I. AUTHOR: The Apostle Paul
A. Externally1 and internally2 the evidence has been
overwhelming in critical scholarship in favor of
Pauline authorship of this letter.3 Once Pauline
authorship is accepted for works like Galatians, and
the Corinthian letters, than a work like Romans may
also be ascribed Pauline since the topics are so
similar, and there are no substantial difficulties4
B. Although some have denied Pauline authorship (e.g.,
Evanson, Bauer, Loman, Stek), it is no longer disputed5
C. Some consider Tertius to have composed Romans in
accordance with Paul's instruction (Romans 16:22),
however it is more probable that Tertius was Paul's
secretary who either wrote the letter in long-hand from
Paul's dictation, or who first took Paul's letter in
shorthand and then wrote it out in long hand with
Paul's final approval6
II. DATE and DESTINATION: From Corinth in the winter of A.D. 56-
57 to Rome
A. Date: Winter A.D. 56-57 from Corinth
1. A Relative Chronology: Romans was probably
written during Paul's third missionary journey
from Corinth:7
a. The letter was written when Paul was about to
set out for Jerusalem (15:25)
b. Paul also considers himself to have completed
his missionary work among the eastern
provinces of the Roman Empire (15:19,23)8,
therefore, the journey is most probably the
one recorded in Acts 20--21 which begins from
Corinth (cf. Acts 19:21; 20:1-3).
c. Paul desired to go to Rome (1:10-13), but had
been prevented (1:13; 15:22); now he hopes to
go there on his way to Spain (15:23-28), but
first he is going to Jerusalem with the
offering for the poor from the Gentile
churches (15:25-27)
d. Therefore, in view of Paul's setting, Corinth
seems to be the place from which Paul wrote
(Acts 20:1-3)Other indications that Paul
wrote from Corinth are:
1) Paul commends Phoebe as a servant of the
church in Cenchreae, Corinth's eastern
seaport (who probably carried the letter
to the Romans) 16:1-2
2) Paul sends greetings from Gaius in whose
house he was staying who may well have
been the same Gaius mentioned in 1
Corinthians 1:14 as the one whom Paul
baptized in Corinth 16:23
3) The greeting from Erastus the city
treasurer may have been the Erastus who
stayed in Corinth (cf. Acts 19:22; also
2 Tim. 4:20).
2. A More Absolute Chronology: Paul probably wrote
Romans between A.D. 56-57
a. Paul seems to have stood before Gallio, the
proconsul of Achaia, in the summer of A.D. 51
on his second missionary journey9
b. After staying many days in Corinth (Acts
18:18) Paul set out for Syria and remained
some time in Ephesus (perhaps early fall AD
52; Acts 18:19-21)
c. Paul then returned to Caesarea, went down to
Jerusalem, and then up to the church in
Antioch where he spent some time (perhaps
late fall of AD 52 through winter of 52/53;
cf. Acts 18:22-23)
d. Paul began his third missionary journey from
Antioch through the Galatian region (spring-
summer of A.D. 53) and reached Ephesus in the
fall of A.D. 53 where he remained for two to
three years (AD 53-56; Acts 19:8,10; 20:31)
e. Therefore, Paul's return to Corinth through
Macedonia was probably in the spring or
summer of AD 56 (Acts 20:2-3)
f. Paul probably arrived in Corinth in late fall
of AD 56, and remained through early
57Therefore, Romans, which was written from
Corinth on the third missionary journey (see
above), was probably written in the winter
and early spring of AD 56-57.10
B. Destination: A Jewish/Gentile Church in Rome
1. There was an early church in Rome (possibly from
before A.D. 49)
a. There was certainly a church already in Rome
when Paul wrote the book of Romans (1:13;
15:23-24)
b. From a statement by Suetonius, there may be
evidence that Christianity was in the capital
of Rome by A.D. 4911
c. This church may well have been started
through converts of Paul who lived in
Rome12, rather than through any particular
evangelistic effort13 since neither Paul (in
Romans), nor Luke (in Acts),14 nor any other
NT document mentions any.
2. The Composition of the church in Rome was probably
mixed (Jewish/Gentile)
a. Rather than one large church, the Romans seem
to have been made up of five household
churches:
1) Five households are greeted
(16:5,10,11,14,15)
2) Paul does not address the letter to the
"Church" at (cf. 1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1;
1 Thess. 1:1), but to "all that are at
Rome"15 (1:7).
b. The Romans were made up of both Jews and
Gentiles (with a probable emphasis upon
Gentiles)
1) Paul writes to Gentiles
a) Paul was an apostle to the Gentiles
(1:5; 11:3; Gal. 2:7-8)16
b) Paul speaks to Gentiles who receive
mercy through Jewish unbelief
(11:12-13)
c) Paul compares the Romans with other
Gentiles, not just Gentiles (1:12-
14)
d) Paul refers to the Jews as "my"
brethren, and not "our" brethren
(9:3)
e) Out of the twenty-four names in
chapter 16, over one half are Latin
and Greek
2) Paul writes to Jewish believers
a) Paul wrote with many references to
the Old Testament (but see
Galatians too)
b) Paul speaks of Abraham as "our"
father in 2:1 (but see 1
Corinthians 10:1 where he does the
same thing)
c) Chapters 9--11 are about the nation
Israel (but they show that those
who had privilege could loose it)
d) Paul describes a Jewish/Gentile
problem in the church ("weak and
strong")
III. THE INTEGRITY OF THE BOOK OF ROMANS
A. The last two chapters of Romans are considered to be
problematic to the integrity of the book
B. Chapter 16 has been considered to be, in whole or in
part, a portion of an epistle sent to Ephesus; but,
this is not a necessary conclusion17
1. Even though Paul had never been to Rome, he sent
greetings to a large number of people there, and
it would have been more reasonable if they were
people from Ephesus where he was for three years.
Also Paul does not mention these people from his
later epistles sent from RomeBut Paul never
concludes letters to churches which he personally
knows with long addresses; rather, he only does
this with the letter to Colossae (another church
which he had never visited). This would have
commended Paul well to the church since so many
knew himPaul probably does not mention these
Romans in any of his other letters because there
was no occasion, they were not his closest
workers, and they had no connection with the
churches to which he later wrote
2. It is unlikely that Priscilla and Aquila would
have moved from Ephesus to Rome and back to
Ephesus again (cf. 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19)But
extraordinary travel facilities connected to and
from the capital of Rome; Aquila and Priscilla may
have been well off, and even had a business
establishment in both cities at once; they just
appointed a Gentile manager while they left under
the decree of Claudius18
3. The calling of Epaenetus the 'first convert to
Christ from Asia' (Rom. 16:5) would have more
meaning in Ephesus, than in RomeBut if Epaenetus
did go to Rome, it would be natural for Paul to
greet him, and to mention what he would naturally
remember--that he was the first convert of Asia
4. If Paul was unknown to the church in Rome, than
his recommendation of Phoebe would be of little
valueBut this is not a necessary conclusion since
Paul was not an obscure person, and the writing of
his letter speaks of a level of his authority with
the Romans
5. The warnings of 16:17-19 appear to be more around
the antinomianism of Ephesus than the Jewish-
Gentile relationships of RomansWhile there is no
mention of these problems among the Romans, this
does not mean that these words could have no
relevance to them;--especially in view of Paul's
own struggles with them
6. Chapter 16 may have been a later appendix to the
conclusion stated in chapter 15But the ending of
15:33 is without precedent among Paul's letters
7. Therefore, the evidence is inconclusive that
chapter 16 is an appendage from an Ephesian
letter. If there was an Ephesian letter, why did
only its greetings survive? Also, there is no
manuscript support that Romans ever circulated
without the concluding chapter (even though the
textual history is complicated). The Chester
Beatty papyrus19 (P46) places the doxology (16:25-
27) at the end of chapter 15, but still ends with
chapter 16.
C. The Recensions of the Epistle: The enormity of textual
evidence20 indicates that the letter did circulate in a
shorter recension. Although a difficult issue, it was
probably originally a longer letter which was shortened
by Marcion21 and then copied by scribes who did not
know of his editing. When the final chapters were
found, they were added without editing the doxology at
the end of chapter 15.
IV. REASONS WHY PAUL WROTE ROMANS:
A. Paul planned to do missionary work in Spain (15:24,28)
and thus visit the Romans for prayer and financial
support
B. Paul was interested in the Roman church, and intended
to come for many years (1:13; 15:22-24,28-29; cf. Acts
19:21)
C. Paul wanted to preach the Gospel and impart a spiritual
benefit to the Romans (1:11,15)
D. Since the book has so many doctrines, Paul wanted to
instruct the Romans in their faith
E. Perhaps Phoebe was going to Rome so it was a good
opportunity to write (16:1-2)
V. PURPOSE FOR THE BOOK OF ROMANS:
A. To create an interest in Paul's Spanish mission;
however, this does not account adequately for the
theological nature of the mission
B. To present a full statement of Paul's doctrinal
position of the Gospel making this more of a treatise
than a letter which arose from historical situations
C. Paul writes to address certain "intellectual" questions
(especially concerning the place of a universal
religion over against Jewish nationalism) which the
saints in Rome are concerned about (which perhaps he
learned about through Aquila and Priscilla)22There may
also have been practical difficulties which are
reflected in Paul's ethical injunctions in chapters 12-
-1523
D. To address tones of anti-semitism which might have
arisen due the Claudius' decree24
VI. THE THEME OF ROMANSPaul desires to proclaim the gospel to
the Romans because it is the power of God through which He
reveals the righteous status of life25 for all people
through faith 1:16-17
___________________________
1 The Apostolic Fathers held to Pauline authorship: 1
Clement 32.2 (cf. Rom. 9:4f); 35.5 (cf. Rom. 1:29-32); 50.6f (cf.
Rom. 4:7-9); Ignatius, Eph 19:3 (cf. Rom. 6:4); Magn. 6:2 (cf.
Rom. 6:17); 9.1 (cf. Rom. 6:6); Trall. 9:2 (cf. Rom. 8:11);
Smyrn. 1.1 (cf. Rom. 1:3f); Polycarp 3.3 (cf. Rom. 13:8-10); 4:1
(cf. Rom. 6:13 and 12:12); 6.2 (cf. Rom. 14:19 and 12); 10.1 (cf.
Rom 12:10)
Every early list of NT books includes Romans among Paul's
letters.
2 Internally, the linguistic, stylistic, literary,
historical, and theological evidence all support Pauline
authorship.
3 C. E. B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary
on The Epistle to the Romans, 1:1-2.
4 See Harrison who writes, "From the postapostolic church to
the present, with almost no exception, the Epistle has been
credited to Paul. If the claim of the apostle to have written
the Galatian and Corinthian letters is accepted, there is no
reasonable basis for denying that he wrote Romans, since it
echoes much of what is in the earlier writings, yet not
slavishly" (Romans, EBC, pp. 3-4).
5 Cranfield, Romans, pp. 1-2.
6 Cranfield offers a lengthy discussion in Romans 1:2-4.
7 Much of this is dependent upon the integrity of chapters
15 and 16 to the letter (see below). Apart from this integrity,
it is almost impossible to reconstruct the occasion for the
epistle (see Guthrie, NTI, p. 396 n. 1).
8 From Jerusalem to Illyricum (the eastern shore of the
Adriatic or modern Yugoslavia).
9 This absolute date is derived from the inscription found
at Delphi which shows that Gallio was proconsul of Achaia in A.D.
52-[54] which means that he was probably proconsul of Achaia from
mid-51 to mid-52, and Paul probably stood before him early in
Gallio's governorship since the Jews would be attempting to win a
new governor to their side (see Cranfield, Romans, 1:12-13).
10 See also Cranfield's computations from the replacement of
Felix, as governor of Judea, backwards (Romans, 1:14-16).
11 Suetonius records that Claudius banished Jews from Rome
in AD 49 Because there had been rioting at the instigation of one
called Chrestus ("Claudius 'Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue
tumultuantes Roma expulit" [Claudius 25]) See Guthrie, NTI, p.
393; Cranfield, p. 16.
12 Guthrie suggests that the message spread from the
Pentecost event in Acts where Jews and proselytes from Rome were
present (cf. Acts 2:10; Guthrie, NTI, p. 394), but this is
unlikely since there was no instruction for these believers.
Nevertheless, their lack of clear instruction could explain why
Paul writes such a lengthy treatise on the gospel.
It may be more probable that Paul "founded" the church
through his converts because: (1) Paul mentions so many names,
(2) Paul would not build upon another's foundation, and (3) there
is no evidence that Peter founded the church.
13 Some have identified the founding of the church with
Peter, however, Paul never mentions Peter in Romans even though
he mentions twenty-four other people. Paul also never mentions
Peter in his prison epistles, or 2 Timothy which were written
from Rome.
Also when Priscilla and Aquila came from Rome to Corinth, it
was because of an edict from Claudius in AD 49-50 (cf. Acts 18:2-
3), which would place their arrival before Peter moved from
Jerusalem (e.g., he was in Jerusalem for the Jerusalem council in
fall of AD 49; see also Guthrie, NTI, p. 394).
Tradition may have claimed both Peter and Paul as their
apostles because they were both martyred in Rome (Cranfield,
Romans, 1:17).
14 On the contrary, Luke implies that the gospel has already
reached Rome before Paul arrives since believers come to meet
Paul as he arrives (Acts 28:14-15).
15 The Greek reads: pa'sin toi'" ou^sin ejn JRwvmh.
16 But Acts also emphasizes that he was to go to all peoples-
-both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:15).
17 See Guthrie, NTI, pp. 400-404 for a more extensive
discussion.
18 A possible reconstruction of their travels may be: (1)
Acts 18:1-3--they left Rome in AD 49 because of Claudius' edict,
(2) They came to Corinth and met Paul on his second missionary
journey; he was also a tent maker, (3) Paul arrived in Corinth in
AD 51, (4) Paul left Corinth for Ephesus in AD 52, and went back
to Jerusalem while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus, (5)
Acts 18:26--Priscilla and Aquila correct Apollos in the knowledge
of the gospel, (6) in spring of 56 they are still in Ephesus when
Paul returns on his third missionary journey (1 Cor. 16:19), (7)
in the winter of 56-57 they are in Rome when Paul writes to the
Romans from Corinth, and (8) in the autumn of 67 they are in
Ephesus again when Paul writes (2 Tim. 4:19).
19 See its description by Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of the
New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration
(Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp.
37-38.
20 See Guthrie's discussion (NTI, pp. 405-406).
21 Guthrie, NTI, pp. 409-413.
22 As Guthrie says, "For this reason Paul deals with the
fundamental Christian principle of 'righteousness' as contrasted
with the Jewish approach, and then discusses the problem of
Israel's failure and her relationship to the universal Christian
Church" (NTI, p. 399).
Paul desires to promote unity in the body. Therefore he
more fully defends his message against Judaizers in Rome. He
himself is in a context of personal Jewish opposition (Acts
20:3). Paul does acknowledge the priority of the Jews (1:16; 2:9-
10) as well as the advantage of being a Jew (3:1-2; 9:4-5), but
he emphasizes that God is God of the Jews and the Gentiles (3:29-
30), that God has temporarily halted His program for rebellious
Israel (9--11), and that a believing remnant will continue (11:5)
until the full number of Gentiles comes in (11:25). Therefore,
God is seen as being good in his universal plan of salvation
(3:26).
23 But this is also a natural pattern for Paul to address
the theoretical (1--11) before the practical (12--15).
24 The decree from Claudius was against Jews living in Rome
(Acts 18:2). Paul often addresses benefits of being a Jew
throughout his letter (1:16; 2:9-10; 3:1-2; 9--11). Perhaps in
doing this he was combating a natural movement among the Roman
Gentiles.
25 This is interpreting the genative (qeou') as objective
(righteousness as God's gift) rather than subjective (e.g.,
righteousness as God's activity). This is a very difficult
decision; see Cranfield for some in-depth discussion concerning
these two views (Romans, 1:96-99). Righteousness is the moral
character of God reflected in the gospel. All righteousness is a
revelation of who God is. But Paul is emphasizing the righteous
status which is given to men by God throughout the letter (cf.
Rom. 5:17; 10:3; Phil. 3:9; 2 Cor. 5:21).
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