and Nehemiah).

5. The wall of the city was dedicated (12:27‑43).

a. The Levites were summoned (12:27‑30).

b. Nehemiah appointed two choirs (12:31‑43).

One choir went south toward the refuse gate with Ezra. From there they went up to the fountain gate, up the stairs to David’s city and to the water gate on the east (12:31‑37).

The second choir lined up from the Broad wall to the Sheep gate and the Gate of the Guard (12:38‑43).

They sang and sacrificed. They seem to be somewhat opposite one another.

c. Men were appointed to be in charge of the stores, tithes, etc., to carry on the tradition begun by David (12:44‑47).

E. Nehemiah returned a second time (13:1-31).

1. Nehemiah enforced the law of Moses further (13:1‑9).

a. At the completion of the dedication, a reading of the law reminded them of the exclusion of Ammonites and Moabites (Deut 23:4‑7). As a result, they forced out all foreigners (13:1‑3).

b. Nehemiah recorded a past event in which Eliashib had become related by marriage to Tobiah (see the discussion at 2:17ff) (13:4‑9).

Tobiah may have been in charge of the Transjordan area which was called Ammon. He is probably being linked with the Ammonites here though he has a Jewish name.

Eliashib had prepared a special room for him in the temple when he visited (13:5).

Fensham (The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah) argues that this is not the same Eliashib as the high priest since this one is over the chamber.

Nehemiah speaks for the first time of the fact that he had been gone from Jerusalem for much of this time (Keil says several years) (13:6).

When he returned to Jerusalem, he threw Tobiah’s stuff out and cleansed the room (13:7‑9).

2. Nehemiah corrected the neglect of the Levites (13:10‑14).

In Nehemiah’s absence the temple servants had been neglected because the people did not pay the tithe. They were forced to go their farms for support. Nehemiah rebuked the leaders and rectified the situation.

3. Nehemiah corrected Sabbath abuses (13:15‑22).

The native Jews were not observing the Sabbath by continuing their normal daily work. Furthermore, Gentile merchants were selling stuff on the Sabbath. Nehemiah corrected this situation by closing the gates to prevent people from going in and out on the Sabbath. When the merchants tried to spend the night outside the walls, he threatened them with force.

4. Nehemiah corrected the problem of intermarriage that had cropped up again (13:23-29).

The perennial problem of intermarriage with pagans had to be dealt with again. The children of these marriages were barely able to speak Hebrew. Nehemiah took forthright action to stop the practice.

5. Nehemiah purified the Levites (13:30‑31).

Nehemiah summarizes his work and calls upon God again to rem-ember him for his work.


1Olmstead, The History of Persia, p. 1.

2Moscati, The Face of the Ancient Orient, p. 285.

3ANET, 304-305.

4The History of Herodotus, Clio I, paragraphs 108-119. See also de Sélencourt, The World of Herodotus, pp. 207-10.

5Cook, The Persian Empire, p. 24.

6Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, p. 37.

7Cyrus’ famous decree allowing people to return to their homelands (Ezra 1:1-4) was issued in 538 B.C This allowed the Jews to return to their homeland, but only a relatively small group of them actually returned under Sheshbazzar/Zerubbabel.

8ANET, p 316.

9See Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, pp. 39-40.

10When Babylon fell to him in 539 B.C., “Persia was raised to the position of a world empire, which encompassed the whole Near East.” (Stern, “The Archaeology of Persian Palestine,” 1:70).

11Ibid., p. 31.

12Wiseman, et al., Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel.

13So Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, pp. 86-87, and Cook, The Persian Empire, pp. 32,37. But Wiseman, Notes on Some Problems, says that Cambyses was never called “king.”

14Cook, The Persian Empire, p. 32.

15Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, pp. 86-87.

16Cook, The Persian Empire, p. 46.

17See Ibid., pp. 50-55.

18The Behistun inscription in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian, is an “auto-biography” of Darius. For a discussion on the inscription and bibliography, see Olm-stead, History of the Persian Empire, pp. 116-18.

19Cook, The Persian Empire, p 56.

20E.M. Blaiklock, “Persia” in ZPBD.

21Ibid.

22Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land: From the Persia to the Arab Conquests (536 B.C. to A.D. 640); a Historical Geography, p. 11.

23Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, p. 59.

24Stern, The New Encyclopedia, 78.

25Ibid.

26Cross, “Papyri from the Fourth Century B.C From Daliyeh,” 41-62.

27Stern, The New Encyclopedia, p. 80.

28Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land, pp. 13-14.

29Ibid., p. 13.

30Stern, The New Encyclopedia, p 81. See Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land from the Persian Period to the Arab Conquest, p. 367, for a map of the provinces.

31H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, p. xxiii.

32W. F. Albright, JBL 40 (1921) 104‑24; more recently, Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah, lxviii-lxx.

33Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, p. xxxi.

34Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, p. xxiv, argues that seven sources underlie Ezra 1‑6: (a) the decree of Cyrus (1:2‑4); (b) the inventory of temple vessels (1:9‑11); (c) the list of those returning (chap. 2, a compilation of those who returned during the first twenty years or so of Achaemenid rule); (d) two letters which the editor summarizes at 4:6 and his writing of 4:1‑3; (e) a letter in Aramaic from Rehum and others to Artaxerxes (4:8‑16) and (f) Artaxerxes’ reply (4:17‑22); (g) a letter from Tattenai to Darius (5:6‑17) and (h) Darius’ reply.

35See also Porten, Archives of Elephantine, p. 26.

36Myers, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. lxii.

37Myers, Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. lvii-lxii.

38Williamson, Ezra-Nehemiah, p. 93.

39Fensham, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 103. See also Myers, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 62.

40On Persian interest in local religions, see p. 355.

41Williamson, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 100.

42Ibid., p. 101.

43B. Mazar, “The Tobiads,” IEJ 7 (1957): 137-145; 229-238.

44Ibid., p. 144.

45Ibid.

46Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, pp. 182-183.

47Fensham, The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 260.

48See Naveh, “Hebrew Texts in Aramaic Script in the Persian Period?” BASOR 203 (1971): 27-32, for Aramaic script.

49Fensham, The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. 149-50.

50 M. Throntveit (“Ezra-Nehemiah” in Interpretation, p. 37) says: “In the per-spective of these books, the salient theological moments of the restoration period cohere in three parallel returns—under Zerubbabel (Ezra 1-6), Ezra (Ezra 7-10), and Nehemiah (Neh 1:1—7:3)—each of which resulted in a different project of reconstruction, namely, the temple, the community, and the walls.”

51All the kings of the entire world from the Upper to the Lower Sea, those who are seated in throne rooms, (those who) live in other [types of buildings as well as] all the kings of the West land living in tents, brought their heavy tributes and kissed my feet in Babylon (Su.an.na). (As to the region) from . . . as far as Ashur and Susa, Agade, Eshnunna, the towns Zamban, Me-Turnu, Der as well as the region of the Gutians, I returned to (these) sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I (also) gathered all their (former) inhabitants and returned (to them) their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the command of Marduk, the great lord, all the gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus has brought into Babylon (Su.an.naki) to the anger of the lord of the gods, unharmed, in their (former) chapels, the places which make them happy.

May all the gods whom I have resettled in their sacred cities ask daily Bel and Nebo for a long life for me and may they recommend me (to him); to Marduk, my lord, they may say this: Cyrus, the king who worships you, and Cambyses, his son, . . . all of them I settled in a peaceful place . . . ducks and doves, . . . I endeavoured to fortify/repair their dwelling places. . . . ANET, 316-17, supplement with Berger, ZAW 64 [1975]:192‑234).

52Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, argues that they are two different men; so Fensham, The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. 49‑50. J. Myers, Ezra-Nehemiah, p. 28, suggests that Sheshbazzar would have been old (55-60) and Zerubbabel about 40. As his deputy, he was the active leader.

53The language of 4:8 through 6:18 is Aramaic. This is because so many of the transactions regarding the rebuilding of the temple involved official correspondence with the Persian government. The language of government and commerce was Aramaic. Even the transition verses (4:17, 23‑24; 5:1‑6; 6:1‑2, 13‑16;) are in Aramaic. The concluding verses (6:19‑22) are in Hebrew which as Williamson says (Ezra, Nehemiah, p. 73), are probably written in the Jewish language as a fitting conclusion to this section. The use of “King of Assyria” in this passage is a loose construction. Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah, says that Herodotus and Xenophon refer to Babylon as the capital of Assyria.

54A number of historical problems exist in the identification of this letter.

The older commentaries link Ahasuerus with Cambyses (this would then place the letter in 529 B. C). They also link Artaxerxes with Gaumata (as Darius called him) who struggled for the throne after the death of Cambyses in 522 B.C. Working from A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, and J. M. Cook, The Persian Empire, Cambyses ruled from 529 to 522 and left for Egypt in 526 never to return to Mesopotamia (he died near Mt. Carmel). If he is indeed Ahasuerus, he would also be the Persian king of Esther. This is not impossible but Cook says that Cambyses was in Babylonia at Abanu near Uruk in 528. The setting for Esther is Susa in the Satrap of Elam. He could have returned to Susa for the events of Esther during the two years before he left for Egypt.

(2) The Artaxerxes/Gaumata/Smerdis/Bardiya equation is more difficult since it is made nowhere else that I know of, and it would require the introduction of an otherwise unknown Artaxerxes. Furthermore, this was a time of great disturbance with Bardiya (Cambyses’ brother) taking over the throne. He only ruled about six months. It is more difficult to suppose that the leaders of Samaria would write to Bardiya/Gaumata while Cambyses was in their area or that the time would permit a letter and a response as in Ezra 4.

(3) The letter does not speak of the temple (the situation in question), but it does speak of the walls—a situation apropos to Nehemiah’s time (the historical situation underlying the accusation in Ahasuerus’ [Xerxes’] time, and the aborted attempt to build a wall in Artaxerxes’ time are otherwise unknown).

(4) The temple was completed according to the decrees of Cyrus, Darius and Artaxerxes (6:14). The order is important. It is not Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius as in Chapter 4, but Cyrus, Darius Artaxerxes. Ezra, the writer of this book, is functioning under the decree of Artaxerxes (458 B.C.). That decree mentions the temple in 7:11, 15, 16, 23 and even says the temple is to be adorned in 7:27. Ezra, therefore, views Artaxerxes’ decree as having a vital function in relation to the temple.

(5) Williamson (Ezra, Nehemiah, p. 59) citing others, argues that 4:5 and 4:24 are literary markers (referring to Darius) that indicate the insertion of material in between.

I therefore would concur with Keil and now Fensham, The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah, that this chapter contains a collage of letter writing used to illustrate the continuous opposition the Jews encountered.

55See p. 343, for a discussion of Ezra’s work.

56Throntveit, “Ezra and Nehemiah,” p. 41 indicates that there are seven priests after Aaron, seven after Azariah, and finally Ezra the priest (in Ezra; in Chronicles it is Jehozadok).

57See p. 344, for a description of a scribe.

58Williamson, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 93.

59Fensham, The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 103, see also Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah, p. 62.

60Porten, Archives from Elephantine, p. 23.

61See Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, for a defense of the authenticity of this list.

62See Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah, p. 67, who says, “six hundred and fifty talents. Slightly over 24.5 tons. . . . On the value of these contributions, cf. Pavlovsky, Biblica 38 (1957), 297-301.”

63Note the stress on separation (nivdal נִבְדַּל). The Pharisee sect apparently took their name from the Hebrew word “paraš” (פָּרַשׁ, to separate).

64Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, loc. cit.

65Throntveit (Ezra-Nehemiah) says on p. 36, “The theme of exclusivity, which first arose in the careful investigation of lineage in chapter 2 and formed the basis of the community’s refusal of the assistance offered in 4:1, is furthered in the application of the term ‘Israel’ to the ‘returned exiles’ (v. 16. These, and these alone, who understand themselves as the purified remnant of Israel of old, can lay claim to being the people of God.”

66See Williamson, Ezra and Nehemiah, for a discussion of the wall. Some have used this verse to argue that Ezra came back after Nehemiah, but the word “wall” is geder (גֶּדֶר) not the normal word for city wall (ḥomah חוֹמָה). He argues for a metaphorical usage of a vineyard wall.

67See Ibid., for an excellent discussion of the difficulties associated with this list and the chronology of Ezra-Nehemiah.

68E.g., Williamson, Ezra and Nehemiah. See Fensham, The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah, for a good current discussion that is also somewhat conservative.

69See p. 345, for a fuller discussion of Hanani.

70See Fensham, The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah, for a discussion of the important place the cupbearer held in the palace.

71Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah.

72See p. 346, for a discussion of the enemies of Nehemiah.

73For a popular discussion, see Avigad, Discovering Jerusalem. For a discussion of the province of Judah in general, see M. Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land from the Persian to the Arab Conquests (536 B.C. to A. D. 640); a Historical Geography, pp. 11-31.

74See Avigad, Discovering Jerusalem, for a discussion of the broad wall.

75M. Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land from the Persian to the Arab Conquests (536 B.C. to A.D. 640) A Historical Geography, p. 30.

76See Williamson, Ezra and Nehemiah, for a defense of the chronological sequence of chapters 4 and 5.

77For a discussion on the Tobiad family, see B. Mazar, “The Tobiads,” IEJ 7 (1957) 137-45; 229-38.

78See for example, Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah.

79See Keil & Delitzsch, p. 150, for a defense of the idea that Nehemiah lived long enough to see Jaddua at age 25.

80Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, p. 363.

81F. M. Cross, “Papyri of the Fourth Century B.C. from Daliyeh,” p. 56.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

10. Esther

Related Media

I. Introduction.

LaSor, et al., say: “Esther is a remarkably different biblical book: neither the word for God nor the name Yahweh occurs in the Hebrew text; the scene is Susa, winter capital of Persia, not Israel; the book concerns the marriage of its Jewish heroine with a gentile king; it solves the problem of an incipient anti-Semitism (actually, anti-Jewish action) by a bloody self-defense, which—even worse—is so enjoyable that it is repeated by Esther’s request on the following day! Nevertheless, the scroll belongs in the canon, as Jewish scholars recognized after long discussion, and commands consideration.”1

Actually, LaSor’s assessment is too negative. The story of Esther shows God’s providential protection of His people in exile and explains the origin of the feast of Purim. Esther is presented in story form whereas the material we have covered so far is more historical narrative. More than story, it is drama and can almost be divided into scenes as we will do.2

The Ahasuerus of 1:1 is usually linked with Xerxes (485‑465 B.C.). Ahasu-erus is also mentioned in Ezra 4:6. Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks at Salamis and Plataea in 480 B.C. The events of Esther 2 and following are usually linked with those events. Vashti is linked by Wright with Amestris, Xerxes’ wife and the situation of Esther 2 is linked with Herodotus’ story of Amestris’ vengeance on her husband by mutilating the mother of a girl with whom he had a dalliance.

II. Outline of Esther.

A. Scene 1: The Great Banquet (Preparation for the Greek War?) (1:1‑22).

1. The historical background for the book is given (1:1‑2).

India to Ethiopia is the vast Persian territory known from the Greek sources. The 127 provinces are not to be confused with the Satrapies. Judah was a province under the Satrap of Abar Nahara. (Herodotus says there were 20 Satrapies.) The setting is in the capital of Susa (one of three).

2. The king throws a party for all his important invited guests (1:3‑9) (N. B. his third year).

The first one lasts for 180 days (1:3‑4). The second one for even more people lasts seven days (1:5‑8). Vashti/Amestris has a banquet for the women (1:9).

3. The king demands an appearance of Vashti (1:10‑22).

The king, in a drunken stupor, decides to show off his wife (1:10‑11). Vashti refuses (perhaps he wanted some lewd performance from her; Wright thinks she might have been pregnant) (1:12). The king consults with his counselors to determine the proper punishment for his wife (1:13‑15). They advise the king to depose his wife and to inform all the people of his provinces of his act so that every man may be master in his house (1:16‑22).

B. Scene 2: Four years later—the introduction of Esther and Mordecai (2:1‑23).

1. The lapse of four years (1:1 with 2:16) is probably to be accounted for by the years of preparation for the Greek war and the war itself.

Wright links the replacement of Vashti/Amestris with Xerxes’ desire to get rid of his wife after she had mutilated the wife of Xerxes’ brother. He says the vow at the banquet now becomes an excuse for him to replace her.

2. The king is advised to seek out young virgins and to choose a new queen from among them (2:1-4).

3. Mordecai and Esther are now introduced to the story (2:5‑7).

a. Mordecai is probably a corruption of Babylonian Marduk, a Babylonian deity.

Kish was Saul’s father; Shimei was the one who cursed David when he fled. These may be presented as ancestors, not immediate relatives. The question arises about the age of Mordecai: if he were carried away even as a baby, he would be over 120 years old. The answer may be that the “who” of v. 6 refers to Kish (assuming this is not Saul’s father, but a later man who was Mordecai’s actual father).

Wright equates him with a Martakas, a eunuch who was very close to the king in his campaign against the Greeks and with a Marduka, a high official at Susa during the early years of Xerxes. He may have had a political set‑back (did he side with Vashti/Amestris and lose ground?). He had to have some political clout to get Esther introduced and to ignore Haman’s demands to bow to him.3

b. Esther (her Hebrew name was Hadassah or “Myrtle”) has a Persian name related to the Greek word aster or “Star.” Mordecai, her cousin, reared her after the death of her parents.

4. Esther is chosen as the new queen (2:8‑18).

a. Esther gains favor with the eunuch in charge (2:8‑9).4 She does not reveal her Jewish identity as Mordecai had instructed her (2:10). Mordecai keeps in touch (2:11). Esther greatly pleases the king and he chooses her as his new queen (2:12‑18).

b. The reality of this situation must be faced. Esther is competing with other young women to become the queen and a part of the harem. She had sex with the king and was then selected to become the queen. This is hardly the Old Testament picture of virtue, but God uses the situation in spite of the “non-ideal” setting.

5. Mordecai shows loyalty to the king which will grant him favor in the days to come (2:19‑23).

The pace quickens as Mordecai is allowed to overhear a plot against the king’s life.5 Mordecai passed the word on to Esther who informed the king in Mordecai’s name and it became a part of court chronicles. This is important for the later situation. The plot was frustrated and the conspirators hanged.

C. Scene 3: Introduction of the enemy Haman (3:1‑15).

1. Haman the Agagite wants to destroy all Jews (3:1‑6).

a. Agag is the name of the Amalekite Saul spared (1 Samuel 15); is this intended irony that a descendent of Saul is pitted against a descendent of Agag? There is no way to prove any connection (3:1).

b. Mordecai refuses to bow to Haman (because of implications of deity or other reasons?), and Haman is infuriated and decides to attack all Jews (3:2‑6).

2. Haman makes plans to destroy the Jews (3:7‑15).

He casts lots to find a lucky day. In the twelfth year of the king (451 B.C.) he convinces the king to kill the Jews in the various provinces and take their money (3:8‑11).6 The official letters are drawn up and sent out (3:12‑15).

D. Scene 4: Haman is defeated by Mordecai and Esther (4:1—7:10).

1. Mordecai forces Esther’s hand to help the Jews (4:1‑17).

Mordecai fasts and wails in the midst of the city, and there is mourning in all the provinces (4:1‑3). Esther tries to comfort him, but he tells her of the imminent threat and asks her to appeal to the king (4:4‑8). Esther tells him there is nothing she can do, but Mordecai warns her she will not escape. She agrees to approach the king if the Jewish community will fast for her (4:9‑17).

2. Esther approaches the king with prudence and sets her trap (5:1‑14).

a. She is received by the king, and at his bidding requests a banquet with Haman present (5:1‑4).7

b. Haman comes to this feast, and the queen asks that he come again the next day to another feast (5:5‑8).

c. Haman is thrilled and recounts all his good fortune to his family. However, his enthusiasm is dampened by the fact that Mordecai refuses to honor him (notice the irony building up). His wife and friends suggest that he prepare a high gallows on which to hang Mordecai (5:9‑15).8

3. The first step in Haman’s downfall is the elevation of Mordecai (6:1‑14).

a. The king’s insomnia leads him to promote Mordecai (6:1‑9).

The chronicles are read to put him to sleep, and he is reminded of Mordecai’s act that saved his life (6:1‑2). The king wants to honor him and calls for the first person in the court who happens to be Haman (6:3‑4). (He had come to ask about having Mordecai hanged.) Haman is asked for suggestions to honor someone, and he happily complies, thinking he is the someone (6:5‑9). (Notice more irony building up.)

b. Haman is humiliated by having to carry out the honor he hoped would be his but is given to Mordecai (6:10‑14).

He leads an ornately attired Mordecai on a horse proclaiming his honor (6:10‑11). He goes home completely embarrassed and receives his summons to appear at the banquet (6:12‑14). (When it rains, it pours.)

4. The final step in Haman’s downfall comes at the banquet (7:1‑10).

The king asks Esther to make her request. Esther tells him of an enemy of her people, and when the king asks who, she tells him it is Haman (7:1‑6). The king walks away in his anger, and Haman falls on Esther’s couch to plead mercy. The king orders his execution, and he is hanged on the tree designed for Mordecai (7:7‑10).

E. Scene 5: Disaster is averted by Mordecai and Esther’s action (8:1—9:19).

1. The king’s original edict cannot be rescinded, but it is negated (8:1‑17).

Esther tells the king she is Mordecai’s cousin, and Mordecai is given Haman’s job (8:1‑2). Esther pleads for her people (8:3‑6). The king allows Mordecai to write the Jews allowing them to defend themselves (8:7‑14).9 The Jews in Susa and all the provinces rejoice (8:15‑17).

2. The Jews gain the victory over the enemies (9:1‑19).

The Jews defend themselves and kill 500 people in Susa alone in addition to Haman’s ten sons (9:1‑10). Esther requests an extension of one day to allow the Jews to take further vengeance (9:11‑15). (This seems quite vindictive.) The Jews in the other provinces have equal success (9:16‑19).

F. Scene 6: Mordecai and Esther establish the feast of Purim (9:20‑32).

1. Mordecai records these events (is he the author of the book of Esther, and did he avoid the mention of Yahweh to avoid offending Xerxes who was a worshipper of Ahurrmazda?) (9:20‑29). Since Haman was looking for a lucky day by casting lots (pur), they called these days Purim.

2. Mordecai and Esther sent out letters establishing this feast officially (9:30‑32).

G. Scene 7: Mordecai is exalted (10:1‑3).

1. The Persian chronicles are being quoted which close this section with a mention of tribute imposed by the king (10:1).

2. The next section of the chronicles mentions the greatness of Mordecai (10:2‑3).

He was second to the king, esteemed among the Jews, and in favor with the multitude of his kinsmen.


1LaSor, et al., Old Testament Survey, p. 624.

2The historicity of Esther is questioned by critical scholars, but see Wright, “The Historicity of Esther.” pp. 37‑47.

3See Wright, “The Historicity of the Book of Esther.”

4Cf. Daniel in Daniel 3.

5Gordis, “Studies in the Esther Narrative,” JBL 95 (1976): 183, says that Esther immediately had Mordecai promoted to a minor magistrate.

6This would have been seven years after Ezra returned to Jerusalem—how would it have affected the group in Judah?

7Cf. the request of the daughter of Xerxes’ brother’s wife for his robe. Herodotus, Histories, Book IX.

8Fifty cubits—75 feet—may just mean very high gallows.

9Gordis, “Studies in the Esther Narrative,” pp. 43-48. He is probably correct when he argues that 8:11 uses the phrase “women and children” as part of the direct object of “attack.” The Jews thus were not enjoined to kill women and children but to protect them from their attackers.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

11. Works Cited In Notes And Abbreviations

Related Media

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary.

Albright, W. F. From Stone age to Christianity. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1957.

_____. “King Jehoiachin in Exile.” Biblical Archaeologist Reader #1.

_____. “Debir,” in Archaeology and Old Testament Study. D. W. Thomas, Ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967.

_____. Archaeology and the Religion of Israel. NY: Doubleday, 1968.

_____. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan. NY: Doubleday, 1969.

Amerding, C. “Were David’s Sons Really Priests.” In Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation. G. F. Hawthorne, ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.

Anderson, A. A. 2 Samuel. In Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word, 1989.

ANEP Ancient Near East in Pictures. J. B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1969.

ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts. As above.

Archer, G. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. Chicago: Moody, 1964.

Avigad, N. Discovering Jerusalem. Shikmona Pub. Co., 1980.

Avi-Yonah, M. The Holy Land: From Persia to the Arab Conquests (536 B.C. to A.D. 640); a Historical Geography, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966.

Bähr, K. C. “The Books of the Kings.” In Commentary on the Holy Scriptures. By J. P. Lange. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1960. Reprint.

BAR Biblical Archaeology Review.

Barstad, H. M. The Myth of the Empty Land. Oslo: Scandinavian Univ. Press, 1996.

BDB Brown Driver and Briggs Hebrew Lexicon.

BHS Biblica Hebraica Stuttgartensia.

BKC Bible Knowledge Commentary.

BibSac Bibliotheca Sacra.

Blaiklock, E. M. “Persia.” In Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary.

Block, D. I. Judges, Ruth. In New American Commentary. Nashville: B & H Publishing Group, 1999.

Boling, R. G. Joshua. In the Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: Doubleday, 1982.

Bright, J. History of Israel. Phila: Westminster, 1959.

Bruce, F. F. Israel and the Nations, from the Exodus to the Fall of the Second Temple. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963.

Butler, T. C. Judges. In Word Biblical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

CAH Cambridge Ancient History.

Campbell, E. F. Ruth. In Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: Doubleday, 1975.

Childs, B. S. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Phila: Fortress, 1979.

Chisholm, R. B. Judges and Ruth. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2013.

Cline, E. The Battles of Megiddo. Ann Arbor: University Press, 2000.

Cook, J. M. The Persian Empire. NY: Schocken, 1983.

Craige, P. C. Deuteronomy. In New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976.

Cross, F. M. “Papyri of the Fourth Century B.C. from Daliyeh” in New Directions in Biblical Archaeology, eds. D. N. Freedman and J. C. Greenfield, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969.

Dahood, M. Psalms. In Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: 3 Vols. Doubleday, 1965.

Deere, J. Deuteronomy, in BHK.

Delitzsch, F. Joshua and Judges. In Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950. Reprint.

DeVries, S. J. First Kings. In Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word Books, 1985.

Dillow, J. C. Solomon on Sex. New York: Nelson, 1977.

ESV. English Standard Version.

Fensham, F. Ezra/Nehemiah in New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.

Fokkelman, J. P. Narrative Art and Poetry in the Books of Samuel. Vol. 1. Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1981.

Freedman, D. N. “The Babylonian Chronicle.” Biblical Archaeologist Reader #1.

Garstang, John. Joshua Judges, Grand Rapids: Kregel, reprint, 1978.

_____. The Story of Jericho. Rev. Ed. London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, 1948.

HALOT Hebrew Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament.

Hanson, V. D The Case for Trump. NY: Basic Books, 2019.

Hawthorne, G., Ed. Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.

Heater, Homer. God Rules Among Men. Easley, SC: Hesed Publications, 2019.

_____. “Young David and the Practice of Wisdom,” in Integrity of Heart, Skillfulness of Hands. Eds., Dyer and Zuck. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994.

_____. Bible History and Archaeology. Easley SC: Hesed Publications, 2016.

_____. “A Theology of Samuel and Kings.” In Biblical Theology of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody, 1991.

_____. Tr. of Joüon, P. Ruth, a Philological and Exegetical Commentary. Easley SC: Hesed Publications, 2013.

_____. “Jeremiah.” In The Old Testament Prophets, an Outline. Easley, SC: Hesed Publications, 2015.

Hertzberg, First and Second Samuel in the Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1960.

Hobbs, T. R. Second Kings. In Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word Books Publisher, 1985.

HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual.

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society.

JQR Jewish Quarterly Review.

Joüon, P. Ruth, a Philological and Exegetical Commentary. Tr. Homer Heater. Easley SC: Hesed Publications, 2013.

Keil, C. F. Joshua and Judges. In Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950. Reprint.

_____. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. In Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950. Reprint.

_____ and F. Delitzsch. The Books of Samuel. In Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950. Reprint.

_____. I and II Chronicles. In Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950. Reprint.

Kenyon, K. “Jericho” in Archaeology and Old Testament Study. D. W. Thomas, Ed. Clarendon Press, 1967.

Kidner, D. Proverbs, An Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove: IVP, 1964.

Kitchen, Kenneth. On the Reliability of the Old Testament, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. 2003.

_____. “Ancient Orient, “Deuteronism,’ and the Old Testament.” New Perspectives on the Old Testament. J. B. Payne, Ed. Waco: Word, 1970.

KJV King James Version.

LaSor, et al. Old Testament Survey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.

LXX Septuagint.

Lindblom, J. Prophecy in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press 1962.

Machlin, Milt. Joshua’s Altar. NY: Morrow and Co., 1991.

Mazar, A. Archaeology and the Land of the Bible. NY: Doubleday, 1990.

McCarter, Kyle. I Samuel in Anchor Bible. Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1980.

Macdonald, J. The Theology of the Samaritans. London: SCM Press Ltd., 1964.

_____. II Samuel in Anchor Bible. Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1984.

Merrill, E. A Kingdom of Priests, a History of Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

Montgomery, J. A. Kings. In International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1951.

Moran, W. L. The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.

Moscati, S. The Face of the Ancient Orient. NY: Doubleday, 1962.

MS, MSS Manuscript, Manuscripts.

Myers, J. M. Chronicles. 2 Vols. In Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: Doubleday, 1965.

_____. Ezra and Nehemiah in the Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: Doubleday, 1965.

NASB New American Standard Bible.

NIV New International Version.

NJB New Jerusalem Bible.

Noth, M. History of Israel. Trans. S. Godman. New York: Harper, 1958.

_____. Old Testament World. Fortress, 1966.

_____. Das System der Zwölf Stämme Israels. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1930.

Olmstead, A. T. History of the Persian Empire. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1948.

OROT On the Reliability of the Old Testament.

Pope, M. H. Job. In Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: Doubleday, 1965.

Porten. Archives of Elephantine. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press, 1968.

Pritchard, J. B. Gibeon, where the Sun Stood Still. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962.

Provan, Ian, V. Philips Long, Tremper Longman III. A Biblical History of Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.

Reed, W. L. “Gibeon,” in Archaeology and Old Testament Study. D. W. Thomas, Ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962.

Schedl, History of the Old Testament. Vol. 1-5. NY: Alba House, 1972.

Scott, R. B. Y. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes. In Anchor Bible Commentary. NY: Doubleday, 1965.

Segal, M. H. The Pentateuch. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967.

Sélincourt, Aubrey de. The World of Herodotus. Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1962.

Shanks, H. The Rise of Ancient Israel. Wash. D. C.: The Biblical Archaeology Society, 2004.

Smith, W. R. The Prophets of Israel. 2nd ed. London: A. C. Black, 1895.

Stern, E. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeology Excavations in the Holy Land. Ed. Negev and Gipson.

_____. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. 2, The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Periods, 732–332 BCE. New York: Doubleday, 2001.

_____. (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Simon & Schuster, 1993.

_____. “The Archaeology of Persian Palestine,” W.D. Davies and L. Finkelstein, eds, 1:70).

Thiele, E. Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.

Throntveit, M. “Ezra-Nehemiah.” In Interpretation. Louisville: John Knox Press, 1992,

Unger, M. F. Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1954.

_____. Israel and the Arameans of Damascus. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1957.

Von Rad. Old Testament Theology. New York: Harper, 1962-65.

Williamson, H. G. M. Ezra, Nehemiah. In the Word Biblical Commentary. Waco: Word Publisher, 1985.

Wiseman, D. J. The Babylonian Chronicle. London: British Museum, 1956.

_____. et al. Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel. London: The Tyndale Press, 1965.

Wood, L. A Survey of Israel’s History. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970.

Woudstra, M.H. The Book of Joshua. In New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.

Wright, G. E. Biblical Archaeology. Phila: Westminster, 1957.

_____. “Introduction.” In R. G. Boling. Joshua. In the Anchor Bible Commentary. Garden City: Doubleday, 1982.

Wright, J. S. “The Historicity of Esther.” In New Perspectives on the Old Testament. J. B. Payne, Ed. Waco: Word, 1970.

Würthwein, E. The Text of the OT. Tr. P. Ackroyd. Oxford: Blackwell, 1957.

Yadin, Y. The Finds from the Bar-Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1963.

Young, E. J. My Servants the Prophets. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952.

ZPBD Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary.

The Old Testament Historical Books (Joshua Through Esther): An Outline

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Preface

The Old Testament historical books (Joshua to Esther) represent the development of the people of Israel from their entrance to Canaan to their exile to Babylon. They are essential for understanding the history and faith of God’s people.

It has been my pleasure and delight to serve the Lord both as pastor and professor for over 60 years. Most of those years have been spent in the classroom. These outline notes are the product of that labor and, even though they are designed for everyone, some linguistic aspects are more usable by seminary graduates.

Most of my time at Capital Bible Seminary was invested in Hebrew grammar and exegesis. My years at Dallas were primarily in the Bible Exposition Department where I taught Historical Books for eight years.

We live in strange days. W. F. Albright, almost single handedly, in the middle of the last century, moved the Old Testament theological needle from radical liberal to moderately conservative. He believed there was an Abraham, that Moses was monotheistic, that there was an exodus, and that archaeology and Bible study went hand in hand. He had such towering scholarship that many became his followers, and few were his critics.

Now, however, that needle has swung back. The so-called minimalists believe in very little biblical history. There was virtually nothing in the David/Solomon era, and, of course, no patriarchal history, no exodus, and no conquering of the land.

These notes represent an attempt to interact with the critical issues and still maintain a conservative view of Scripture. My prayer is that they will be helpful to those who use them

Suggestions and corrections are always welcome.

Homer Heater, Jr.

Capital Bible Seminary

For a print version of this resource, it may be purchased here on Amazon.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Old Testament, Pastors, Teaching the Bible

Old Testament Wisdom And Poetry (Job Through Song Of Solomon): An Outline

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Preface

For eight years, I taught students historical books, prophets, and wisdom literature at Dallas Theological Seminary, and at Capital Bible Seminary for 30 years. It gives one great joy to see many of those students entering the ministry and serving the Lord.

Wisdom (Proverbs) and Psalms are favorite parts of the Bible to believers. Job is known primarily through chapters 1-2 and 42. The rest of Job is usually ignored, and Ecclesiastes is especially avoided. It is hoped that these notes will bring enlightenment on these books and, perhaps, lead the reader into a fuller understanding of their intent and content.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Pastors, Teaching the Bible

1. Proverbs

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Introduction To Wisdom

Wisdom literature has two types of literary genre that are very significant and quite different from the material found in the Historical books: Hebrew poetry and Hebrew wisdom literature. We will give a cursory introduction now so that we can appreciate the material we are studying.

1. Hebrew Poetry. See discussion under Psalms.

2. Hebrew Wisdom Literature

LaSor, et al. point out two main types of wisdom writing: proverbial wisdom—short, pithy sayings which state rules for personal happiness and welfare or condense the wisdom of experience and make acute observations about life; and contemplative or speculative wisdom—monologues, dialogues, or essays which delve into basic problems of human existence such as the meaning of life and the problem of suffering. They hasten to add that “speculative” and “contemplative” should not be interpreted in a philosophical sense because the Hebrews always thought in historical, concrete terms.1

Most of Proverbs fit the first category, and Job and Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth) fit the second. Some of each will be found in the Psalms, and other parts of Scripture. Some of Jesus’ teaching will fall into the category of wisdom literature as he uses proverbs, pithy sayings, monologues and essays to convey his teaching. See also the discussion of Psalm 49 as a wisdom Psalm.

I am putting Proverbs first in the notes because they are in the first category. We know from 1 Kings 4:29-31 as well as the extrabiblical literature, that wisdom was common in that world. Wisdom deals with what is “under the sun.” In other words, how do we conduct ourselves in this world. All wisdom teaching was concerned with right conduct, but Proverbs brings an element absent from non-biblical wisdom: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.” Generally speaking, wisdom teaches that A (right conduct) leads to B (God’s blessing), C (wicked conduct) leads to D (God’s judgment). John 9:1-3 is an example of how the disciples were still following this paradigm. Job and Qoheleth are attacking the absolute application of this formula. Of course, it generally works out according to the paradigm, but not always. Wise conduct is always right, but it does not always bring the looked-for blessing. Still, it is to be followed.2

Proverbs

I. Introductory data.

A. Contents. “Proverbs seems to contain at least eight separate collections, distinguishable by either an introductory subtitle or a striking change in literary style. Prov. 1:1‑6 is a general introduction or superscription, clarifying both the book’s purpose and its connection with Solomon, Israel’s master sage.”3

Contents—LaSor, eight separate collections, Crenshaw, James L. Old Testament Wisdom, an Introduction, Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981, in brackets.

B. Authorship. There is more than one author to the proverbs. Solomon, as the principal and best-known author is listed in the heading, but there are others, some of whom are non-Israelite. Kidner is probably correct about the composition of the book: “As to its editing Proverbs gives us one statement (25:1), which shows that the book was still in the making at c. 700 BC, about 250 years after Solomon. It is a fair assumption, but no more, that chapters 30‑31 were added later as existing collections, and chapters 1‑9 placed as the introduction to the whole by the final editor.”4

C. “Limits of Wisdom. In seeking to interpret the various proverbs and apply them to life, one must bear in mind that they are generalizations. Though stated as absolutes—as their literary form requires—they are meant to be applied in specific situations and not indiscriminately. Knowing the right time to use a proverb was part of being wise: ‘A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in a setting of silver’ (25:11).”5 “Haste makes waste. “He who hesitates is lost.”

D. Proverbs tend to be stated in absolutes: A = B; that is, if one obeys God, one is blessed with health, long life, and prosperity. On the contrary, C = D; that is if one disobeys God, one is cursed with bad health, early death, and poverty. Job and Ecclesiastes are wisdom books written to wrestle with the exceptions. Job’s friends are determined to prove that in his case the prevailing idea of wisdom controls: C = D. Job, however, argues (rightly) that in his case A = D. He can only conclude that God is unjust. In the end, the question of “why” is not answered; God simply says, I am sovereign and can do what I wish. Man must trust God; that He will always do right. But even in Proverbs A does not equal B and C does not equal D. See Prov. 16:8, 16, 19, 32; 17:1.

E. The place of torah תּוֹרָה (law) in the book.

The word “law” occurs in the introduction (1:8—9:18) six times; in the proverbs of Solomon (10:1—22:16) one time; in Solomon’s proverbs copied out by Hezekiah’s men (25:1—29:27) four times; and in the section by Lemuel’s mother one time.

At no time is the phrase “the law of Moses” used, nor “God’s law,” nor any other phrase that would tie the teaching of Proverbs directly to the law. However, the phrases “my law,” “the law of your mother” (parallel to “instruction of your father” and “commandment of your father”) seem to have a subtle indication that behind the instruction of father, mother, teacher, lies the covenant law of God. This is particularly indicated in such phrases as “wreath to your head” and “ornaments about your neck,” (1:8,9); “bind them about your neck; write them upon the tablet of your heart,” (3:3, here it is kindness and truth) “bind them continually on your heart; tie them around your neck; when you walk about, etc.,” (6:21-22) “bind them on your fingers; write them on the tablet of your heart,” (7:3); which sound much like the Deuteronomic admonitions that eventually led to the practice of wearing phylacteries (Deut 6:1-9). The pertinent references are 1:8; 3:1; 4:2; 6:20,23; 7:2; 13:14; 28:4,7,9; 29:18; 31:26.

There is a cluster at the beginning and one at the end of the book. 13:14 could be mere teaching (vs. the law), but all the other references are set out on the backdrop of the Mosaic covenant (with the exception of 31:26 and even there it is the “law of kindness” torath ḥesed תּוֹרַת חֶסֶד). Consequently, at least in these two units where the clusters occur, it would be inappropriate to argue that the law is not subtly in the background.

F. At the same time, we must understand a distinction between the casuistic law of Moses and wisdom. The emphasis on the latter is the practical outworking of the “instruction of Yahweh” and, therefore, must be understood as the kind of conduct experience has taught is the right way to be “perfect” with God and man.6

G. Bad side of wisdom.7

1. Serpent who was subtle or crafty (Gen 3).

2. Jonadab and Amnon (2 Sam 13).

3. Wise woman of Tekoa (2 Sam 14) and the wise woman of Abel (2 Sam 20) seemed to use wisdom for questionable ends.

H. Jeremiah 18:18 seems to indicate a separate class of Wise Men. See also 25:1, Hezekiah's Men.

I. Categories:

1. Proverbs (mašal): basic similitude, likeness, or a powerful word (second meaning of this word is “to rule”).

2. Parables (meliṣah) seems to point in the directions of sayings which carry a sting hidden within their clever formulation and may by extension refer to admonitions and warnings.

3. Wise Sayings: general category and serves as headings.

4. Riddles: (ḥidoth) designates enigmatic sayings and perhaps even extensive reflections on the meaning of life and its inequities. (1 Kings 10:1-13 Solomon with Queen of Sheba).

5. Two allegorical texts stand out as worthy links with riddles (old age Ecc 12:1-8 and marital fidelity Prov 5:15-23)

6. Didactic narrative (Prov 7:6-23 Seductress leading the fool).8

J. The canonical book of Proverbs has been given a carefully worded introduction which functions to set the several collections into a common framework. This valuable section (Proverbs 1:2-7) uses many different words to characterize those who master the Solomonic proverbs: wisdom (חָכְמָה ḥokmah), instruction, (מוּסַר musar) understanding (בִּינָה binah), intelligence, discretion (הַשְׂכֵּל haśkil), righteousness ( צֶדֶקṣedek), justice (מִשְׁפָט mišpat), equity (מֵישָׁרִים mešarim), knowledge (דַּעַת da‘ath), prudence ( עָרְמָה ‘armah), learning (לֶקַח leqaḥ), and skill (מְזִמָה mezimah).9

K. Some structural observations.

1. Two invitations (1:8-33).

a. Sinners call (1:8-19).

b. Wisdom calls (1:20-33).

2. Right relationships (3:1-35).

a. With the Lord (3:1-12) “Lord,” “God,” and “He” appear 10 times in 1-35.

b. With Wisdom (3:13-26).

c. With your neighbor (3:27-35).

3. Contrasts (5:1-23).

a. Sin with an adulteress (5:1-14). Live righteously with your wife (5:15-23).

b. The adulteress (7:1-26). Lady wisdom (8:1-36).

c. Lady wisdom (9:1-6). Rival minds: wisdom (9:7-12//folly (9:13-18).

4. Numerology

a. Proverbs of Solomon (10:1-22:16) 375 lines = Solomon (300, 30, 40, 5).

b. Hezekiah's men (25—29) 130 lines = Hezekiah (8, 7, 100, 10, 5).

c. Total proverbs (1-31) c. 932 lines = David (14), Solomon (375), Israel (541) = 930.

5. Fear of the Lord

a. 9:10 end of first unit.

b. 15:33 Middle of book and of second unit (Massora = middle is 16:18)

c. 31:30 End of the book.

6. Acrostic (31:10-31).

L. Sources of Wisdom

1. Family or clan (father and mother as teachers and son, may be taken literally).

2. Court (perhaps “men of Hezekiah”)

3. School (perhaps, but definitely in Ben Sira).10

II. An Attempt to Develop Principles for Interpreting Proverbs.

A. We must understand dispensational truth.

This principle means that God revealed certain things in certain periods of time that had limited application (to that period). Failure to distinguish this basic hermeneutical principle will result in the error of Seventh Day Adventism. On the other hand, some truths are universal and will be valid in each of the dispensations. The problem is distinguishing these two types of revelation.

B. Old Testament teaching must be sifted through the grid of revelation given directly to the Church: Acts and the Epistles.

Each teaching of the OT must be compared with Church teaching to see whether it is applicable in the current dispensation. At least three types of statements would be applicable:

1. Reiterated statements.

These are statements that appear in the NT epistles in the same or similar form. “Thou shalt not bear false witness against your neighbor” Exod. 20:16. This statement appears in Eph. 4:25 as “Stop lying to one another.” The Christian knows that this is wrong, not because it appears in Exodus, but because it appears in Ephesians. The fact that it appears in both shows its universality and allows the Christian to emphasize it from both dispensational passages.

2. Quoted statements.

When the OT passage is quoted in the NT as an applicational truth, it should be considered applicational to the Church. “If your enemy hungers, feed him” Prov. 25:21 (cf. also Matt. 5:44). Paul quotes this proverb in Rom. 12:20.

3. Parallel statements.

This is similar to 1 above. It differs in that the parallels will be more general than “reiterated statements.” “That they [wise words] may keep you from the adulteress, from the foreigner who flatters with her lips” Prov. 8:5. This idea is found in 1 Thes. 4:3: “For this is the will of God even your sanctification that you abstain from fornication.”

4. Items that do not fall under these categories, i.e., neither commanded nor forbidden in the NT, should not be treated as commands. If they are consonant with NT teaching in general, they may be applied as principles. An example would be tithing which is taught in the Law and practiced before the law. However, since it is not taught in the NT, and Paul does not mention it in the passages where he talks about giving, it should not be considered binding teaching on the Church. Some may follow the practice, but they should not impose it on others.

C. Proverbs presents special problems for interpretation and application.

The very nature of wisdom literature is that it is the distillation of observation of human nature and is designed to provide general guidance for right living. It is indeed inspired literature, but its genre demands that we understand it to be a collection of general observations and principles of wise conduct. Take the statement: “Wealth brings many friends, but a poor man’s friend deserts him.” This is comparable to our proverb: “A friend in need is a friend indeed.” The proverb means that people with money tend to attract those who hope to receive benefits, but when wealth is gone, such people tend to disappear. It is not saying that wealth always brings friends, nor that poverty always causes friends to desert; it is saying that such behavior often occurs. Each proverb must be studied carefully in its context and under the discipline of NT revelation to determine whether and how the statement is to be applied in the church age.

D. The following proverbs are a paradigm for interpretation. Ask how each one fits into the above scheme of things and see whether it is a general observation or a universal truth (text from the NASB).

10:4

Poor is he who works with a negligent hand,
But the hand of the diligent makes rich.

Exceptions:

Not all diligent workers become rich.

NT parallels:

For even when we were with you, we used to give you this order: if anyone will not work, neither let him eat (2 Thes. 3:10).

10:5

He who gathers in summer is a son who acts wisely, but he who sleeps in harvest is a son who acts shamefully.

Exceptions:

No. This is a statement that is general and always true. It makes no specific promise.

NT parallels:

Perhaps: “Whatever you do, do your work heartily as for the Lord rather than for men” Col. 3:23.

12:11

He who tills his land will have plenty of bread. But he who pursues vain things lacks sense.

Exceptions:

We all know believers and unbelievers alike who work hard but do not have plenty of bread. This is still a general observation of what is usually true.

12:24

The hand of the diligent will rule, But the slack hand will be put to forced labor.

Exceptions:

Do all diligent people wind up in places of leadership?

12:27

A slothful man does not roast his prey, But the precious possession of a man is diligence.

13:4

The soul of the sluggard craves and gets nothing, But the soul of the diligent is made fat.

14:23

In all labor there is profit, But mere talk leads only to poverty.

Exceptions:

Not all labor brings profit, although it usually does.

All general observations

15:19

The way of the sluggard is as a hedge of thorns, But the path of the upright is a highway.

18:9

He also who is slack in his work, Is brother to him who destroys.

19:15

Laziness casts into deep sleep, and an idle man will suffer hunger.

19:24

The sluggard buries his hand in the dish and will not even bring it back to his mouth.

20:4

The sluggard does not plow after the autumn, so he begs during the harvest and has nothing.

20:13

Do not love sleep, lest you become poor; Open your eyes, and you will be satisfied with food.

21:25

The desire of the sluggard puts him to death, For his hands refuse to work;

21:26

All day long he is craving, While the righteous gives and does not hold back.

22:13

The sluggard says, “There is a lion outside; I shall be slain in the streets!”

26:13

The sluggard says, “There is a lion in the road! A lion is in the open square!”

26:14

As the door turns on its hinges, so does the sluggard on his bed.

26:15

The sluggard buries his hand in the dish; He is weary of bringing it to his mouth again.

26:16

The sluggard is wiser in his own eyes, than seven men who can give a discreet answer.

28:19

He who tills his land will have plenty of food, but he who follows empty pursuits will have poverty in plenty.

III. Outline notes on Proverbs.

A. Introduction (1:1‑7).

The introduction is written to establish at the outset the primary place of wisdom as “godliness in work clothes.” Verse 7 can be taken as the overriding theme in the book: Even though Proverbs is the practical outworking of the religious life, it is a covenant book that never strays from the foundation of Yahweh’s covenant with His people. This verse contains six words that will recur again and again in the book: fear, Yahweh, knowledge, fools, wisdom, and instruction.

B. Importance of Wisdom (1:8‑9:18).

In 2 Kings we meet Solomon’s son, and we are not impressed with his wisdom. As a matter of fact, he followed the foolish advice of his younger contemporaries and lost most of the kingdom. This might lead us to question whether this section represents Solomon addressing his son, and the answer is “probably not.” This unit is more likely the product of the “sages” who compiled the book of Proverbs. The father in this unit is the teacher and the son is the pupil.

The teacher addresses the pupil as son.11 His purpose is to draw a contrast between the results of seeking and finding wisdom and those of pursuing a life of folly.12

1. Two invitations and two refusals (1:8‑33).

a. The invitation from sinners (1:8‑19).

The enticement from these wicked people is to become involved in violent stealing (mafia style). Becoming rich is the lure, but the method is to lie in wait like brigands along the highway. In actuality these people bring death to themselves through their illicit actions: the wealth gained by stealth actually deprives its possessor of life itself. In the contemporary atmosphere this is a very apropos warning.

b. The invitation of wisdom (1:20‑33).

Stark contrast is wisdom, personified as a lady, who stands in the street and beckons to any who will hear to come to the place in life where they can “live securely and be at ease from the dread of evil.” She addresses the “naive ones” (pethim פְּתִים). This word as a verb is translated “entice” at 1:10. This person is an easily enticed person. “Scoffers” (leṣim לֵצִים) appear some seventeen times in Proverbs. Kidner says: “His presence there [coupled with the fool] makes it finally clear that mental attitude, not mental capacity, classifies the man. He shares with his fellows their strong dislike of correction . . ., and it is this, not any lack of intelligence, that blocks any move he makes towards wisdom.”13 The “fools” (kesilim כְּסִילִים) hate knowledge. These strong terms are used to describe deliberate rejection of God’s truth. They are not to imply, as Kidner says, lack of intellectual capacity, but lack of moral strength. Their way is correctable, but they must choose to follow wisdom not folly.

2. The benefits of seeking wisdom (22 lines as in the alphabet) (2:1‑22).

The sage uses a series of protases (“if” clauses) to lay down the conditions for blessing (2:1‑3). The result of the first series is in 2:5: “Then you will discern the fear of the Lord, and discover the knowledge of God.” (Note the equation of fear [yir’ath יִרְאַת] and knowledge [da’th דַּעַת]. Note further the covenant name of Yahweh.) The apodoses (“then” clauses) come in 2:5‑11. The practical outworking of such acquisition is given in 2:12‑22: “To deliver you from the way of evil;” “To deliver you from the strange woman.”

3. The Father (teacher) encourages his son to have the right relationship with the Lord, wisdom and his neighbor (3:1‑35).

This triad is in the list in the same sequence of their appropriation: God must be first. There is a great emphasis on knowing God. Practical wisdom is very important, but it never supersedes God. “Lean not to your own understanding,” is a warning from a sage with much understanding. Knowing God brings wisdom, the marvelous ability used by God in creating the universe. Finally, when one has come to know God, and through that knowledge, wisdom, he is in a position to act with propriety toward his neighbor. This order is essential in the Christian ministry. You will only be able to deal with people properly when you are in proper vertical relationship with God. This in turn gives you wisdom to deal with people.

4. The Father (teacher) instructs the son to seek the traditional value of wisdom (4:1‑9).

As the sage was taught as a youngster by his father and mother, so he instructs his pupil to accept proper teaching. The effect on his life will be as a garland on the head. His life will be graceful and gracious.

5. The father (teacher) instructs the son to choose the way of righteous-ness and avoid the way of wickedness (4:10‑19).

Habitual conduct cuts both ways. The one who lives a habitually wicked life will become entrenched in such conduct. Conversely, the one who makes it a practice to do right will find that becoming his character. The student is urged to pursue the right way.

6. The father instructs his son to discipline himself (4:20‑27).

Good words are important. What one reads and listens to will have an effect on him. This proper attitude, of course, requires discipline, but the impact is well worth it.

7. The father instructs his son against harlotry (5:1‑23).

Two unchanging truths are presented in this chapter: the avoidance of the prostitute and the pursuit of a proper relationship with one’s wife. This theme appears several times in Proverbs. Adultery is devastating (5:22‑23), and no one is above the possibility. It is God who watches all and sees all. This chapter should be read often by all those in Christian work.

8. The father instructs the son about three follies and seven abominations to the Lord (6:1‑19).

“Co‑signing” is a dangerous process. However, like all the proverbs, there may very well be times when it is the proper thing to do. Because it is dangerous, the student is advised to avoid it with all diligence (6:1‑5).

Laziness is the second folly. It is a thief of productivity and happiness. Avoid it in the Lord’s work as well. Since there is often little or no supervision, the full‑time Christian worker must be careful not to be lazy (6:6‑11).

The third folly is worthlessness. This is the word we encountered in earlier books (beliyya‘al בְּלִיַּעַל): “without value.” What a pronounce-ment to be made over a person! This individual is slick and devious; to be avoided at all costs (6:12‑15).

The seven abominations to Yahweh are: haughty eyes (pride), lying tongue (deceit), hands that shed innocent blood (violence), heart that devises wicked plans (deviousness), feet that run rapidly to evil (immoral conduct), a false witness (perversion of truth), and one who spreads strife (divisive spirit) (6:16‑19).

9. The father instructs the son against adultery (6:20‑35).

The sage returns to this serious problem of adultery. Walking in the truth of the Scripture will avoid this devastating entanglement with another person’s spouse.

10. The father gives a description of two women—the harlot and wisdom (7:1—8:36).

The sage seems to blend the idea of literal adultery with that of spiritual unfaithfulness. The positive is pursuit of wisdom, the negative is the harlot (or lack of wisdom). A detailed description is given of the seduction of a young man (7:1‑27).

Having dealt with the negative facet of purity, the sage now turns to the positive: wisdom. The student is to listen to the call of the one who brings sound living and conduct. The closing part of this praise of wisdom (8:22‑36) personifies wisdom almost the same way as does John the Logos (John 1:1‑12).14

11. The father speaks of two rival feasts and two rival minds (9:1‑18).

The introduction to Proverbs is ending, and the statement that the fear of Yahweh is the beginning of wisdom is reiterated (9:10). Wisdom has attractively prepared a feast to call the simple to the place of understanding (9:1‑6).

But some minds are so set against spiritual truth that they obstinately refuse to be instructed. The wise man becomes wiser (the one talent is given to the man with ten), but the foolish man becomes more foolish. Yet there is hope: if the fool will turn to God, he can become wise (9:7‑12).

The woman of folly (literally the prostitute, but figuratively the rejection of wisdom) calls people to her feast also, but the end of it is the depths of Sheol (9:13-18).

C. Proverbs of Solomon (10:1—22:16).

The biblical claims for Solomonic activity in the realm of wisdom are found in 1 Kings 4:29ff; Prov. 1:1; 10:1; 25:1. There are approximately 375 proverbs in this section.15 They are primarily based on practical observations from everyday life. They are very practical, and stress the profits or rewards of right living.

Scott says: “‘The Wise Sayings of Solomon,’ covers the collection of independent and mostly miscellaneous two-line aphorisms and precepts which comprise Part II. A second collection, also connected with the name of Solomon, is found in chaps. xxv-xxix (Part IV); it is broadly similar to the first collection but is more secular and less didactic in tone.”16

Rather than go through the section verse by verse, we will arrange the proverbs topically, following Scott’s layout.17

Read through the following proverbs, synthesize them and summarize the teaching in each group.

1. A son and his parents.

A wise son makes a father glad, But a foolish son is a grief to his mother (10:1).

He who gathers in summer is a son who acts wisely, But he who sleeps in harvest is a son who acts shamefully (10:5).

13:1, 24; 15:20; 17:21, 25; 19:26; 20:20.

2. Character and its consequences.

What the wicked fears will come upon him, And the desire of the righteous will be granted (10:24).

The hope of the righteous is gladness, But the expectation of the wicked perishes (10:28).

11:27, 30; 12:3, 7, 12, 20, 21, 28; 13:6, 9, 10; 14:19, 22, 30, 32; 16:20; 17:19, 20; 18:3; 19:16; 20:7; 21:5, 16, 17, 18, 21; 22:5.

3. Providential rewards and punishments.

The Lord will not allow the righteous to hunger, But He will thrust aside the craving of the wicked (10:3).

The way of the Lord is a stronghold to the upright, But ruin to the workers of iniquity (10:29).

11:18, 21, 23, 25, 31; 12:2; 13:21, 22; 14:9, 11, 14; 15:6, 10, 25; 19:29; 20:30; 22:4.

4. Poverty and wealth.

Ill-gotten gains do not profit, But righteousness delivers from death (10:2).

Poor is he who works with a negligent hand, But the hand of the diligent makes rich (10:4).

10:15, 22; 11:4, 24, 28; 13:8, 11; 14:20; 18:11, 23; 19:1, 4, 7, 22; 20:21; 21:6, 20; 22:27.

5. Good and evil men.

Blessings are on the head of the righteous, But the mouth of the wicked conceals violence (10:6).

The memory of the righteous is blessed, But the name of the wicked will rot (10:7).

10:9, 10, 11, 16, 21, 25, 27, 30; 11:5, 6, 8, 19, 30; 12:5, 26; 16:27, 28, 29, 30; 17:4; 21:8, 12, 26, 29; 22:10.

6. Wise men and fools.

The wise of heart will receive commands, But a babbling fool will be thrown down (10:8).

On the lips of the discerning, wisdom is found, But a rod is for the back of him who lacks understanding (10:13).

10:14, 23; 12:1, 8, 15, 23; 13:15, 16; 14:6, 7, 8, 15, 16, 18, 24, 33; 15:7, 14, 21; 17:10, 12, 24.

7. Slander.

He who conceals hatred has lying lips, And he who spreads slander is a fool (10:18).

The words of a whisperer are like dainty morsels, And they go down into the innermost parts of the body (18:8).

19:5, 9, 28.

8. The self-disciplined life.

He is on the path of life who heeds instruction, But he who forsakes reproof goes astray (10:17).

The one who despises the word will be in debt to it, But the one who fears the commandment will be rewarded (13:13).

13:14, 18; 16:32.

9. Foolish talk, temperate speech, and wise silence.

When there are many words, transgression is unavoidable, But he who restrains his lips is wise (10:19).

The tongue of the righteous is as choice silver, The heart of the wicked is worth little (10:20).

10:31, 32; 11:12, 13; 12:6, 13, 14, 18; 13:2, 3; 14:3, 23; 15:1, 2, 4, 23, 28; 16:21, 23, 24; 17:27, 28; 18:4, 6, 7, 13, 20, 21; 20:19; 21:23; 22:11.

10. Work and idleness.

Like vinegar to the teeth and smoke to the eyes, So is the lazy one to those who send him (10:26).

He who tills his land will have plenty of bread, But he who pursues vain things lacks sense (12:11).

12:24, 27; 13:4; 14:4, 23; 15:19; 16:26; 18:9; 19:15, 24; 20:4, 13; 21:25; 22:13.

11. Women and marriage.

A gracious woman attains honor, And violent men attain (only?) riches (11:16).

As a ring of gold in a swine’s snout, So is a beautiful woman who lacks discretion (11:22).

12:4; 18:22; 19:14; 21:9, 19.

12. Family relationships.

He who troubles his own house will inherit wind, And the foolish will be servant to the wise-hearted (11:29).

Grandchildren are the crown of old men, And the glory of sons is their fathers (17:6).

18:19; 19:13.

13. Civic morality.

When it goes well with the righteous, the city rejoices, And when the wicked perish, there is glad shouting (11:10).

By the blessing of the upright a city is exalted, But by the mouth of the wicked it is torn down (11:11).

11:14, 26; 14:34; 21:15.

14. Rash promises.

He who is surety for a stranger will surely suffer for it, But he who hates going surety is safe (11:15).

A man lacking in sense pledges, And becomes surety in the presence of his neighbor (17:18).

20:16, 25.

15. Truth and falsehood.

He who speaks truth tells what is right, But a false witness, deceit (12:17).

Truthful lips will be established forever, But a lying tongue is only for a moment (12:19).

12:22; 13:5; 14:5, 25; 17:7.

16. Honesty and dishonesty.

The righteous has enough to satisfy his appetite, But the stomach of the wicked is in want (13:25).

He who profits illicitly troubles his own house, But he who hates bribes will live (15:27).

16:11; 20:10, 14, 23.

17. Morality and religion.

He who walks in his uprightness fears the Lord, But he who is crooked in his ways despises Him (14:2).

The fear of the Lord is a fountain of life, That one may avoid the snares of death (14:27).

21:3, 4, 27.

18. A king and his people.

In a multitude of people is a king’s glory, But in the dearth of people is a prince’s ruin (14:28).

The king’s favor is toward a servant who acts wisely, But his anger is toward him who acts shamefully (14:35).

16:10, 12, 13, 14, 15; 19:12; 20:2, 8, 9, 26, 28; 21:1.

19. Material and moral values.

Better is a little with righteousness Than great income with injustice (16:8).

How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! And to get understanding is to be chosen above silver (16:16).

16:19; 20:15; 22:1.

20. The administration of justice.

Abundant food is in the fallow ground of the poor, But it is swept away by injustice (13:23).

He who justifies the wicked, and he who condemns the righteous, Both of them alike are an abomination to the Lord (17:15).

17:23, 26; 18:5, 17, 18; 21:28.

21. The discipline of education.

A fool rejects his father’s discipline, But he who regards reproof is prudent (15:5).

He whose ear listens to the life-giving reproof Will dwell among the wise (15:31).

15:32; 17:16; 18:15; 19:8, 18, 20, 27; 22:6, 15.

22. God’s oversight of man’s life.

The plans of the heart belong to man, But the answer of the tongue is from the Lord (16:1).

All the ways of a man are clean in his own sight, But the Lord weighs the motives (16:2).

16:3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 33; 17:3; 19:21; 20:12, 24, 27; 21:2, 30, 31; 22:12.

23. Behavior acceptable to God.

The perverse in heart are an abomination to the Lord, But the blameless in their walk are His delight (11:20).

The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord, But the prayer of the upright is His delight (15:8).

15:9, 26, 29.

24. The nemesis of folly and wrongdoing.

A rebellious man seeks only evil, So a cruel messenger will be sent against him (17:11).

He who returns evil for good, Evil will not depart from his house (17:13).

19:19; 20:17; 21:7; 22:8, 16.

25. Happiness.

A joyful heart makes a cheerful face, But when the heart is sad, the spirit is broken (15:13).

All the days of the afflicted are bad, But a cheerful heart has a continual feast (15:15).

15:16, 17, 30; 17:22.

26. Cruelty and compassion.

A righteous man has regard for the life of his beast, But the compassion of the wicked is cruel (12:10).

He who despises his neighbor sins, But happy is he who is gracious to the poor (14:21).

14:31; 17:5; 19:17; 21:10, 13; 22:9.

27. The path of life.

There is a way which seems right to a man, But its end is the way of death (14:12).

The path of life leads upward for the wise, That he may keep away from Sheol below (15:24).

16:12, 17.

28. Various virtues and vices.

Hatred stirs up strife, But love covers all transgressions (10:12).

A false balance is an abomination to the Lord, But a just weight is His delight (11:1).

11:2, 3, 9, 17; 12:9, 16, 25; 13:7; 14:17, 29; 15:12, 22, 33; 16:18; 17:9, 11, 17; 18:1, 12, 24; 19:2, 6, 11; 20:1, 6, 11, 22; 21:24.

29. The power of religious faith.

In the fear of the Lord there is strong confidence, And his children will have refuge (14:26).

The fear of the Lord is a fountain of life, That one may avoid the snares of death (14:27).

18:10; 19:23.

30. Sickness and grief.

The heart knows its own bitterness, And a stranger does not share its joy (14:10).

Even in laughter the heart may be in pain, And the end of joy may be grief (14:13).

18:14.

31. Quarrels.

A hot-tempered man stirs up strife, But the slow to anger pacifies contention (15:18).

Better is a dry morsel and quietness with it Than a house full of feasting with strife (17:1).

17:14; 20:3.

32. Plans and expectations.

When a wicked man dies, his expectation will perish, And the hope of strong men perishes (11:7).

Hope deferred makes the heart sick, But desire fulfilled is a tree of life (13:12).

13:19.

33. Wisdom and folly.

The wise woman builds her house, But the foolish tears it down with her own hands (14:1).

Understanding is a fountain of life to him who has it, But the discipline of fools is folly (16:22).

20:5, 18; 21:22.

34. Divine omniscience.

The eyes of the Lord are in every place, Watching the evil and the good (15:3).

Sheol and Abaddon lie open before the Lord, How much more the hearts of men! (15:11).

35. Old age.

A gray head is a crown of glory; It is found in the way of righteousness (16:31).

The glory of young men is their strength, And the honor of old men is their gray hair (20:29).

36. Gifts and bribes.

A bribe is a charm in the sight of its owner; Wherever he turns, he prospers (17:8).

A man’s gift makes room for him, And brings him before great men (18:16).

15:27; 21:14.

37. Messengers and servants.

A wicked messenger falls into adversity, But a faithful envoy brings healing (13:17).

A servant who acts wisely will rule over a son who acts shamefully, And will share in the inheritance among brothers (17:2).

38. Good and bad company.

He who walks with wise men will be wise, But the companion of fools will suffer harm (13:20).

The mouth of an adulteress is a deep pit; He who is cursed of the Lord will fall into it (22:14).

D. Words of the Wise (See NIV) (22:17—24:22).

The phrase “words of the wise” (divre ḥakamim דִּבְרֵי חֲכָמִים) was probably originally a heading that later became part of the first line. The authorship is unknown, but these proverbs may have been copied out by Hezekiah’s scribes as in 25:1. They are usually longer than those of the previous section. The phrase “thirty [sayings]” (22:20) may have some connection with Egyptian wisdom (as did the last two sections). Kidner says, “Egyptian jewels, as at the Exodus, have been reset to their advan-tage and put to finer use.”18

1. Introduction (22:17‑21).

a. The student is admonished to listen to wise words (22:17).

b. The results of listening will be pleasant (22:18).

c. The teacher speaks of his curriculum (22:19‑21).

2. There are thirty precepts in what follows: (22:22—24:22).

a. The student is admonished not to take advantage of helpless people (22:22‑23).

b. The student is warned against associating with hot-tempered people (22:24‑25).

c. He is warned against co‑signing for people (22:26‑27).

d. He is warned against moving boundary markers (22:28).

e. He is admonished to become skillful in his work (22:29).

f. He is taught to use discretion when eating at a ruler’s table (23:1‑3).

g. He is warned against the struggle to be rich (23:4‑5).

h. He is warned against becoming entangled with a selfish man (23:6‑8).

i. He is warned against wasting his wisdom on fools (23:9). “Do not cast your pearls before swine.”

j. He is warned again about moving boundary markers (23:10‑12). Note the word Redeemer (Heb.: goel גֹּאֵל); the same designation as in Job 19:25 with a similar function.

k. He is instructed to discipline children (23:13‑14).

l. He is told that his wisdom will make his teacher happy (23:15‑16).

m. He is to put his confidence in the Lord and not be envious, for God promises him a future (23:17‑18).

n. He is to avoid incontinence in drinking and eating (23:19‑21).

o. He is to listen to sound advice and thus “buy truth and get wisdom” (23:22‑23).

p. He is encouraged to be wise and to listen to his teacher (23:24‑25).

q. He is warned to avoid the harlot (23:26‑28).

r. He is warned against drunkenness (23:29‑35). (This is the descript-tion of an alcoholic).

s. He is warned against envy of evil men (24:1‑2).

t. Wise living brings good results (24:3‑4).

u. Wisdom brings victory (24:5‑6).

v. Wisdom is not for fools (24:7).

w. Trouble makers are fools (24:8‑9).

x. The wise person is not to withdraw in a time of distress (24:10).

y. He is to deliver those being taken to death (24:11-12). (He cannot make an excuse that he did not know.)

z. The teacher compares wisdom to honey (24:13‑14).

aa. The wicked is warned not to cheat the righteous (24:15‑16).

bb. The student is admonished not to rejoice at the fall of his enemy (24:17‑18).

cc. The student is told not to be envious of the wicked (24:19‑20).

dd. The student is admonished to respect existing institutions (24:21‑22).

E. Additional Sayings of the Wise (24:23‑34).

These are the product of an anonymous group of wise men.

1. Fairness and justice are a blessing (24:23‑26).

2. Diligence requires work to be done that produces money before work that produces relaxation (24:27).

3. The student is warned about being a false witness (24:28‑29).

4. He is warned against laziness (24:30‑34).

F. Proverbs of Solomon Copied by Hezekiah’s men (25:1‑29:27).

Hezekiah was interested in the temple, singing, Psalms, and other liturgy (2 Chron. 29:25‑30). This is a brief glimpse into some of the process of collecting wisdom sayings and transmitting them.

The following topical arrangement comes from Scott, Proverbs, p. 171.

1. The discipline of education.

Like an earring of gold and an ornament of fine gold Is a wise reprover to a listening ear (25:12).

Iron sharpens iron, So one man sharpens another (27:17).

29:1, 15, 17, 19, 21.

2. Reward and retribution.

He who digs a pit will fall into it, And he who rolls a stone, it will come back on him (26:27).

He who tends the fig tree will eat its fruit; And he who cares for his master will be honored (27:18).

28:10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25.

3. Good and evil men.

The wicked flee when no one is pursuing, But the righteous are bold as a lion (28:1).

Those who forsake the law praise the wicked, But those who keep the law strive with them (28:4).

28:5, 12, 16, 28; 29:6, 7, 10, 27.

4. The fool. 26:1-12.

Like snow in summer and like rain in harvest, So honor is not fitting for a fool (26:1).

A whip is for the horse, a bridle for the donkey, And a rod for the back of fools (26:3).

26:4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; 27:3, 22; 29:9.

5. Wisdom and folly.

Do you see a man wise in his own eyes? There is more hope for a fool than for him (26:12).

He who trusts in his own heart is a fool, But he who walks wisely will be delivered (28:26).

6. Gossip and slander.

Do not go out hastily to argue your case; Otherwise, what will you do in the end, When your neighbor puts you to shame? (25:8).

Argue your case with your neighbor, And do not reveal the secret of another (25:9).

25:10, 11, 18, 23; 26:22.

7. Other vices and follies.

Like one who takes off a garment on a cold day, or like vinegar on soda, Is he who sings songs to a troubled heart (25:20).

Like a trampled spring and a polluted well Is a righteous man who gives way before the wicked (25:26).

25:27, 28; 26:13, 14, 15, 16; 27:4, 8, 13, 20; 28:22, 23; 29:22, 23.

8. Various virtues.

Like the cold of snow in the time of harvest Is a faithful messenger to those who send him, For he refreshes the soul of his masters (25:13).

Like clouds and wind without rain Is a man who boasts of his gifts falsely (25:14).

25:15, 16, 17, 19; 27:9, 10, 12; 28:27.

9. Morality and religion.

He who turns away his ear from listening to the law, Even his prayer is an abomination (28:9).

He who conceals his transgressions will not prosper, But he who confesses and forsakes them will find compassion (28:13).

28:14; 29:25, 26.

10. Character.

As in water face reflects face, So the heart of man reflects man (27:19).

The crucible is for silver and the furnace for gold, And a man is tested by the praise accorded him (27:21).

11. Rich and poor.

A sated man loathes honey, But to a famished man any bitter thing is sweet (27:7).

A poor man who oppresses the lowly Is like a driving rain which leaves no food (28:3).

28:6, 8, 11; 29:13.

12. The royal court.

It is the glory of God to conceal a matter, But the glory of kings is to search out a matter (25:2).

As the heavens for height and the earth for depth, So the heart of kings is unsearchable (25:3).

25:4, 5, 6, 7.

13. Rulers.

By the transgression of a land many are its princes, But by a man of understanding and knowledge, so it endures (28:2).

Like a roaring lion and a rushing bear Is a wicked ruler over a poor people (28:15).

29:2, 4, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18.

14. Foolish speech.

A lying tongue hates those it crushes, And a flattering mouth works ruin (26:28).

Do not boast about tomorrow, For you do not know what a day may bring forth (27:1).

27:2; 29:11, 20.

15. Father and son.

Be wise, my son, and make my heart glad, That I may reply to him who reproaches me (27:11).

He who keeps the law is a discerning son, But he who is a companion of gluttons humiliates his father (28:7).

28:24; 29:3.

16. Enemies.

If your enemy is hungry, give him food to eat; And if he is thirsty, give him water to drink (25:21).

For you will heap burning coals on his head, And the Lord will reward you (25:22).

27:5, 6.

17. Women and marriage.

It is better to live in a corner of the roof Than in a house shared with a contentious woman (25:24).

A constant dripping on a day of steady rain And a contentious woman are alike (27:15).

27:16.

18. Good news.

Like cold water to a weary soul, So is good news from a distant land (25:25).

19. Curses.

Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, So a curse without cause does not alight (26:2).

He who is a partner with a thief hates his own life; He hears the oath but tells nothing (29:24).

20. Quarrels.

Like one who takes a dog by the ears Is he who passes by and meddles with strife not belonging to him (26:17).

For lack of wood the fire goes out, And where there is no whisperer, contention quiets down (26:20).

26:21.

21. Hypocrisy.

Like an earthen vessel overlaid with silver dross Are burning lips and a wicked heart (26:23).

He who hates disguises it with his lips, But he lays up deceit in his heart (26:24).

26:25, 26; 29:5.

22. The practical joker.

Like a madman who throws Firebrands, arrows and death (26:18).

So is the man who deceives his neighbor, And says, “Was I not joking?” (26:19).

27:14.

23. The diligent farmer.

Know well the condition of your flocks, And pay attention to your herds (27:23).

For riches are not forever, Nor does a crown endure to all generations (27:24).

27:25, 26, 27.

G. Words of Agur (30:1‑33).

The word “oracle” is the Hebrew word Masa (מַשָּׂא) but may refer to a tribe rather than an oracle. The tribe would be a descendant of Ishmael (Gen 25:14). The use of this material indicates the international character of wisdom literature, which, under divine inspiration, was brought into the canon.

The two names in v. 2 should probably be repointed and divided into phrases rather than proper names: “I have wearied myself, Oh God, I have wearied myself and am consumed.”19

This material is different from the preceding both in content and style.

1. The greatness of God is extolled (30:1‑4).

The section sounds like Job.

“What is His name or His son’s name?” should be related to 8:22‑31 where wisdom is personified in the creation process. We indicated there that the mediating “word” was a subtle reference to the coming “Word.” The “son” of this section should be related to the wisdom of chapter 8. Delitzsch: “God the creator and His son the mediator.”

2. The word of God is extolled (30:5‑6).

3. The prayer of the King is not to have too much or too little (30:7‑9).

4. A general statement is made about slandering slaves (30:10).

5. There are four kinds of evil men: those who curse parents, profess to be pure when filthy and are arrogant (30:11‑14).

6. A series of truths are set forth in the ascending number style (30:15‑31).

a. Things never satisfied: Sheol, barren womb, arid earth, and fire. (An additional statement about mocking parents) (30:15‑17).

b. Amazing things: eagle, snake, ship, and man with a maid (30:18‑20).

c. Obnoxious things: slave/king, fool/sated, unloved woman/marries, maidservant/supplanting her mistress (30:21‑23).

d. Small but capable things: ants (strong), badgers (in rock houses), locusts (form ranks), lizard (lives in kings’ houses) (30:24‑31).

e. He then gives a conclusion about self-control (30:32‑33).

H. Words of King Lemuel (31:1‑9).

King Lemuel is unknown apart from the passage. The Rabbis identified him with Solomon, but most would argue that he and Agur the Massite are probably from the same place (see Gen. 25:14; 1 Chron. 1:30).

The unit consists of his mother’s sage advice to prepare him to rule.

1. The king’s mother teaches him (31:1‑2).

2. He is warned against dissipation with women (31:3).

3. He is warned against drunkenness (31:4‑7).

4. He is admonished to protect the weak (31:8‑9).

I. The Paean to the excellent woman (31:10‑31).

This is an acrostic piece that is thus different from the rest of Proverbs and should be considered as a unit.

“This portrait of an industrious, competent, conscientious, pious woman is a conclusion well-suited to a book which teaches the nature and importance of a life lived in obedience to God in every detail.”20 Perhaps it is tied in with “wisdom” as a woman (Cf. chaps. 1—9).

The word excellent in Hebrew is ḥayil חַיִל usually translated “strength,” “wealth,” or even “army.” Here it is speaking of the high qualities of the woman.

1. She provides an excellent counterpart to her husband (31:10‑12).

2. She provides food like a merchant ship (31:13‑14).

3. She rises early to provide for her household (31:15).

4. She barters real estate (31:16).

5. She looks after crops (31:17‑18).

6. She spins and helps the needy (31:19‑20).

7. She provides clothes for her family (31:21‑22).

8. Her character lends dignity to her husband (31:23).

9. She makes enough to trade (31:24‑25).

10. She speaks wisely (31:26‑27).

11. Her husband and her children praise her (31:28‑31).

This woman is a paragon, to which all may aspire, but few attain. In Proverbs, the woman often has more than a literal meaning. So here, this paragon may also represent wisdom.

Thus, ends the book of Proverbs. a veritable mine of wise teaching. May the Lord help us to become more like the Christian ideal through its reading.


1S. LaSor, et al, Old Testament Survey, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982, pp. 533‑34.

2See further, p. 9, “Proverbs tend to be stated in absolutes”

3LaSor, et al., OT Survey, pp. 548‑49. See also B. S. Childs OT as Scripture, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979, pp. 551f for the monarchy as the cradle of the Proverbs.

4D. Kidner, Proverbs, an Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, Downers Grove, IL Intervarsity Press, 1964, p. 26. See also Roland Murphy, The Tree of Life, New York: Doubleday, p. 3, says, “The Sages—Who Were They? We can answer this question in a limited way. We know that Qoheleth was a sage, for in Eccl 12:9 he is called a hakam, who ‘taught the people knowledge, and weighed, scrutinized and arranged many proverbs [meshalim].’ But the precise circumstances of his activity are unknown to us.” Crenshaw, p. 31, says, Sirach 38:24—39:11 The wise man must have leisure to study the law. Hence, he probably belongs to the upper class. Furthermore, he will not make “prophetic statements” but rather observes what happens in life. He has no political power to implement his observations, he can only comment on what should be.

5LaSor, et al., OT Survey, pp. 557‑58.

6Roland Murphy, The Tree of Life, New York: Doubleday, 1990, p. 1, says, “The most striking characteristic of this literature is the absence of what one normally considers as typically Israelite and Jewish. There is no mention of the promises to the patriarchs, the Exodus and Moses, the covenant and Sinai, the promise to David (2 Sam 7) and so forth.”

7Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, an Introduction, p. 49.

8See Ibid., p. 32.

9Ibid., p. 32.

10Ibid., p. 57.

11In the Old Testament context, the son was the center of attention. Consequently, the gender references will be in that light. In the modern context, the proverbs should be looked upon without respect to gender, i.e., women should reverse the gender where appropriate.

12Cf. Isa. 32:6 for a summary of a fool, and see Kidner, Proverbs pp. 39ff for an excellent discussion. Chaps. 1‑9 primarily clarify the issues involved in the choice of wisdom or folly, righteousness or wickedness and to prepare for several hundred proverbs that follow. (See LaSor, et al.., OT Survey.)

13Kidner, Proverbs, pp. 41‑42.

14See R. B. Y. Scott, Proverbs in Anchor Bible, NY: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 69‑73, for an excellent discussion of this issue of the hypostasis of wisdom.

15P. W. Skehan, Studies in Israelite Poetry and Wisdom, p. 25, shows that the name Solomon numerically equals 375. He further argues that there are a total of 932 lines in Proverbs. Solomon = 375, David = 14, Israel = 541 for a total of 930.

16Scott, Proverbs, p. 83.

17Scott, Ibid., pp. 130‑131.

18Kidner, Proverbs, p. 24. Cf. “The Instruction of Amen-em-opet” ANET, p. 421.

19So NIV in the margin.

20LaSor, et al., Old Testament Survey, p. 557.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

2. Job

Related Media

See standard introductions but especially Marvin H. Pope, Job, in the Anchor Bible and LaSor, Hubbard and Bush, Old Testament Survey.

Job and Qoheleth are a response to Wisdom teaching in the ancient middle east. It is good to act wisely, but one should not expect the outcome of one’s acts to turn out as hoped or expected. Job is the ideal person as a man of integrity (תָּם tam). Therefore, his life and example are a response to the common, absolute ideas about wise living.1

I. Date of the book

Since wisdom literature is found in surrounding cultures as early as the second millennium, Pope says that the core of Job could have originated that early. He places the composition in the seventh century. Certainly, the setting of the book is patriarchal.2 The events of the book are surely from the patriarchal period, but the book was probably not put into writing until the heyday of wisdom literature which began with Solomon (1 Kings 4:29‑34) and included Hezekiah (Prov. 25:1).

II. The Text of the Book

The Hebrew of Job is very difficult in places. Not only is it poetry, itself enough of a problem, linguistically it has at least one hundred hapax legomena (words used only one time in the Bible). Attempts to understand these words through cognate languages helps, but not all the problems are solved at this point.

III. The Message of the Book

We have been saying that Samuel/Kings in particular have been based somewhat on the Deuteronomic or Palestinian covenant that taught the Israelites that God blessed those who were obedient to Him and judged those who were disobedient. This concept of retribution theology is certainly correct to a point, but God is not limited to that modus vivendi. He also reserves the right to postpone judgment for sin or blessing for obedience. The failure to comprehend this led to the debate in the book of Job in which both Job and his friends argued from the retributive base alone. Job says God must be unjust for punishing him when he is innocent, and his friends say that God would not be punishing him if he were not guilty. What they both failed to reckon with was God’s sovereign right to allow just people to suffer and unjust people to prosper. The psalmist grapples with this same situation (Ps. 73) as does Jeremiah (12). The disciples of Jesus reflect the same error when they ask their master, “Who did sin, this man, or his parents, that he was born blind?” (John 9:2).

Delitzsch on Job.3

A. The Book of Job shows a man whom God acknowledged as his servant after Job remained true in testing.

1. “The principal thing is not that Job is doubly blessed, but that God acknowledges him as His servant, which He is able to do, after Job in all his afflictions has remained true to God. Therein lies the important truth, that there is a suffering of the righteous which is not a decree of wrath, into which the love of God has been changed, but a dispensation of that love itself.”

B. Not all suffering is presented in Scripture as retributive justice.

2. “That all suffering is a divine retribution, the Mosaic Thora does not teach. Renan calls this doctrine la vieille conception patriarcale. But the patriarchal history, and especially the history of Joseph, gives decided proof against it.”

3. “The history before the time of Israel, and the history of Israel even, exhibit it [suffering that is not retributive] in facts; and the words of the law, as Deut. viii. 16, expressly show that there are sufferings which are the result of God’s love; though the book of Job certainly presents this truth, which otherwise had but a scattered and presageful utterance, in a unique manner, and causes it to come forth before us from a calamitous and terrible conflict, as pure gold from a fierce furnace.”

C. Suffering is for the righteous a means of discipline and purification and for dokimos testing of his righteousness.

4. “(1.) The afflictions of the righteous are a means of discipline and purification . . . (so Elihu) … (2.) The afflictions of the righteous man are means of proving and testing, which, like chastisements, come from the love of God. Their object is not, however, the purging away of sin which may still cling to the righteous man, but, on the contrary, the manifestation and testing of his righteousness.”

IV. The Structure of the Book

V. Comparisons of lines in the cycles

VI. Outline of Job.

A. The prologue (1:1‑2:13).

1. Job is introduced as a man who worships God (1:1‑5).

Job lived in the land of Uz (an ancient name) and was a righteous man. God’s blessing in his life was evidenced by his physical wealth and large family. He is described as a תָּם tam man. This word means that he was a man of integrity.

There are two areas that have been identified with Uz. The first is around Damascus and linked with the Arameans. The second is Edom and the area of the Edomites.4

2. Job is tested to prove that his faith is not dependent upon his wealth (1:6—2:10).

a. The first test comes in the loss of children and wealth (1:6‑22).

The two great symbols of God’s blessing for faithfulness and righteousness in the OT are wealth (things and children) and health. The book of Job sets out to test the retributive thesis on these two grounds immediately. The first great test comes in the loss of his animal wealth (note the dramatic effect as the story unfolds). Then the word comes that he has lost all his children. Job accepts his fate and refuses to blame God.

The heavenly scene in this chapter is striking indeed. We have a person named the Satan (הַשָּׂטָן haśatan who appears in the heavenly court to accuse Job. The Hebrew word satan as a verb means “to accuse.” Consequently, the noun means “the Accuser.” This scene teaches us a number of things: Satan has access to God in some way; he accuses people to God; God allows Satan certain latitude in dealing with people; and God protects people from Satan. These issues are all peripheral to the story that Job, a good man, suffers unjustly because of Satan’s accusations.5

b. The second test comes in the loss of his health (2:1‑10).

The speech of Job’s wife is interesting. The Hebrew gives her six words, but the Greek adds four verses. The most common attitude about this addition is to assign it to the imagination of the Greek translator or a later editor who, as Davidson says, felt “no doubt, nature and propriety outraged, that a woman should in such circumstances say so little.”6

3. Job’s friends come to “comfort” him (they become the foil in the debate about retributive justice) (2:11‑13).

Eliphaz the Temanite: “Meaning, possibly, ‘God is fine gold.’ According to the genealogies, Eliphaz was the firstborn of Esau and the father of Teman, Gen xxxvi 11,15,42; I Chron 1 36,53”7 Teman is from the Hebrew word yamin or right hand (looking east, the right hand is south). It is associated with Edom (cf. e.g., Jer. 49:7). Bildad the Shuhite: The name Bildad is of uncertain origin. Shuah is the son of Abraham and Keturah. Zophar the Naamathite: the name is found only here, and the location is uncertain. The point of the passage is that these men represent very wise men of the east who are capable of locking horns with Job on this difficult subject of suffering.

B. The Dialogue (3:1—27:23).

1. Job’s monologue (3:1‑26).

a. Job laments that he was ever conceived (3:1‑10).

The whole point of the curse is to say that he should never have been born. It is not so much that he wants to curse his birthday as to say “my life is so bad, it would be better if I had never been born” (cf. Jer. 20:14‑18).

b. Job laments that he did not die at birth (3:11‑19).

If it were necessary for Job to have been born, he should at least have died at birth.8 The Hebrew is nephel tamun (נֵפֶל טָמוּן), lit.: a hidden fall.) Had he died at birth he would have been in Sheol where he would be suffering no pain. (The Hebrew concept of Sheol was vague. It was a place where all went after death [righteous and wicked]). It is rather shadowy and fearful, but better than painful life. Otherwise it is to be avoided. The NT reveals the One who came to “deliver them who through fear of death were all their lifetime subject to bondage” (Heb. 2:15).

c. Job laments that he cannot die (3:20‑26).

Job says, finally, that if he had to be conceived and born, at least he should be allowed to die in the midst of suffering.

2. The dialogue with the three “friends” (First Cycle) (4:1—14:22).

a. Eliphaz’ response to Job’s monologue (4:1—5:27).

He chides Job for being impatient and complaining but acknowledges his piety (4:1‑6).

Eliphaz begins the argument that will be repeated in a dozen different ways throughout the book. Blessing comes on the obedient and suffering on the disobedient, ergo: Job has sinned. Eliphaz begins gently with Job, but when Job stubbornly defends his position, the men get more severe in their statements.

He argues that sin brings judgment (4:7‑11).

All human experience, he says, proves that the innocent do not suffer (if they suffered they were not innocent). This flies in the face of actual experience unless one interpret circumstances to fit the theory (which they apparently did).

He argues (quoting his vision) that man cannot be just before God. This seems to be a statement of frustration: man cannot avoid trouble (4:12‑21).

There is no use calling on even angels to help because man is destined to trouble (5:1‑7).

He argues that there is still hope in God who sets all things right (5:8‑16).

God is the great creator. He is beyond human comprehension, but He still has compassion on the human being. He will judge the wicked and vindicate the just. Therefore, he pleads for Job to repent.

He argues that reproof and correction are part of God’s works, and that man should submit to their inevitability and reap their benefit (5:17‑27).

The implications of this argument are clear enough: Job has sinned and is therefore suffering. If he will accept God’s punishment and repent, he will be restored to a place of blessing.

b. Job responds to Eliphaz’ arguments (6:1—7:21).

Job complains about his painful state (6:1‑7).

He says that his pain ought to be measured and examined so that people would understand what he is going through. God’s unfair punishment has been harsh, and he suffers from it. He would not be complaining if he did not have good reason.

Job cries out for God to finish him off (6:8‑13).

Since God has brought this great pain to Job, he insists that God should finish what He has begun and kill him. For his part, he has not denied the words of the Holy One, therefore, the least God can do is put him out of his misery.

Job complains about the lack of support from his friends (6:14‑23).

He likens them to a wadi (that only occasionally has water). The caravans hurry their steps toward it thinking they will get water only to find it dry. So are Job’s friends. He has never asked them for money or help; now he only asks them for understanding, but they will not give it.

He demands they tell him what they think he has done (6:24‑30).

Job speaks harshly of his friends’ injustice. He says they would cast lots for orphans and barter over a friend. In other words they are completely unjust in dealing with him. He demands that they stop treating him as they have.

He complains again of his state (7:1‑10).

It is not only his own situation of which he speaks: mankind in general suffers like one impressed into harsh labor, like a slave panting for the shade. So is Job: he suffers physically, his days are short, and he expects to go to Sheol.

He complains of God’s constant demands upon him for right living (7:11‑21).

Job says that God has put a constant watch over him like the sea or the sea monster. This watch is not for his good, but to catch him in evil so as to judge him. Job says that God is unrelenting in his demands, and there is no way to escape Him. God will not pardon him, and he expects to die.

c. Bildad gives his first speech (8:1‑22).

He challenges Job to confess and be restored (8:1‑7).

Bildad angrily tells Job that God is not unjust, and therefore whatever has happened is just. However, in the retributive justice argument, this means that Job’s sons must have sinned to deserve death. Job need only seek the forgiveness of the Almighty to be restored to the place of blessing.

He tells Job that the wisdom of the ages teaches that those who forget God are judged. Therefore, Job needs to confess (8:8‑22).

d. Job responds to Bildad’s arguments (9:1—10:22).

He says that God is sovereign and inscrutable (9:1‑12).

Part of Job’s defense is that God cannot be approached by one who wants to present his case. In this unit, he sets forth the idea that no one can enter a court case with God, because God is completely dominant and man is fragile and weak before Him.

He says that God is unfair in his treatment of Job (9:13‑24).

Job’s words reach the point of blasphemy (as his friends later point out). Job is defenseless before Him, He abuses Job with suffering, and even though Job is absolutely innocent, God declares him guilty.

He says that he is not equal to God and therefore cannot defend himself (9:25‑35).

No matter what he might do to cleanse himself, God would push him into the mud and declare him polluted. There is no lawyer to stand between God and Job to give him a fair hearing. If God would remove His punishing rod, Job would not be afraid to confront Him, but God is completely unfair in the way He deals with His creatures.

He says that God does not understand the human state (10:1‑7).

Since God is not human, He cannot possibly understand human suffering. He claims that God knows that he is innocent and yet refuses to deliver him from suffering.

He says God created him but has cast him off (10:8‑17).

Job speaks bitterly of the finite being God has created only to abandon to suffering. Not only so, but God judges him even if he is righteous. Job dare not lift his head lest God hunt him like a lion.

He returns to his lament about death in chapter 3 (10:18‑22).

Job pleads with God to withdraw from him and let him die in peace. If God allowed him to live at the beginning, surely he can give him some peace now.

e. Zophar gives his first speech (11:1‑20).

He charges Job with arrogance in saying he is innocent (11:1‑6).

The rhetoric begins to heat up as Zophar charges Job with scoffing by saying “My teaching is pure, And I am innocent in your eyes.” He wishes God could speak! If He could, He would say that Job had not suffered enough, since God has not held all his iniquity against him.

He argues that God is transcendent (11:7‑12).

Job’s finiteness means that he cannot take on God in this discussion of righteousness. God knows false men, and obviously He knows Job. Man is a fool to try to argue with God.

He argues that Job should confess and then enjoy the forgiveness and blessing of God (11:13‑20).

In a beautiful poem, Zophar tells Job of the great blessing that would ensue on the repentance of this sinner. He must put iniquity far away, but if he does he will find unprecedented blessing.

f. Job responds to Zophar’s arguments (12:1—14:22).

Job chides his friends and says that God is responsible for all things (12:1‑6).

He argues that he is as intelligent as they are. In his past he trusted God and was known as a man of prayer to whom God listened. But now he sees that those who reject God are at ease and those who serve Him are in trouble.

He says that even nature teaches that God is responsible for all things (12:7—13:2).

He then proceeds to list all the things, good and bad, for which God is responsible. God seems to take delight in turning things on their head (“He makes fools out of judges”). Life, says, Job is unfair; he has seen it all and knows that what he says is true.

He demands an audience with God and declares that his friends would be routed if they met God (13:3‑12).

God, says Job, does not need a defender, least of all those who would be dishonest in their dealings with Him. They must stand before God someday, and God will pronounce them guilty for their false charges against Job. Their arguments are completely worthless.

He declares his innocence (13:13‑19).

In spite of all the harsh things Job has said about God, he says that He will trust Him even if He slays him. He believes he would be cleared if he could only argue his case before God.

He challenges God to be fair to him (13:20‑28).

He asks God for two things (stated in reverse form) (1) to remove His hand from him and (2) not to terrify him with fear. If God will do that then Job will be able to speak to Him and defend himself. He demands that God tell him what his sin is and why He is causing Job to suffer so.

He argues that since man is born as a finite creature, God should let him alone (14:1‑6).

Mortal man stands no chance before God. He is weak and limited, yet God judges him. If man is indeed innately sinful and mortal, how can God expect an unclean person to be clean. He therefore pleads with God to avert His face from this weak creature.

He argues that man’s life is hopeless (14:7‑12).

He extends the mortality theme by contrasting man to a tree. The tree can flourish even after it has been cut down, but man dies and that is the end. Job believes in life after death, but that life is not in the normal sense. There will be no return to life on earth as now known.

He prays for God to have mercy on him (14:13‑17).

Since Job is suffering unfairly from the wrath of God, he pleads for God to hide him (as far away as Sheol) to give God’s anger an opportunity to subside. If he dies, he will not live again (in the normal sense on the earth), therefore, he prays for God to let him live until God’s anger is turned back. So that God will remember him after His wrath has subsided, he wants God to set a limit or mark to remind Him that He has hidden Job. The word “change” in 14:14 (aliphathi חֲלִיפָתִי) is the same as the word “sprout” in 14:7 (yaḥaliph יַחֲלִיף). Job is asking God to let him return to earth again in a renewed body.9

He complains that God is almighty and unmerciful (14:18‑22).

Job’s defense has moved from declaring his innocence (which he continues to do) to arguing from the mortality of the human race. Since God created man, He should not hold man’s limitations against him. He should give him a break by recognizing his weakness and not judging him.

3. The dialogue with the three “friends” (Second Cycle) (15:1—21:34).

a. Eliphaz responds the second time to Job’s speech (15:1‑35).

He rebukes Job for his lack of respect for God (15:1‑6).

Job’s blasphemous words have been created by the guilt within him. His own bitterness and rebellion are evidence that he is not innocent. His evil defense makes it even more difficult to get at the matter spiritually.

He rebukes Job for arrogance in assuming he knows more than others, even more than God (15:7‑16).

Eliphaz demands that Job recognize the wisdom of others and to accept their conclusions. Man is indeed mortal as Job has said: why then should he think he could argue with God. God does not even trust his holy angels, why should he declare sinful man innocent?

He details the suffering of the wicked man who rebels against God (15:17‑35).

Eliphaz lays out in great detail the problems that come to a man who arrogates himself against God. He seems to be including Job in that category.

b. Job responds the second time to Eliphaz’ speech (16:1—17:16).

He complains about the lack of sympathy in his three friends (16:1‑5).

A speech dripping with sarcasm is delivered against the three friends. They are “sorry comforters.” They sit in self-righteous comfort and condemn a man who suffers. Their statements are therefore worthless.

He details the suffering he has undergone at the hands of evil-doers and even at God’s own hand (16:6‑17).

As Eliphaz sets out the sufferings of the unrighteous man, Job lays out the unjust sufferings he has endured All this has happened even though there is “no violence in my hands, and my prayer is pure.”

He cries out for vindication before God (16:18—17:2).

Job has been wronged as was Abel. Abel’s blood cried for vengeance, so does Job’s. Only it is God who has committed the crime. Who then can defend Job? He asked for an umpire in 9:33 (mokiaḥ מוֹכִיחַ), a vindicator (redeemer) in 19:25 (goel גֹּאֵל); an interpreter in the passage before us; and an intercessor in an extended passage in 33:23ff. Job is begging for someone to stand between him and a holy righteous God. While Job is accusing God of injustice, he has also pled the cause of mortal man. This thinking, preliminary as it is, underlies the idea of the mediator who was Christ Jesus (1 Tim. 2:5).

He asks for someone to defend him (17:3‑5).

Job wants God to exchange pledges with him so that there will be integrity in their argumentation. He challenges the integrity of the friends by saying that they lack understanding and are really informing against a friend for a share of the spoil. This is a strong charge.

He says he suffers as a righteous man and therefore other right-eous people will be appalled (17:6‑16).

Job argues that people who are righteous and discerning will understand that he is suffering wrongfully. The clear implication is that his friends are not righteous. In spite of his suffering, he will maintain his integrity and ultimately expects to be vindicated (as he indeed was).

c. Bildad responds the second time to Job’s speech (18:1‑21).

He rebukes Job for his outburst against his friends (18:1‑4).

He asks Job why he thinks he should receive special treatment. Will the earth be abandoned for Job’s sake or the rock moved from its place? Who does Job think he is?

He sets forth in elaborate and gruesome detail the fate of the wicked (18:5‑21).

d. Job responds the second time to Bildad’s speech (19:1‑29).

He rebukes his friends again and specifically states that God is the cause of his problems (19:1‑6).

He complains that God will not give him justice (19:7‑12).

No matter where he turns, God is against him. When he cries out for help, God does not answer him. God has treated him as an enemy and has brought his army against Job.

He complains that everyone has turned against him (19:13‑22).

All his family, his wife, his friends and acquaintances have turned away from him. Even his three friends are mistreating him in the same way God is doing.

He cries out for a recording of his justice and gives a strong testimony of faith in God (19:23‑29).

19:25, 26 says: “And as for me, I know that my Redeemer lives, and at the last He will take His stand on the earth.” “Even after my skin is destroyed, yet from my flesh I shall see God.”10

The minimum this means is that Job believes in some kind of a mediator, a goel, and that there will be a time after death in which Job will stand before God. Whether that is from the resurrected body or apart from his human body, he will be there. Consequently, this verse refers at least to life after death.11

e. Zophar responds for the second time to Job (20:1‑29).

He states again the fate of the wicked (20:1‑11).

If indeed, as Job says, the wicked do prosper, it is only for a little while. Sooner or later, everything catches up with them and they lose everything and get what they deserve.

He argues that ill-gotten gain will cause later suffering (20:12‑19).

The man who cheats to get the nice things in life will have to pay the piper before he dies. He will be unable to enjoy the fruits of his dishonesty for “He swallows riches, But will vomit them up.”

He says that having devoured others, the wicked man will himself suffer (20:20‑29).

With rising crescendo Zophar paints a picture of a man full of lust for material things and pursuing the goal of getting everything he wants until he finally falls and receives the judgment of God.

f. Job answers Zophar for the second time (21:1‑34).

He questions why the wicked prosper (21:1‑16).

He continues to argue that wicked men often prosper and that their fate is the same as that of the righteous (the argument seems to have been made that some of his punishment might have come on his children) (21:17‑26).

He says that the friends’ argument offers no comfort because there is no evidence that the righteous fare better than the wicked (21:27‑34).

4. The Dialogue with the three “friends” (Third Cycle) (22:1—27:23).

a. Eliphaz answers Job for the third time (22:1‑30).

He speaks strongly to Job charging him with immoral acts (22:1‑11).

In chapter 4 Eliphaz acknowledges Job’s righteousness, but in this chapter, his anger seems to get away from him and he accuses Job of things that he has not done. Perhaps Job’s stubborn self-vindication leads Eliphaz to believe he must take strong measures to crack his armor, but this seems to be quite extreme.

He denies that God is obscure and argues that He sees all and is involved in all (22:12‑20).

God is most certainly sovereign, as Job has said, but His remoteness in heaven only gives Him a better view of human existence. God gives good things to the wicked (including Job), and when they turn against Him, He takes it away, but that is as it should be.

He appeals to Job to repent (22:21‑30).

As has been done on more than one occasion, Eliphaz pleads with Job to recognize his sinfulness and repent so that he might be restored to the place of blessing and become in turn a blessing to others. Even another sinner will be delivered through Job’s restoration, although this “humble person” may be Job.

b. Job responds for the third time to Eliphaz (23:1—24:25).

He argues that if he could only present his case to this inscrutable God, he would be vindicated (23:1‑7).

Job pathetically cries out for a fair hearing. He is convinced that if he could only find this deus absconditus and present his case before Him, that he would be fully vindicated and delivered from his judge.

He says that God is inscrutable and sovereign, but he still trusts Him and has obeyed Him (23:8‑17).

No matter where he turns, Job cannot seem to find God. It is frustrating that he cannot confront him, but in spite of this, he believes that God knows all about him and will one day vindicate him. This is a marvelous statement of faith in the midst of a situation of despair.

He says that God does not pay attention when many injustices are committed (24:1‑12).

Job lists a series of crimes he knows are committed by wicked people. The poor suffer at their hands dreadfully. The only conclusion at which Job can arrive is that God does not pay attention. If He knows everything, and yet does nothing about this situation, at what other conclusion, asks Job, can one arrive?

He says that many deeds are done in darkness (and implies that God does nothing about them) (24:13‑17).

He speaks of God’s injustice to people (is Sheol being personi-fied?) (24:18‑25).

This is a very strong statement and is really blasphemous. Job charges God with complete injustice toward the poor and innocent. He sustains them long enough to abandon them. Job demands that people prove him a liar if what he has said is not true. Job’s theology can only lead him to this conclusion, for he does not understand that all suffering is not the result of sin nor is all unpunished wickedness forever unpunished.

c. Bildad answers Job for the third time (25:1‑6).

He gives a brief response much like previous ones: God is holy and transcendent while man is utterly insignificant, so why does Job think man has any right to claim standing before God?12 Bildad’s argument in 25:4-7 is parallel to that of Eliphaz in 4:17-19.

d. Job answers Bildad for the third time (26:1‑14).

He rebukes his friends for being no help (26:1‑4).

The strong, almost bitter, statements in the mouths of the three friends have not intimidated Job. He lashes out one more time against the insipid counsel of these men. The book of Job is teaching that the theology of these men is incorrect. Job’s evaluation of it and them is accurate as his vindication at the end proves. But his own theology was not accurate either and needed to be set straight. This was done in God’s speeches.

He speaks of God’s omnipotence and omniscience (26:5‑14).

Job’s final thrust at Bildad is to show again the remoteness and inaccessibility of God. He speaks of His creatorship and control over nature. He uses imagery drawn from Canaanite mythology (here used probably as we use Greek mythology) to show the greatness of God.13 Even though Job has hardly scratched the surface of God’s ability, we have seen enough to know how great He is and yet, says Job, we hear scarcely a word from him.

e. Job answers a final time though no opponent’s speech is given (27:1‑23).

Job stoutly maintains his own righteousness and avers that he will never admit to the correctness of his friends’ accusations (27:1‑6).

He says that God will indeed cut off the wicked (27:7‑12).

This section is strange, not only because Zophar does not speak a third time, but because Job seems to acknowledge what he has been denying.14 Keil and Delitzsch may be right in arguing that Job throws their own argument back at them and says that he does not fit it.15

He then lists the fate of the wicked (27:7‑23).

Has Job shifted arguments? Earlier he was saying that since he was suffering, but had not sinned, God must be unjust. Perhaps he is saying that God does indeed judge the wicked, but since Job is not wicked, he will be vindicated. Delitzsch says that Job holds up the same mirror his friends have been showing him. Job argues that he does not fit the image.

C. Post dialogue (28—42:6).

1. A wisdom poem (28:1‑28).

This poem does not seem to fit well with the argument, and it has no heading. As a result, the critics see it as a beautiful poem, probably composed by the author of the dialogues, but not part of the original Job story. It would be better to see it as an addendum to Job’s speech showing that wisdom, so necessary in understanding God’s dealings with mankind, is very rare and valuable. His friends certainly do not have it, and Job himself could stand a larger portion.16

a. There is a source for all kind of things (28:1‑11).

Job describes some of the mining techniques of ancient times as people searched for Iron ore, gold and other precious stones and metals. Man’s ingenuity has gotten him much material.

b. However, wisdom cannot be found (28:12‑22).

Job refers to all the ancient places from which precious metals and other desirable objects were brought. However, without exception, they say that they do know where wisdom may be found. Not even Abaddon and Death (place of the body after death) can say more than that they have heard of wisdom.

c. God is the sum of wisdom and he tells man that wisdom is to fear the Lord (28:23-28).

God as the great creator and sustainer has the wisdom necessary for such activity. He has also instructed his human creatures that to fear Him is wisdom and to depart from evil is understanding.

2. Job’s monologue and final statement (29:1—31:40).

a. Job speaks of his past glory (29:1‑25).

He was a highly respected man (29:1‑11).

He was respected because of his deeds (29:12‑20).

(1) Orphans (12‑14).

(2) Widows

(3) Weak (15‑16).

(4) Anti wicked (17).

(5) He thought all this would bring God’s blessing (29:18‑20).

He returns to discuss his past glory (29:21‑25).

b. Job speaks of his current misfortunes (30:1‑40).

Insignificant people mock him (30:1‑8).

He is in constant danger from them (30:9‑15).

His physical pain is great (30:16‑23).

He says it is normal to cry out in distress (30:24‑31).

c. Job defends his integrity (31:1‑40).

God knows his conduct (31:1‑4).

He has been honest (31:5‑8).

He has been moral (31:9‑12).

He has been just (31:13‑15).

He has been compassionate (31:16‑23).

He has been free from greed (31:24‑28). True piety.

He has been tolerant (31:29‑37).

He has treated his land well (31:38‑40).

With this last strong statement, supported by a series of oaths, Job makes his last self-defense. He is innocent of any sin. His hands are clean.

3. Elihu’s speeches (32:1—37:24).17

a. Elihu introduces himself to the scene (32:1‑22).

Elihu’s background is given (32:1‑10).

The three friends stop talking. They have been unable to answer Job’s arguments. Furthermore, Job has spoken so strongly (even taking oaths) that they have been compelled to silence. Elihu (He is my God) comes unannounced on the scene. He is the son of Barachel the Buzite of the family of Ram. This person seems (like the other three) to have connections with the relatives of Abraham. He is a member of the bystanders who believes he must respond to the failure of the position of both Job and his friends. Gordis’ remarks are insightful: “In essence, Elihu occupies a middle ground between Job and the Friends. The Friends, as protagonists of the conventional theology, have argued that God is just, and that suffering is therefore the consequence and the sign of sin. Job, from his own experience, has denied both propositions, insisting that since he is suffering without being a sinner, God is unjust. Elihu rejects both the Friends’ argument that suffering is always the result of sin and Job’s contention that God is unjust. He offers a new and significant insight which bears all the earmarks of being the product of the poet’s experience during a lifetime: suffering sometimes comes even to upright men as a discipline, as a warning to prevent them from slipping into sin. For there are some weaknesses to which decent, respectable men are particularly prone, notably the sins of complacency and pride” (32:1‑5).18

Elihu is angry because Job has justified himself before God, and the friends are unable to refute him. Therefore, he decides to speak up, arguing that wisdom is not necessarily with the aged and so his youth is not a hindrance (32:6‑10).

Elihu says he has listened carefully to all the arguments and no one has refuted Job, but he is able to do so (32:11‑14).

Elihu says he is indwelt by the spirit and that he can no longer refrain from speaking (32:15‑22).

b. Elihu says that God disciplines people for their own good (33:1‑33).

He challenges Job to the debate (33:1‑7).

He summarizes Job’s position: he is innocent, and God is unjust (33:8‑12).

He argues that God works in His own ways to keep man on the right path (33:13‑18).

He argues that man is chastened physically to cause him to confess so that God can deliver him from going down to the pit (33:19‑28).

He summarizes his point that God disciplines people for their own good (33:29-33).

c. Elihu argues that God is sovereign in all His acts (34:1‑37).

He criticizes Job for his rebellion against the sovereign God (34:1‑9).

He argues that the sovereign God would not act unrighteously (34:10‑15).

He argues that God’s sovereignty precludes wrong acting (34:16‑20).

He argues that the sovereign God scrutinizes men’s ways and requites them their evil (34:21‑30).

He argues that finite man should bow before God’s sovereignty and confess his sin (34:31‑37).

d. Elihu argues that God does not need men (35:1‑16).

He tells Job that God is not troubled with Job’s unhappiness (35:1‑8).

He says that God’s failure to answer Job’s complaint is God’s prerogative—not Job’s (35:9‑16).

e. Elihu argues that God is just in all His deeds (36:1‑33).

He says he wants to argue further, and he knows what he is talking about (36:1‑4).

He argues that God is mighty but fair—even to the wicked whom He admonishes to repent (36:5‑16).

He admonishes Job not to be too hard on the wicked lest he become condemned (36:17‑23).

He argues that man’s chief end is to exalt the creator God (36:24‑33).

f. Elihu finalizes his argument by appealing to the greatness of God in creation (37:1‑24).

He argues that God’s control of nature (storms, snow, rain, etc.) is for the good of all (37:1‑13).

He challenges Job to match his ability against God’s (37:14‑20).

He argues that God is transcendent but fair (37:21‑24).

Elihu’s approach throughout is to defend the justice of God. The friends of Job were concerned to prove him guilty. Elihu sets out to show that God is righteous and fair. In the process he alludes to God as creator (especially in his last speech, 37:14-20). This paves the way for God’s addresses in chapters 38ff. Elihu’s conclusion also is a link with the wisdom speech in chapter 28. “Therefore, men fear Him; He does not regard any who are wise of heart” (37:24).

4. God and Job (38:1—42:6).

a. God challenges Job with a series of references to nature:

He calls Job into the arena of argument (38:1‑3).

He speaks of the creation of the earth (38:4‑7).

He speaks of the creation of the sea (38:5‑11).

He speaks of the day (38:12‑15).

He speaks of the hidden recesses (38:16‑18).

He speaks of light and darkness (38:19‑24).

He speaks of wadis, rain, seed and frost (38:25‑30).

He speaks of the heavenly hosts (38:31‑33).

He speaks of clouds, rain and lightning (38:34‑38).

He speaks of the provision for wildlife (38:39—39:4).

He speaks of the wild donkey and ox (39:5‑12).

He speaks of the ostrich (39:13‑18).

He speaks of the horse (39:19‑25).

He speaks of the hawk (39:26‑30.)

b. God elicits a response from Job (40:1‑5).

He calls Job a faultfinder (40:1).

Job responds contritely (40:2‑5).

c. God takes up His argument again (40:6—41:34).

He chides Job for complaining against Him (40:6‑9).

He challenges Job to be able to control mankind as He does (40:10‑14) (then he can declare himself just).

He challenges him to examine an outstanding example of His creatorship—Behemoth (40:15‑24). Hebrew: behemoth בְּהֵמוֹת a feminine plural noun probably used to denote a very large animal. This may be the hippopotamus.

He challenges him to examine a second outstanding example of His creatorship—Leviathan (41:1‑34). Hebrew: livyathan לִוְיָתָן. This may refer to the crocodile or it may be one of those mythological allusions discussed early in the lectures. Whatever it represents, the message is that God controls it, and Job cannot.

5. Job confesses that he has been wrong in his evaluation of the situation (42:1‑6).

a. He confesses to the greatness of God (42:1‑2).

b. He confesses to his own ignorance (42:3).

c. He admits to willingness to be instructed (42:4).

d. He acknowledges that God has revealed Himself to him (42:5).

e. He repents in sackcloth and ashes (42:6).

D. The Epilogue (42:7‑17).

1. God charges Job’s friends with error and requires sacrifice from them (42:7‑9).

2. God restores Job’s fortunes (42:10‑17).

a. His relatives come back to him (42:10‑11).

b. His animal wealth is restored twofold (42:12).

c. His children are replaced (42:13‑15).

d. Job lived a patriarchal age and died (42:16-17).

As we go through the wisdom literature, we will compare Job with Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes) and Proverbs. Proverbs presents the classic statement that, generally speaking, obedience will be rewarded with blessing and disobedience with cursing. This thesis may underlie some of the presentation in Samuel—Kings. Job is a challenge to that thesis. Indeed, it is normally true, but there are many exceptions. Theodicy is a difficult topic (always has been). Job does not give the last word, because it probably cannot be given. We must trust the sovereign God to do what is right even though experientially we do not always see what we think would be right. Qoheleth argues that in light of that fact, we must enjoy life, do the best we can, expect to see contradictions, and trust God for the outcome.

Excursus on Job: The idea of an intercessor

See, first, Job’s view of death (ch. 3; ch. 14).

1. The umpire (mokia מוֹכִיחַ)

Job complains in 9:32-33 that God is not a man like him so that he could respond to God and take him into court (mišpat מִשְׁפָּט). “For He is not a man as I am that I may answer Him, that we may go to court together. There is no umpire between us, Who may lay his hand upon us both.” Therefore, Job wishes for an intercessor who could place his hand on both God and Job. The verb yakaḥ יָכַח means “to decide, judge,” “convince,” “convict, “correct,” “rebuke,” “vindicate.” The participle (mokia מוֹכִיחַ) appears also at 32:11 (none to answer Job’s words) and 40:1 (God says “let him who reproves God answer”).

Dhorme: links it with 5:17; 16:21 for an arbiter. In 9:33, it is the one who decides what is right between two parties.

Hartley: Eliphaz argues in 5:1 that if Job hopes for an angel to intercede for him, his hope is vain. Job in 9:33 senses his alienation from God and desperately longs for a mediator to settle the dispute, but it is not forthcoming.

Gordis: This is the first of three passages revealing Job’s attitude toward God. (16,19 the others.) The second (16:19) he sees God as his witness; the third (19:25) he beholds Him as vindicator and redeemer.

2. The witness (‘ed עֵד)

Laban and Jacob entered a covenant and a cairn became a witness between them (Gen 31:45-52). Jacob called it in Hebrew gal‘ed גַּלְעֵד, Laban called it śahadutha שָׂהֲדֻתָא (31:47). The purpose of this “witness” was to call into account before God the wrong actions of the participants.

In Exodus 19:20 it is used in the sense of warning, but in 20:15 it is the com-mandment prohibiting false testimony against one’s neighbor. In Exodus 25:16 (and many other places) the ark is a testimony (ha‘edath הָעֵדָת) of Yahweh’s covenant with his people. The witness for the “prosecution” is found in Leviticus 5:1.

The word witness is found in Job three times (10:17; 16:8; 16:19). (1) You renew your witness against me (said of God). (2) His body testifies against him: that he has sinned, even though he has not. (3) Job demands that his blood not be covered (Cain/Abel), but he affirms that he has a witness in heaven on high (both ‘ed עֵד and sahadi שָׂהֲדִי appear as in Gen. 31). Job 16:18-21: “O earth, do not cover my blood, and let there be no resting place for my cry. Even now, behold, my witness is in heaven and my advocate is on high. My friends are my scoffers; My eye weeps to God. O that a man might plead with God as a man with his neighbor!”

Gordis and Hartley argue that this can only refer to God. Even though He is just, he is also merciful and loving. Job appeals to this aspect of God.

Dhorme: Job cries for an unrealizable thing: that God might intercede between Himself and mankind. Gordis agrees. Hartley: Essentially agrees. The witness can only be God. Job wants God to witness against himself, because he knows that God is just in spite of what He has been doing to Job.

3. The Redeemer (go’el גּאֵל)

Job 19:26-27 is the most discussed passage in the book. “Oh that my words were written! Oh, that they were inscribed in a book! That with an iron stylus and lead they were engraved in the rock forever! And as for me, I know that my Redeemer lives, and at the last He will take His stand on the earth. Even after my skin is destroyed, yet from my flesh I shall see God; Whom I myself shall behold, and whom my eyes shall see and not another. My heart faints within me.”

Dhorme: God Himself is the goel. So Gordis. Hartley: Goel is often used of Yahweh; Isa. 41:14; 44:24; 49:7-9, 26. The Goel is not the arbiter for which Job wished (a futile hope), but is an expression of confidence in a living God who will intercede for him. Job’s hope is that he will be vindicated before he dies. The following are a distillation of Hartley’s discussion (NICOT).

a. Discusses various meanings of Goel—Avenger of blood, redeemer of property, vindicator of family, God as the redeemer of Israel from Egypt (thus in Isaiah as second exodus).

b. Goel does not refer to a mediator (angelic or otherwise), but to God Himself (cf. Gordis’ discussion of God as prosecutor and defense). (So Gordis; Ringgreen [TDOT] says it cannot be God unless the logic is very loose.) Since Goel refers to God so often, the author would have chosen a different word if he did not mean God. In Job 9, it is an unrealistic wish. Here it is real.

c. God will vindicate him, but when? Not while he is in Sheol, for the dead do not know what is going on (14:21)

d. God will vindicate him when he raises his body—not because that would be the climax of the book, and the resurrection is not mentioned again in the book. (As Job's ash heap.)

e. Conclusion: Job has confidence that God will vindicate him (stand on the dust) while he is still alive and restore him to his former position (as he does). (“End” refers to the time in Job’s life when God will vindicate him.) What about “from my (suffering) flesh”?

4. The angelic mediator (melits מֵלִיץ)

Job 33:23-34. cf. the idea of metatron in later Judaism (Jewish Encyclopedia).

“If there is an angel as mediator for him, one out of a thousand, to remind a man what is right for him, then let him be gracious to him, and say, deliver him from going down to the pit, I have found a ransom.” Who is the angel? Some say the Angel of Yahweh, some say a human friend, some say a conscience. What is the ransom? No answer is given, only God knows. But it is accepted by the mediating angel and the death angel is forced to relinquish his victim.


1See further p. 9.

2See Pope’s discussion (M. Pope, Job in Anchor Bible, New York: Doubleday, 1965), as well as any standard introduction. See also M. Dahood, Psalms in Anchor Bible, New York: Doubleday, 1965, 1:xxxv. The divine, covenantal name Yahweh is used only in chapters 1-2 and 42 (the one use in poetry is questionable textually). Patriarchal names, El, Elohim, Eloah, El Shaddai, are used in the poetry.

3F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Book of Job, pp. 1‑4.

4See Pope, Job, for a good discussion.

5See all the commentaries for discussion of the message of Job, but see especially Pope in Job.

6A. B. Davidson, A Commentary on the Book of Job (1-14), 1862, (quoted in Gray, The Book of Job, Pt. I, 25).

7Pope, Job, p. 23.

8This is one of the few references to “miscarriage” in the Old Testament.

9See, Hartley, The Book of Job, NICOT, pp. 236-237, for a good discussion.

10B. C., “Whence a word, ‘skin of my teeth,’” BAR, 2020 (46:3), p. 59, who argues that Job’s teeth are falling out.

11See Dahood, Psalms II in Anchor Bible, p. 196 who repoints “from my flesh” to mean “refleshed by him” and believes that this refers to a new body.

12P. Skehan, Studies in Israelite Poetry and Wisdom, p. 112, says “Bildad’s speech is short because Job cuts him off and answers for him.”

13We might say, God controls the waters that flow through the pillars of Hercules without claiming to believe in that mythological person.

14Because of this, critics reconstruct the passage and put these words into the mouth of Zophar, see, e.g., Pope, Job.

15Dillard and Longman say, “Note that at the end of the third cycle Bildad's speech seems truncated: Zophar lacks a speech, and Job says things that simply contradict everything else he says (27:13-23). The third cycle probably suffers from an error in textual transmission (see extended discussion in Zerafa) in that Job's words in 27:13-23 are either a part of the Bildad speech or the missing Zophar speech. Even with this minor textual correction, however, the short speeches of the third cycle complete the process that was begun in the second—that is, a rapid shortening of the speeches. In this way, the dialogue communicates that the three friends ran out of arguments against Job. This literary device leads nicely to the speech of the frustrated Elihu (chaps. 32-37).” An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 203.

16Skehan, Ibid., p. 79, says, “There seems no adequate reason to deny this poem to the original author of Job; it draws from the dialogue the only general conclusion that can be drawn from it and balances very well Job’s bitter outcry of chapter 3. This would be the only place in the poetry where the author speaks his own name (at least in 28:28).”

17Is Elihu a transition to God’s speeches by his emphasis on sovereignty?

18R. Gordis, The Book of Job, NY: JTS, 1978, p. 358.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

3. Ecclesiastes

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I. Introductory data.

The name of this book in the Hebrew is Qoheleth from the word qahal to call an assembly (the verb) or an assembly (the noun). (Note the similarity to Greek kaleo and English “call”). The LXX working from ekklesia translated it as Ecclesiastes or one who speaks to an assembly. The idea of the “preacher” is not so much the modern one, but refers to a teacher of disciples.

Tradition relates this book to Solomon, and the opening chapters (1:1, 12, 16) imply that he is the subject. When this is added to Solomon’s identification with wisdom literature in general, it is possible that Solomon was the author.1 But it could just as easily come from a later king. “Son of David” merely means descended from David (cf. Matt. 21:9).

We must keep in mind the place of wisdom literature in progressive revelation. The concept of the afterlife was ill-formed and dim. The emphasis was on this life, and blessing was viewed in terms of long life, full days, and gray hair. Sheol was a dim dark place where all went at death. It was unknown and unknowable. Only the NT revelation brings the light of Christ’s resurrection to bear on the problem of the afterlife (Heb. 2:14-15). The NT believer has hope as never before. The OT saint had hope beyond the grave, but it was circumscribed by the limits of his revelation. Consequently, the preacher’s message refers to this life. It would appear that Qoheleth is designed to counter a glib, unbridled optimism about life. We have seen that the proverbs are generalizations that teach what normally happens. However, there are always exceptions to the generalization. Qoheleth is dealing with the “buts” of life: the exceptions to the generalizations.

Qoheleth sounds pessimistic. He is often called a skeptic, but if that were true, life would be so futile it could only lead to suicide. On the contrary, he says: “Go then, eat your bread in happiness, and drink your wine with a cheerful heart; for God has already approved your works” (i.e., enjoy life) (9:7). Delitzsch aptly points out that while the book of Esther makes no direct mention of God, Ecclesiastes refers directly to God 37 times (there are also 38 references to “vanity”). “The Book of Qoheleth is, on the one side, a proof of the power of revealed religion which has grounded faith in God, the One God, the All‑wise Creator and Governor of the world, so deeply and firmly in the religious consciousness, that even the most dissonant and confused impressions of the present world are unable to shake it; and on the other side, it is a proof of the inadequacy of revealed religion in its O. T. form, since the discontent and the grief which the monotony, the confusion, and the misery of this earth occasion, remain thus long without a counterbalance, till the facts of the history of redemption shall have disclosed and unveiled the heavens above the earth.”2

Qoheleth argues that while wisdom teaching is correct, there are many exceptions to it. Normally, just living will produce long life and wicked living will produce shortened lives, but this is not always the case. Wisdom teaching says that there is a proper time for everything. Qoheleth says, “yes there is, but only God knows what that time is.” Consequently, since we do not know the future, we can only trust God for it and live the present with keen enjoyment even as we expect some calamities to take place. People are responsible to use well what God has given, e.g., wealth. The balanced life is the emphasis. Yet, God will ultimately judge everything, so we must be careful how we live.

Contribution to OT Theology. LaSor, et al. list the following contributions to OT theology:

A. Freedom of God and Limits of Wisdom.

1. People are limited by the way in which God has determined the events of their lives (1:5, 7:13).

2. Human creatures are limited by their inability to discover God’s ways. They know He controls their lives, but they cannot understand how or why (3:11).

B. Facing Life’s Realities.

1. Grace—2:24ff; 3:13 (God gives to man the ability to enjoy life).

2. Death—2:14f; 9:2f. Death is the great unifying force. It is inevitable and comes to all alike.

3. Enjoyment. Even though toil dominates Qoheleth’s thinking, he speaks often of joy or enjoyment—2:24f.; 3:12, 22; 5:18‑20; 7:14; 8:15; 9:7‑9; 11:8f.

C. Preparation for the Gospel.

There is no explicit prophecy or even typology that refers to the Gospel, but “its realism in depicting the ironies of suffering and death helps explain the crucial importance of Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection. Qoheleth’s insistence on the inscrutability of God’s ways underscores the magnificent breakthrough in divine and human communication which the Incarnation effected.”3

II. Outline of Ecclesiastes.

A. Introduction (1:1‑11).

1. The author is Qoheleth, the son of David, King in Jerusalem. This requires it to be a king and possibly Solomon. But the point is not to provide biography but a philosophy.

2. The main idea of the book is set out in verse 2 with the oft recurring phrase: “Vanity of Vanities.” This word is used 38 times in the book. It is intensive in 1:2; 12:7: “the most futile.”4 The word “God” appears 39 times in the book. “Under the sun” occurs 29 times.

3. The preacher begins to develop his theme: the repetitive nature of life (1:3‑11).

a. People come and go in the same way (1:3‑4).

b. Nature comes and goes (1:5‑7).

The sun (1:5).

The wind (1:6).

The rivers (1:7).

c. People are not able to comprehend all that transpires (1:8).

d. Nothing new occurs; all that is, was (1:9‑10).

e. Each new generation forgets what went on before (1:11).

B. The preacher provides a counterpoint to the teaching of wisdom by showing the exceptions to the general rule (1:12‑18).

1. His position allowed him to pursue wisdom (1:12).

2. His search showed him that life is full of futility (1:13‑16).

a. The crooked cannot be made straight (i.e., what God has done cannot be undone) (1:15).

b. Wisdom, though it is the result of fear of the Lord, brings pain because of the knowledge it provides (1:17‑18).

C. The preacher sets out to determine what would make life worthwhile (2:1‑26).

1. He discusses the process of the search (2:1‑11).

a. He tested pleasure, laughter, and wine (2:1‑3).

b. He tested building projects (2:4‑6).

c. He tested life through slaves and other experiences including concubines (2:7‑8).

d. He had more than anyone had before him—the result was futility (2:9‑11).

2. He evaluates what he has learned (2:12‑17).

a. He acknowledges that wisdom is better than foolishness (a standard wisdom teaching, of course) (2:12‑14).

b. Yet, he says, both the wise man and the fool must die and there is no memory of them (2:15‑16).

c. As a result, he is despondent about his life (2:17).

3. He draws a conclusion from his observations (2:18‑23).

a. Since he must leave the results of his labor to others, he hates it (2:18).

b. Even though he does not know whether his heir will be a fool or a wise man, the heir will control the fruit of Qoheleth’s labor and receive that for which he has not labored (2:19‑21).

c. The laborer has nothing to show for his labor (2:22‑23).

4. This brings him to his ultimate conclusion: to the theme of the book (2:24‑26).

a. A person must simply enjoy life as it is and not worry about it (2:24a).

b. The ability to enjoy life is a gift from God (2:24b‑26).

D. Qoheleth argues that God has a time for everything, but people do not know what that time is (3:1‑23).

1. He lists 14 pairs of opposites to show that there is a time for everything (3:1‑8).

2. He argues that in this lifetime, even though God has set eternity in the heart (a God consciousness?), man cannot find out God’s work (3:9‑11).

3. He concludes again that the only thing a person can do is enjoy the life God has given him (3:12‑13).

4. He argues strongly that God is responsible for the universe and everything in it (3:14‑15).

5. In spite of that fact, there is injustice and inequity in the world, but God will judge people ultimately (3:16‑17).

6. He concludes that God wants people to see their limitations; that they really are like the animal kingdom (3:18‑21).

a. Both people and animals die and go back to the dust (3:18‑20).

b. No one can actually prove that the breath (spirit) of a human goes up (to God) and that the breath of the animal goes down to the earth (3:21). (Does this not show that an idea existed of direction after death?)

7. He reiterates his earlier conclusion—that people must simply enjoy life and not worry that they cannot control events (3:22).

E. Qoheleth discusses again the pain and struggle in the world (4:1‑16).

1. Because there is so much inequity, he says it is better to be dead (4:1‑3).

2. He argues that skill and labor come about only because of rivalry (4:4).

3. He argues that the fool is a fool because he is not fulfilling his God‑given task of working and therefore enjoying life (4:5).

4. He argues that honest rest is better than striving in rivalry to succeed against others (4:6).

5. He argues that it is silly to work hard if you have no heir to receive the legacy (4:7‑9).

6. He uses a series of proverbs and shows the exceptions (4:9‑16).

a. Two are better than one—but it is bad if there is only one (4:9‑10).

b. Two warm one another—but a single person will be cold (4:11).

c. Two are strong as is a cord of three strands (4:12).

d. A poor, wise youth is better than an old foolish king (4:13‑16).

He was wise enough to rise from prison to the throne (4:14).

The second lad must be the lad spoken of above (4:15).

The crowds thronged to him at the beginning, but were later unhappy with him (4:16).

F. Qoheleth uses proverbs to urge care in worship (5:1‑7).

1. He urges precision in worship (sacrifice) (5:1). (James says “be not many teachers.”)

2. He urges care in speaking to God (5:2‑3). (Much thought should be given to spiritual communication.)

3. He says that vows should be made carefully and fulfilled when made (5:4‑5).

4. In fine he says that care and limits should be placed upon all religious activities, since God is going to hold us accountable for them (5:6‑7).

G. Qoheleth returns to his discussion of the vanity of life (5:8‑20).

1. Oppression and self-aggrandizement unfortunately are part of the system of human rule (yet, Qoheleth seems to imply that God is watching over them—to judge them) (5:8).

2. An agrarian system in which the king is identified with the earth rather than the despotic system of the normal ruler is better (5:9).

3. Lust for money will bring dissatisfaction (5:10‑12).

a. Money will not bring satisfaction to its seekers (5:10).

b. More money will bring more people to consume it (5:11).

c. Honest labor brings sweet sleep (5:12).

4. Hoarded riches will not bring satisfaction (5:13‑17).

a. Riches are hoarded to one’s own harm (5:13).

b. A bad investment can set him back to nothing (5:14‑15).

c. He is no better off than when he was born (5:16‑17).

5. The preacher comes to his now recurring conclusion: enjoy life and do not worry over it (5:18‑20).

a. God has given people the privilege of enjoying their work (5:18).

b. God has empowered them to eat from their wealth (5:19).

c. By keeping themselves busy and enjoying life, he will not fret over the brevity and difficulty of life (5:20).

H. Qoheleth speaks of the ignorance of what is to come after one dies (6:1‑12).

1. He addresses the problem of not being able to enjoy the results of one’s labor (6:1‑6).

a. Some men have plenty, but a stranger receives the man’s goods (6:1‑2). (Does this refer to pillaging by other nations?)

b. Some have many children, but nothing else and die in poverty. They are worse off than a miscarriage (6:3‑6).

2. He speaks of the futility of laboring hard to meet human needs, but the needs are never satisfied (6:7‑9).

3. He speaks again of the people’s ignorance of the future (6:10‑12).

a. Nothing is new, and man is limited. God is greater than man, therefore, man cannot argue with God (6:10‑11).

b. No one knows what is good for man. His life is like a shadow (6:12). (cf. 7:1.)

I. Qoheleth uses proverbs and their flip side to deal with the realities of life (7:1‑14).

Man’s limitations prevent him from explaining everything, and so wis-dom has its limits. Even so, there are some things better than others.

1. The reality of death (7:1‑4).

a. A good name is good—but death is a reality (7:1). (Because it ends life.)

b. To go to the house of mourning is better than that of feasting, because it reminds us of the reality of death (7:2).

c. Sorrow is better than laughter for it provokes serious thinking (joy should be tempered with seriousness) (7:3).

d. Intelligence requires sober thinking about death (7:4).

2. Wisdom is better than foolishness (7:5‑7).

a. Wisdom is better if for no other reason than that it is difficult to listen to fools (7:5‑6).

b. Wisdom brings mental anguish to the wise because he discerns oppression. The connection of this thought with bribery is difficult to see, unless it means that the wise man advises against such conduct, and when it is ignored, he is troubled (7:7).

3. He gives a series of practical wisdom teachings (7:8‑9).

a. End of a matter is better than the beginning (a good beginning is fine, but the obtaining of the goal is better) (7:8).

b. Patience is better than pride (7:8b).

c. Anger is devastating (7:9).

4. He gives a summary statement showing his theology (7:10‑14).

a. It is foolish to compare the present with the past (7:10).

b. Wisdom has its advantages (7:11‑12).

c. God is sovereign but inscrutable (7:13).

d. Enjoy prosperity while it exists but recognize that God is also the author of adversity. This keeps man humbly unaware of what will come after him (7:14).

J. Qoheleth speaks further on the limits of wisdom and the necessity of bal-ance (7:15‑29).

1. He says that wisdom has limits (7:15‑22).

a. Wisdom teaches that the righteous man lives long, and the sinner dies early—Qoheleth says he has seen the opposite (7:15).

The pursuit of wisdom and righteousness will not protect believers from vanity hevel. Yet, in the fear of God, one responds to His special revelation and submits to his general revelation, thus producing righteousness and wisdom.

b. Consequently, he argues that since wisdom does not guarantee long life, one should not overly exert himself in obtaining it (7:16).5

c. The corollary statement is to avoid wickedness lest it result in early death (7:17). (Perhaps he is arguing that one should shake himself loose from legalism, but not go to a life of license.)

d. Qoheleth’s final statement is that a wise person lives a balanced life (7:18).

e. Wisdom indeed strengthens a wise man more than ten rulers in a city, but even so, wise men sin. Therefore, even wise men must be listened to with care (7:19‑20).

f. In the same way one should avoid taking too seriously negative comments by his servants (especially when he himself may have spoken in the same way in a light moment) (7:21‑22).

2. Qoheleth says that he has searched out wisdom (7:23‑29).

a. He was unable to understand the past (7:23‑24).

b. He tested folly and foolishness (7:25).

c. His biggest disappointment was a woman of snares (7:26).

d. Few men (one in a thousand) are worthy, but he found no worthy women (7:27‑28).

e. God designed men to be upright, but they have sought out many ways not to be upright (7:29).

K. Qoheleth questions wisdom teaching in the matter of authority and when to do things (8:1‑9).

1. Wisdom is beneficial because it tells one when to make decisions about authority (8:1).

2. Qoheleth says to obey the king because he is in charge and will cause much trouble if there is disloyalty (8:2‑4).

3. Qoheleth deals with the other side of the proverb that there is a right time to do everything. No man controls the day of his death or anything else, so obey authority (8:5‑9).

L. Exceptions to wisdom ideas do not vitiate them (8:10‑15).

1. The wicked die and enter (tombs? perhaps read qevarim muba’arim קְבָרִים מוּבָאִים), but those who do justice (ken כֵּן) are forgotten (8:10‑11).

2. Sometimes sinners live long lives and righteous people do not (8:12‑14).

3. In light of this, Qoheleth commends a balanced enjoyed life (8:15).

4. He concludes with the statement that wise men have severe limits on what they can know (8:16‑17).

M. A common destiny for all demands a balanced life (9:1‑18).

1. No one knows his destiny (9:1).

2. Death awaits all as a common destiny (9:2‑6).

3. Therefore, enjoy life (God has approved enjoyment), for this is the reward (9:7‑10).

4. Victory is not to those of whom it is expected; so, balance is required (9:11‑13).

5. Wisdom is indeed beneficial, but the wise man often goes unrecognized (9:14‑17).

6. Furthermore, one sinner can do as much harm as one wise man, and it only takes a few flies to make perfume stink (9:18—10:1).

N. Qoheleth gives a series of proverbs to illustrate his last point (10:2‑20).

1. Wise men know the direction of good, but the fool is always lost (10:2‑3).

2. Tact in dealing with even an angry ruler will bring good results (10:4).

3. The social order sometimes is upside down (10:5‑7).

4. Misconduct will often lead to self-hurt (10:8‑9).

5. Sharp tools are more productive! (10:10‑11).

6. Fools and unnecessary words go together (10:12‑15).

7. A land with a youth for a king and lazy prince is in trouble, and the converse is true (10:16‑17).

8. Laziness creates many problems (10:18).

9. Pleasant things are nice, but they cost money (10:19).

10. Keeping one’s own counsel is the safest approach (10:20).

O. Qoheleth says that since we do not know what the future holds, we should be diligent to do good (11:1‑10).

1. Cast bread on many waters, divide your portion, sow your seed (11:1,2,6).

2. The reason is that we do not know the future (11:4, 5, 6b).

3. Enjoy life to the fullest and expect bad days (11:8).

4. Rejoice in youth and recognize that God will judge you for your conduct (11:9‑10).

P. The Creator is to be remembered in youth while the opportunity exists (12:1‑8).

1. Youth is urged to enjoy God while he is able (12:1‑5).

a. Before the time of difficulty (evil) (12:1).

b. Before the body wastes away (12:2‑5).

Watchmen—eyes (Delitzsch says “arms”).

Mighty men—shoulders or legs.

Grinders—teeth.

Lookers—eyes.

Doors—mouth (jaws).

Grinding mill—noises.

Fears.

2. Youth is urged to enjoy God before death (12:6‑8).

a. The silver cord, golden bowl, pitcher, and wheel represent life (12:6).

b. The mortal body will return to the earth, and the spirit will return to the God who gave it (12:7).

c. All is transient (12:8).

Q. Qoheleth concludes his discourse (12:9‑14).

1. Qoheleth accomplished much in the sphere of wisdom (12:9‑10).

2. Qoheleth warns his students to pay attention (12:11‑12).

3. Qoheleth concludes with the teaching that it is proper to fear God, keep his commandments, and recognize that we must all be judged by Him (12:13‑14).

Structure/synthesis of Ecclesiastes

Heading (1:1‑2).

Introduction to the problem (1:3‑11).

ROUND ONE—God/man and use of human resources (1:3—2:23).

Inquiry into the problem (1:12‑2:23).

Wisdom (1:12‑18).

Pleasure (2:1‑11).

Wisdom better but results same (2:12‑17).

Results of Wisdom/work are beyond human control (2:18‑23).

Conclusion (2:24‑26).

“There is nothing better for a man than to eat and drink and tell himself that his labor is good. This also I have seen, that it is from the hand of God. For who can eat and who can have enjoyment without Him? For to a person who is good in His sight He has given wisdom and knowledge and joy, while to the sinner He has given the task of gathering and collecting so that he may give to the one who is good in God’s sight. This too is vanity and striving after wind.”

ROUND TWO—God/man and predictable events (3:1-22).

Major premise: God has sovereignly appointed a time for everything (3:1‑8).

Minor premise: Man has no profit in his toil, for he cannot discern God’s time even though he has eternity in his heart (3:9‑11).

Conclusion (3:12‑13).

“I know that there is nothing better for them than to rejoice and to do good in one’s lifetime; moreover, that every man who eats and drinks sees good in all his labor—it is the gift of God.”

Sub-major premise: God is involved sovereignly in the events of history so that men should fear Him. Inequity will someday be set right (3:14‑18).

Sub-minor premise: Man should recognize his utter dependence on God and his human limitation (3:19‑21).

Sub-Conclusion (3:22).

“And I have seen that nothing is better than that man should be happy in his activities, for that is his lot. For who will bring him to see what will occur after him?”

ROUND THREE (4:1—5:17).

He gives a series of proverbs and observations to warn people to be careful and to point up the futility and temporality of life (4:1—5:17).

Conclusion (5:18‑20).

“Here is what I have seen to be good and fitting; to eat, to drink and enjoy oneself in all one’s labor in which he toils under the sun during the few years of his life which God has given him; for this is his reward. Furthermore, as for every man to whom God has given riches and wealth, He has also empowered him to eat from them and to receive his reward and rejoice in his labor; this is the gift of God. For he will not often consider the years of his life, because God keeps him occupied with the gladness of his heart.”

ROUND FOUR—Limitations of Wisdom (6:1—9:1).

Conclusion (8:15).

“So I commended pleasure, for there is nothing good for a man under the sun except to eat and to drink and to be merry, and this will stand by him in his toils throughout the days of his life which God has given him under the sun.”

Major conclusion to this point in the book (8:16—9:1).

“When I gave my heart to know wisdom and to see the task which has been done on the earth (even though one should never sleep day or night), and I saw every work of God, I concluded that man cannot discover the work which has been done under the sun. Even though man should seek laboriously, he will not discover; and though the wise man should say, “I know,’ he cannot discover. For I have taken all this to my heart and explain it that righteous men, wise men, and their deeds are in the hand of God. Man does not know whether it will be love or hatred; anything awaits him.”

ROUND FIVE (9:2—11:10).

Major premise: All people have the same fate (death) (9:2‑6).

Death is the great leveler. God deals with man in his arrogance to show him he is no better than animals.

Conclusion (9:7‑10).

“Go then, eat your bread in happiness, and drink your wine with a cheerful heart; for God has already approved your works. Let your clothes be white all the time, and let not oil be lacking on your head. Enjoy life with the woman whom you love all the days of your fleeting life which He has given to you under the sun; for this is your reward in life, and in your toil in which you have labored under the sun. Whatever your hand finds to do, verily, do it with all your might; for there is no activity or planning or wisdom in Sheol where you are going.”

Major premise: Not ability but time and “chance” determine outcome (9:11—11:4).

Second major conclusion (1:5‑6).

“Just as you do not know the path of the wind and how bones are formed in the womb of the pregnant woman, so you do not know the activity of God who makes all things. Sow your seed in the morning, and do not be idle in the evening, for you do not know whether morning or evening sowing will succeed, or whether both of them alike will be good.”

FINAL CONCLUSION (11:8—12:7).

Life is fleeting, enjoy your life while you are young and recognize your responsibility to God as you enjoy it. There are many dark days ahead; bear them in mind as you enjoy the happy days. The Creator should be remembered while you are young, for the time will come for old age and a return of the spirit to God who gave it. The ne plus ultra word is “Fear God and keep His commandments, because this applies to every person. For God will bring every act to judgment, everything which is hidden, whether it is good or evil” (12:13‑14). There is nothing worthwhile apart from the fear of God. Ecclesiastes, however good, is an inadequate philosophy of life. The new dispensation also says, “lay hold of life heartily” (Col. 3:17), but there is an eternal motivation that Qoheleth did not have.

More Thoughts on Ecclesiastes

God’s sovereignty:

God does things in the world that cannot be changed. “What is crooked cannot be straightened, and what is lacking cannot be counted” (1:15 with 7:13).

The idea that there is a time appointed for everything (3:1-8) implies that God is sovereignly in control of the events of this life. This idea is taken up in 9:1 when he says that “righteous men, wise men, and their deeds are in the hand of God.” A similar idea is found in 11:5 where God’s work is beyond man’s knowledge.

God’s work in the lives of people (3:9-11) as well as the fact that God’s work will remain forever (3:14) and that nothing can be added or subtracted from it, indicates that God is sovereign.

God has the ability to “empower” men to enjoy life and by implication to restrict them from enjoying it. Hence, he controls the destiny of people (6:2).

God’s inscrutability, if not sovereignty, is taught when Qoheleth says that man cannot discover the work of God which He has done under the sun (8:17).

Many of the things listed here can also be subsumed under “man’s limitation,” but the implication is that God is so controlling the events of this life (under the sun) that man’s limitation is a natural result.

Man’s limitation

Whatever profit, advantage (yether יֶתֶר) means, the implication of 1:3 and other verses like it is that man is limited in his ability to enjoy life. Related to this is the inability of man to comprehend the vast creation of God (1:8). This sounds a bit like Job who is silenced when challenged to do this very thing.

Man’s ignorance of life is set out in 3:11 (“yet so that man will not find out the work which God has done from the beginning even to the end”), in 7:14 (“So that man may not discover anything that will be after him”) and in 7:24 (“What has been remote and exceedingly mysterious. Who can discover it?”), and 8:17 “Even though man should seek laboriously, he will not discover; and though the wise man should say, ‘I know,’ he cannot discover.” A concluding statement is made about man’s ignorance of life in 9:1, “righteous men, wise men, and their deeds are in the hand of God. Man does not know whether it will be love or hatred; anything awaits him.” His ignorance extends to the time events will transpire: 8:7-8 “If no one knows what will happen, who can tell him when it will happen?” This same sentiment is echoed in 11:5-6 where the ways of God cannot be anticipated or known. Unexpected and unhappy things happen beyond one’s control according to 9:12.

One’s inability to control the events of his life is graphically stated in 9:11: “the race is not to the swift, and the battle is not to the warriors, and neither is bread to the wise, nor wealth to the discerning, nor favor to men of ability; for time and chance (peg‘a פֶּגַע) overtake them all.” This inability is also expressed in 6:2 where God allows a foreigner to eat the wealthy man’s goods.

In tones reminiscent of Job, Qoheleth states (without complaining as Job does) that one cannot dispute with God in 6:12 (“for he cannot dispute with him who is stronger than he is”).

Above all, man’s limitation is illustrated in the matter of life and death. They have only a few days under the sun (2:3); death levels any attempts to climb in life (3:19-20); one leaves life naked just as he entered it (5:16).

Limits of Wisdom

In his opening unit, Qoheleth uses the word “wisdom” five times to say that he used wisdom in the sense of special ability to accomplish something without producing answers to the riddle of life (1:13-18). Furthermore, all the wealth gained by wise actions is eaten up (6:7-9). By wise action, one should be able to learn what life is all about, but Qoheleth says that all his efforts only led him to the conclusion that the wise man cannot really say, “I know” (8:17). The fool and the wise man suffer the same fate, even though “wisdom excels folly as light excels darkness” (2:12-14), and the wise man cannot control what happens to the stuff he accumulated by wisdom after he is gone (2:19-21).

At the same time, it is important to understand that Qoheleth does not deny the importance and primary place of wisdom. He says that a “poor but wise lad is better than an old and foolish king who no longer knows how to receive instruction” (4:13). “Wisdom,” he says, “strengthens a wise man more than ten rulers who are in a city” (7:19), even so, no one is perfect (7:20). Wisdom is good because it allows a person to understand a matter (8:1); a poor wise man was able to deliver a city from the siege of a great king, and so wisdom is better than strength (9:13-18), but the poor wise man was soon forgotten (9:15). Proverbs extolling the virtues of wisdom are found at 10:10-12 and 7:5-7, 11-12. Finally, “the words of the wise are like goads, and masters of these collections are like well-driven nails; they are given by one shepherd” (12:11). That the concept of wisdom is important to Qoheleth is indicated by the fact that ḥokmah (חָכְמָה) and ḥakam (חָכַם) appear some 59 times. Other key terms are “God” Elohim (אֲלהִים) (39 x’s); “vanity” hevel (הֶבֶל) (38 x’s) “under the sun” taḥeth haššemesh (תַחַת הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ) (30 x’s); “fear” yare’ (יָרֵא) (6 x’s).

Teaching about death

Death for Qoheleth is the linchpin of his argument. In spite of the advantages of wisdom in this life, the wise and the fool die alike (2:16); worse yet, both humans and animals die alike. They all go to the same place (3:19-20; 6:6). The phrase “Who knows that the breath of man ascends upward and the breath of the beast descends downward to the earth?” is taken by Eaton6 to mean “who knows the spirit of man which ascends upward?” In other words, the agnosticism is about the breath/spirit, not whether it goes up or not. He bases this on the clearly positive note in 12:7 where the spirit returns to God who gave it. Either way, he is arguing that we are abysmally ignorant about death. Death is humbling, for after entering the world naked and striving to become “something,” man dies and leaves the world naked (5:15-16). Not only does death humiliate us, we cannot even predict when it will come about (8:8). Because of the bitterness of oppression, Qoheleth congratulates the dead more than the living (4:1-2).

What happens to a man after he dies under the sun is unknown (6:12). The phrase “under the sun” appears some 30 times in the book and should indicate to us that Qoheleth is limiting his discussion to what is observable. He does not enter into the discussion of the afterlife (which he apparently believes in according to 12:7), he is only concerned with this life. Experientially, one cannot know what is beyond the grave. In this sense he can say that a living dog is better than a dead lion (9:4), and that no one knows anything in death. There is no activity or planning or wisdom in Sheol (9:10).

The concluding statement in the book (if 12:9-14 is an addendum by the author) speaks of the process of ageing and dying, culminating with a return of the body to dust and the spirit to God. The young person is admonished to remember his creator while he is young, for these declining days will come quickly enough.

Responsibility to God

In spite of the argument often made about the negative tone and “this worldliness” of Qoheleth, it is instructive to see his attitude about human responsibility toward God. The clearest statements are found in 3:17-18: “God will judge both the righteous man and the wicked man.” This may indeed be in this life (as the rest of the verse may indicate), but man is responsible for his actions to God, nevertheless; 11:9: “Ye know that God will bring you to judgment for all these things”; finally, the last verse in the book says: “For God will bring every act to judgment.” Ecc. 3:15 is difficult, but the NIV renders it: “Whatever is has already been, and what will be has been before; and God will call the past to account.”

Implications of accountability come from the idea that man cannot eat or have enjoyment without God (2:25); that God has given a task to man (3:9); that offerings and vows made to God must be carried out properly (5:1-2, 4-7; 8:2); that labor is a gift from God (5:18; 6:2); and that God will reward those who fear him (8:12).

The importance of trusting and rejoicing

Much of what we have discussed of Qoheleth’s philosophy to this point can be justly characterized as negative and pessimistic. It comes from the musings of one who has carefully observed life from the perspective of wisdom and has become frustrated with the apparent contradictions to the teaching to wisdom. The tension between his faith in the ultimate outworking of wisdom teaching versus the painful observations of violations of that teaching are illustrated in 8:12-13. His experience tells him that sinners do not always die young nor do righteous people always live to an old age, but his faith tells him that “it will be well for those who fear God, who fear Him openly.”

His faith in God gives him the confidence to go on living in spite of the conundrums of life. More even than mere living, he is to rejoice in the life that God has given him. It will contain both good and bad, but he wants to rejoice in the good and be prepared to endure the bad. It seems to me that the “rejoice” sections fit into the cycles of the book as well. The passages are 2:24-26; 3:12-13; 3:22; 5:18-20; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:8-9.

Given our ignorance about the future (let alone the afterlife), our confidence in the sovereignty of God, and the limitations of man and his wisdom, it is best to trust God for what is going to happen and to live a balanced life. (Is this the meaning of not being excessively righteous, overly wise, or excessively wicked or a fool? (7:16-17). This then is the message of the book, we cannot control our lives, only God does that. We cannot know everything, only God is omniscient. We cannot determine when we will die or what will happen to us, all that is in the hands of almighty God. What are we left with, discouragement and despair? Not at all “Whatever your hand finds to do, verily, do it with all your might” (9:10 with Col. 3:17, 23). Progressive revelation brings hope unthought-of in the Old Testament, but the teaching of Qoheleth is just as relevant today as it was then. Even with our additional information, the things he speaks of “under the sun” are as inaccessible to us today as they were to him. Consequently, we can learn much about trusting and rejoicing.


1See Gleason Archer, A Survey of OT Introduction, for a discussion of the authorship.

2Keil and Delitzsch, Job in Commentary on the Old Testament, p. 184.

3LaSor, et al., Old Testament Survey, p. 599.

4See ““Vanity’ It Certainly is not,” The Bible Translator 38:3 [1987] 301-07. He argues for the meaning of “frustration.”

5If “excessively righteous” means “overly scrupulous,” then “excessively wicked” probably means “not to be careless in conduct.”

6M. A. Eaton, Ecclesiastes in Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, Downers Grove: IVP, 1983, pp. 87-88.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

5. Song Of Solomon

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I. Introductory Data.

This book has been debated perhaps more than any book in the Bible as to its origin, date, and meaning. Judaism itself debated why the book was in the canon (see statements in the Talmud).

The Jews allegorized the book as a statement of the love between Yahweh and Israel. The Targum (Aramaic paraphrase) interprets it as the story of Israel from the Exodus on.1 The Church allegorized it as a story of the relationship between Christ and His church. Delitzsch reports that Bernard of Clairvaux died after he had delivered eighty-six sermons on the book and only reached the end of the second chapter!

Some have seen in it the attempt by Solomon to seduce the young country girl. Others believe it is the marriage between Solomon and the daughter of Pharaoh. Delitzsch sees a relationship between Solomon and the Shulamite in which she wins his heart away from polygamy to the highest level of conjugal love and from there to a picture of God’s love for His people. It has, by some, virtually been turned into a sex manual for Christians.2 Marvin Pope’s commentary in AB (the longest of all the commentaries in AB to date!) treats it as a remnant of an ancient fertility cult song. Gordis argues for a literal interpretation. He says that Hebrew does not separate ἔρος (eros) from ἀγαπή (agape). The Hebrew word for love (’ahava אָהֲבָה) is used for the love of God, strangers, and in Song of Solomon 7:7, it refers to love between man and woman.3

The composition of the book has been dated from Solomon’s era to the Hellenistic period. Pope speaks favorably of a position taken by an Israeli scholar who considers the work to be of great antiquity (he relates it to Indian poetry coming through Mesopotamian contacts). He responds to the linguistic argument (similar to that in Ecclesiastes) that the Greek and Persian words can be otherwise explained, and the relative pronoun š is an old Hebrew relative known in northern literature (Joshua, Song of Deborah and other parts of Judges).4

Since Solomon and “the king” are mentioned several times in the book, we must conclude that the Song is about Solomon. It describes a high level of love one would not expect to find in one who had 700 wives and 300 concubines, nor in the one who could not find one woman among a thousand (Ecc. 7:27). Yet it must be an ideal presentation of love which perhaps even Solomon aspired to. In contemporary application, we should see it as a statement of God’s attitude toward the ideal relationship existing between a husband and a wife. God may not want all to be married, but for those who become such, may you have the blissful relationship spoken of in the Song.

At the same time, Rabin has a point when, reminiscent of older commentaries, he speaks of this type of literature as showing the longing of a person for God. (He cites Ps. 42:2‑4 as an example of a similar type of literature.) May God give to us the same longing for Him as one has for his or her human beloved.

Childs says, Human love, per se, is never celebrated in wisdom literature—it is “the joyful and mysterious nature of love between a man and a woman within the institution of marriage.”5

II. Outline of the Book.

Working on the assumption that the Song speaks of the ideal relationship between a man and a woman from courtship to marriage, the outline is as follows (there are many difficulties in verses or section, but we are assuming a unity of the story):

A. The heading (1:1).

“Song of Songs” is a Hebrew way of intensification (e.g., “holy of holies”: means “most holy”). The Song is identified as Solomon’s.

B. The courtship of the couple (1:2—3:5).

1. The expressing of longing (1:1‑11).

The Shulamite expresses her strong attraction for the lover, and her desire for marriage. She also speaks of her backwardness (1:1‑7).

The lover and the Shulamite exchange words of praise for one another (1:8‑11).

Daughters of Jerusalem (1:5; 2:7; 3:5; 5:8,16; 8:4) are characters in the drama to provide interaction with the Shulamite (who they were historically cannot be determined).

2. The courtship intensifies (1:12—3:5).

a. A banquet scene shows the developing love (1:12‑17).

b. They exchange compliments and embrace (2:1‑7).

She tells the daughters of Jerusalem not to arouse her love until the right time. This enigmatic phrase probably means that she wants them to prevent her from becoming excessively aroused before it is proper. It may also mean, I am lost in love, do not wake me up.

c. The lover came to her home courting (2:8‑17).

d. The Shulamite dreams of losing her love, but in the dream, she finds him (3:1‑5).

C. The marriage (3:6—5:1).

1. The lover comes with great pomp for the wedding (3:6‑11).

2. The lover lauds his bride (4:1‑15).

3. They respond to one another (4:16—5:1).

D. Growth in the marriage (5:2—8:4).

1. Some kind of estrangement developed (5:2‑16).

2. She pursues the lover for reconciliation (6:1‑3).

3. The lover responds, and they are reconciled (6:4‑13).

4. The lover lauds her beauty again (7:1‑9).

5. The Shulamite responds invitingly (7:10—8:4).

E. Conclusion (8:5‑14).

1. Love is very strong (8:5‑7).

2. A review of the history that led up to this point (8:8‑14).


1M. H. Pope, Song of Songs in Anchor Bible, NY: Doubleday, 1977, pp. 89-92, says this treatment of Song of Solomon began in the Christian era [first 500 years] and is reflected in the Talmud. He refutes efforts to show that such interpretation existed before that time. The evidence is meager for any type of interpretation.

2See, e.g., J. C. Dillow, Solomon on Sex, New York: Nelson, 1977.

3R. Gordis, The Song of Solomon and Lamentations, New York: KTAV, 1954.

4Chaim Rabin, “The Song of Songs and Tamil Poetry” SR 3:205‑219, 1973.

5B. S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, p. 575.

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines, Teaching the Bible

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